Roman Imperial Operas

Speranza


As we prepared to watch (and some of us did watch) the Met live "Clemenza
di Tito" it may do to review other Italian operas based on the lives of
Roman emperors -- as from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors
as per below -- and as we elaborate on a few points.

The history. While opera is said to have been conceived by the
Florentine camerata as an attempt to revive Greek tragedy, it was possibly
Monteverdi, with his "Nerone" opera ("L'incoronazione di Poppea") who first
conceived of the idea of the spectator to learn Roman history in the proceeding.

A fascinating issue, for which I would have no real clue as to what
KEYWORD to use in serious research, would be the interface:
mitologia/storia -- strictly: mitologia romana/storia romana. It seems obvious, as the
commentator in the HD live for TITO said, that this was a "historical
melodramma". But I would think that as we approach earlier stages of Roman history
(witness "Enea") the distinction may be blurred. It may also be possible
to trace mythological sides to operas which are 'historical' -- (what about
"Vestale"?) -- as long as, say, a Roman emperor, took mythology seriously
and BELIEVED it in!

As the author of the "Clemenza" volume in the Cambridge Companions to
Opera notes, the initial step is to get the facts right. Metastasio's
libretto (amply modified by Mozart) draws superficially on Suetonius, but is
intended as a mere 'fictional' (poetic-licence based) extravaganza.

My favourite "Opera based on the lives of Roman emperor" must be
Mascagni's "Nerone".

I would think that at the time of the "Grand Tour" (To Rome,
necessarily), it was felt by many Europeans that Roman history was _universal_ and a
source for aesthetic pleasure (witness the "arco di Tito" in Rome). This
belonged to the "classics" (or "Roma antica"), and there may have been a
strong association of this stuff and the subject matter of operas, in the
'seria' category, or other.

Other issues surely remain. As we approach specific EMPERORS, it is fascinating to wonder
why Metastasio was so obsessed with Tito. Yes, the obvious answer is that it
was a commission for the Caldara first setting. But I would like to think
that he took somewhat seriously the idea of basing YET ANOTHER opera on yet
another Roman emperor. Did he know (or conduct any research) as to whether
TITO had been set to music before? In the interim between the first CALDARA
setting and the MOZART setting there is ample room to discuss the issue
of, shall we say, the "political appropriation" of Ancient Roman History to
mirror MODERN history: Tito's clemency is stressed to provide the moral
message that a Roman Emperor (including a HOLY Roman emperor) should be, above
all, be clement (apparently, Metastasio uses ideas from Seneca's essay on
Clemency to expand on the issue. Similarly, I would think that when composers
based their operas on, say, "Nerone", a comparable attitude can be
identified: compare Boito's motivation from Mascagni's in both having lives of
"Nerone" set for the operatic stage (doesn't this sound as a question for
student's questionnaire?).

It seems that when it comes to the life of an emperor the issue is to
distinguish between the PRIVATE and the PUBLIC morality as it were. Tito's
actual life seems to have been fascinating in this respect, and I'm glad
Metastasio was able to expand on the brief historical comments by Suetonius to
provide some juicy (even if fictional) -- or is it 'fictional, even if
juicy?' -- details concerning totally fictitious characters like those that
abound in "Clemenza".

At this point, have "Clemenza" NOT been staged as a 'political
occasion', I would think the spectator would have been motivated to proceed to do
some research as to how FAITHFUL the opera is to the facts. I assume this was
the reaction upon the very first Roman Imperial opera: "Poppea" -- how
faithful to the fact was Monteverdi's librettist? What was the 'popular
opinion' regarding 'licenses' with something as basic as a classical education
regariding Ancient Rome?

I am fascinated to learn that "Clemenza" was Mozart's first opera
(apparently) first staged in London. I would assume the spectators (or governing
body of the theatre, Haymarket) found that the subject matter was 'classy'
(pun there) enough -- but I don't think I've read reviews of the reception
of this particular piece -- other than the ironic commentary in
Wikipedia's essay for "Tito" that the thing may not have been too warmy welcomed as
it was never re-staged.

Yet another topic is literary references: I note in the libretto to "Tito"
a few references to Augusto and SILLA (another opera set by Mozart), and
the mere mention of a Roman emperor in an opera libretto should be perhaps
included in a sort of "who's who in the Operatic Roman Empire" -- or
something.

Below the chronology, as we stick to the succession of facts in real
history rather than the focus of this or that imperial period in this or that
stage of operatic history.

References:

History through the opera glass

--- Appendix: LIST OF OPERAS BASED ON THE LIVES OF THE ROMAN EMPERORS, as appended to the chronology of Roman emperors.

* * *

PREAMBLE: Operas on Pre-Imperial Roman History

Mozart, "Ascanio in Albalonga"
Romolo e Remo
Il ratto delle Sabine.
"La morte di Giulio Cesare"

THE ROMAN EMPIRE proper:

1) Augusto. GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR AVGVSTVS. September 23 63 BC, Rome,
Italia. Became de facto emperor as a result of the 'first settlement' between
himself and the Roman Senate.bJanuary 16, 27 BC – August 19, 14 AD. Death:
August 19, 14 AD. Natural causes. 41 Years, 8 Months.

2) Tiberio. TIBERIVS IVLIVS CAESAR AVGVSTVS. November 16 42 BC, RomeSon of
Augustus's wife Livia by a previous marriage; adopted son of
Augustus.September 18, 14 AD – March 16, 37 ADMarch 16, 37 AD
Probably natural causes, possibly assassinated by Caligula. 22 Years, 6
Months

3) Caligula. GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR AVGVSTVS GERMANICVS. August 31, 12 AD,
Antium, ItaliaTiberius's great-nephew and adopted grandson; great-grandson of
Augustus.March 18, 37 AD – January 24, 41 ADJanuary 24, 41 AD.
Assassinated in a conspiracy involving senators and Praetorian Guards.3 Years, 10
Months. OPERAS: Pagliardi, "Caligola delirante", melodramma, libretto di
Domenico Giaberti, 1672, Venezia.

4) Claudio. TIBERIVS CLAVDIVS CAESAR AVGVSTVS GERMANICVS. August 1, 10 BC,
Lugdunum, Gallia LugdunensisNephew of Tiberius, brother of Germanicus and
uncle of Caligula; proclaimed emperor by the Praetorian Guard.January
25/26, 41 AD – October 13, 54 ADOctober 13, 54 AD Probably poisoned by his wife
Agrippina the Younger, in favour of her son Nero.13 Years, 9 Months

5) Nerone. NERO CLAVDIVS CAESAR AVGVSTVS GERMANICVSDecember 15, 37 AD,
Antium, ItaliaGrandson of Germanicus, nephew of Caligula, step- and adopted
son of Claudius; great-great-grandson of Augustus.October 13, 54 AD – June 9,
68 ADJune 9, 68 AD. Committed suicide after being declared a public enemy
by the Senate.13 Years, 8 Months.
OPERAS: Monteverdi, "L'incoronazione di Poppea". Handel, "Agrippina".
BOITO. MASCAGNI.

6) Galba. SERVIVS SVLPICIVS GALBA CAESAR AVGVSTVSDecember 24 3 BC, Near
Terracina, ItaliaSeized power after Nero's suicide, with support of the
Spanish legionsJune 8, 68 AD – January 15, 69 ADJanuary 15, 69 AD. Murdered by
Praetorian Guard in coup led by Otho.7 Months

7) Otho. MARCVS SALVIVS OTHO CAESAR AVGVSTVSApril 28, 32 AD, Ferentinum,
Etruria, ItaliaAppointed by Praetorian GuardJanuary 15, 69 AD – April 16, 69
ADApril 16, 69 AD. Committed suicide after losing Battle of Bedriacum to
Vitellius3 months 1 day (91 days)

8) Vitellio. AVLVS VITELLIVS GERMANICVS AVGVSTVSSeptember 24, 15 AD,
RomeSeized power with support of German Legions (in opposition to
Galba/Otho)April 17, 69 AD – December 20, 69 ADDecember 20, 69 AD. Murdered by
Vespasian's troops8 Months

9) Vespasiano. TITVS FLAVIVS CAESAR VESPASIANVS AVGVSTVSNovember 17, 9 AD,
Falacrine, ItaliaSeized power with the support of the eastern Legions (in
opposition to Vitellius)July 1, 69 AD – June 24, 79 ADJune 24, 79 AD.
Natural causes10 years

10) Tito. TITVS FLAVIVS CAESAR VESPASIANVS AVGVSTVSDecember 30, 39 AD,
RomeSon of VespasianJune 24, 79 AD – September 13, 81 ADSeptember 13, 81 AD.
Natural causes (Plague)2 years, 3 months. His famous phrase was: "I only
committed one mistake in my life". He failed to specify it, but historians
believe he referred to his not having executed his brother when he attempted
to betray him. Eventually, historians also say, it was his brother who
murdered him.
OPERAS: Metastasio -- first set by Caldara. Revised Mozart. Metastasio
based his opera, mostly fictional, on a brief account by Suetonius on how
'clement' Tito was.

11) Domiziano. TITVS FLAVIVS CAESAR DOMITIANVS AVGVSTVSOctober 24, 51 AD,
RomeSon of VespasianSeptember 14, 81 AD – September 18, 96 ADSeptember 18,
96 AD. Assassinated by court officials15 years

12) Nerva. MARCVS COCCEIVS NERVA CAESAR AVGVSTVSNovember 8, 30 AD, Narni,
ItaliaAppointed by the SenateSeptember 18, 96 AD – January 27, 98 ADJanuary
27, 98 AD
Natural causes1 year, 4 months

13) Traiano CAESAR MARCVS VLPIVS NERVA TRAIANVS AVGVSTVSSeptember 18, 53
AD, Italica, Hispania BaeticaAdopted son and heir of NervaJanuary 28, 98 AD –
August 7, 117 ADAugust 7, 117 AD
Natural causes19 years, 7 months

14) Adriano. CAESAR PVBLIVS AELIVS TRAIANVS HADRIANVS AVGVSTVS January 24,
76 AD, Italica, Hispania Baetica (or Rome)Adopted son and heir of
TrajanAugust 11, 117 AD – July 10, 138 ADJuly 10, 138 AD. Natural causes21 years.
OPERAS: Adriano in Siria, dramma di Pietro Metastasio, più volte messo in
musica: Adriano in Siria (Anfossi), di Pasquale Anfossi, Adriano in Siria
(Bach), di Johann Christian Bach, Adriano in Siria (Galuppi), di Baldassare
Galuppi, Adriano in Siria (Pergolesi), di Giovan Battista Pergolesi,
Adriano in Siria (Veracini), di Francesco Maria Veracini.

15) Antonino Pio. CAESAR TITVS AELIVS HADRIANVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVS
PIVSSeptember 19, 86 AD, Near Lanuvium, ItaliaAdopted son and heir of HadrianJuly
10, 138 AD – March 7, 161 ADMarch 7, 161 AD. Natural causes22 years, 7
months

Lucio Vero. CAESAR LVCIVS AVRELIVS VERVS AVGVSTVSDecember 15, 130 AD,
RomeAdopted son and heir of Antoninus Pius; Co-emperor with Marcus Aurelius
until deathMarch 7, 161 AD – ? March 169 ADMarch 169 AD. Natural causes
(Plague)8 years

16) Marc'Aurelio CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVSApril 26, 121
AD, RomeAdopted son and heir of Antoninus Pius; Co-emperor with Lucius Verus
until 169 ADMarch 7, 161 AD – March 17, 180 ADMarch 17, 180 AD. Natural
causes19 years

17) Commodo. CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS COMMODVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVS August 31,
161 AD, Lanuvium, ItaliaNatural son of Marcus Aurelius; joint emperor from
177 AD177 AD – December 31, 192 ADDecember 31, 192 AD. Assassinated in
palace, strangled to death15 years.
OPERAS: "Comodo Antonino", Scarlatti/Paglia. -- dramma per musica 3 acts F
M Paglia, after G F Bussani 18 November 1696. Naples, Teatro San Bartolomeo

18) Pertinax. CAESAR PVBLIVS HELVIVS PERTINAX AVGVSTVSAugust 1, 126 AD,
Alba, ItaliaProclaimed emperor by Praetorian GuardJanuary 1, 193 AD – March
28, 193 ADMarch 28, 193 AD
Murdered by Praetorian Guard3 months

19) Didio Giuliano. CAESAR MARCVS DIDIVS SEVERVS IVLIANVS AVGVSTVS133 or
137 AD, Milan, ItaliaWon auction held by the Praetorian Guard for the
position of emperorMarch 28, 193 AD – June 1, 193 ADJune 1, 193 AD. Executed on
orders of the Senate2 months 4 days (65 days)

20) Settimio Severo. CAESAR LVCIVS SEPTIMIVS SEVERVS PERTINAX
AVGVSTVSApril 11, 145 AD, Leptis Magna, AfricaSeized power with support of Pannonian
legions[5]April 9, 193 AD – February 4, 211 ADFebruary 4, 211 AD. Natural
causes17 years, 10 months

21) Caracalla. CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS SEVERVS ANTONINVS PIVS AVGVSTVSApril
4, 188 AD, Lugdunum, Gallia LugdunensisSon of Septimius Severus;
co-emperor with Severus from 198 AD; with Severus and Geta from 209 AD until
February 211 AD; co-emperor with Geta until December 211 AD198 AD – April 8, 217
ADApril 8, 217 AD. Murdered by a soldier as part of a conspiracy involving
Macrinus19 years

22) Geta. CAESAR PVBLIVS SEPTIMIVS GETA AVGVSTUSMarch 7, 189 AD, RomeSon
of Septimius Severus; co-emperor with Severus and Caracalla from 209 AD
until February 211 AD; co-emperor with Caracalla until December 211 AD209 AD –
December 26, 211 ADDecember 19, 211 AD. Murdered on the orders of
Caracalla3 years

23) Macrino. MARCVS OPELLIVS SEVERVS MACRINVS AVGVSTVS PIVS FELIX. with.
Diadumenian
MARCVS OPELLIVS ANTONINVS DIADUMENIANVSc. 165 AD, Iol Caesarea,
MauretaniaPraetorian Prefect to Caracalla, probably conspired to have Caracalla
murdered and proclaimed himself emperor after Caracalla's death; appointed his
son Diadumenian junior emperor in May 217April 11, 217 AD – June 8, 218
ADJune 8, 218 AD. Both executed in favour of Elagabalus1 year, 2 months

24) Elagabalo. MARCVS AVRELIVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVSc. 203 AD, Emesa,
SyriaGrandson of Septimius Severus's sister-in-law, alleged illegitimate son of
Caracalla; proclaimed emperor by Syrian legionsJune 8, 218 AD – March 11, 222
ADMarch 11, 222 AD. Murdered by Praetorian Guard3 years, 9 months

25) Severus Alexander. CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS SEVERVS ALEXANDER
AVGVSTVSOctober 1, 208 AD, Arca Caesarea, IudaeaGrandson of Septimius Severus's
sister-in-law, cousin and adoptive heir of ElagabalusMarch 13, 222 AD – March
18, 235 ADMarch 18, 235 AD
Murdered by the army13 years

26) Maximinus I. CAESAR GAIVS JVLIVS VERVS MAXIMINVS AVGVSTVSc.173 AD,
Thrace or MoesiaProclaimed emperor by German legions after the murder of
Severus AlexanderMarch 20, 235 AD – April 238 ADApril 238 AD. Assassinated by
Praetorian Guard3 years, 1 month

27) Gordian I. CAESAR MARCVS ANTONIVS GORDIANVS SEMPRONIANVS AFRICANVS
AVGVSTVSc. 159 AD, Phrygia?Proclaimed emperor, whilst Pro-consul in Africa,
during a revolt against Maximinus. Ruled jointly with his son Gordian II, and
in opposition to Maximinus. Technically a usurper, but retrospectively
legitimised by the accession of Gordian IIIMarch 22, 238 AD – April 12, 238
ADApril 238 AD
Committed suicide upon hearing of the death of Gordian II.21 days

28) Gordian II. CAESAR MARCVS ANTONIVS GORDIANVS SEMPRONIANVS ROMANVS
AFRICANVS AVGVSTVSc. 192 AD, ?Proclaimed emperor, alongside father Gordian I,
in opposition to Maximinus by act of the Senate.March 22, 238 AD – April 12,
238 ADApril 238 AD
Killed during the Battle of Carthage, fighting a pro-Maximinus armyNot
known

29) Pupieno. CAESAR MARCVS CLODIVS PVPIENVS MAXIMVS AVGVSTVSc. 178 AD,
?Proclaimed joint emperor with Balbinus by the Senate in opposition to
Maximinus; later co-emperor with Balbinus.April 22, 238 AD – July 29, 238 ADJuly
29, 238 AD
Assassinated by the Praetorian Guard

30) Balbino (CAESAR DECIMVS CAELIVS CALVINVS BALBINVS PIVS AVGVSTVS).
Proclaimed joint emperor with Pupienus by the Senate after death of Gordian I &
II, in opposition to Maximinus; later co-emperor with Pupienus and Gordian
IIIApril 22, 238 AD – July 29, 238 ADJuly 29, 238 AD
Assassinated by Praetorian Guard

31) Gordian III (CAESAR MARCVS ANTONIVS GORDIANVS AVGVSTVS) January 20,
225 AD, RomeProclaimed emperor by supporters of Gordian I & II, then by the
Senate; joint emperor with Pupienus and Balbinus until July 238 AD.April 22,
238 AD – February 11, 244 ADFebruary 11, 244 AD
Unknown; possibly murdered on orders of Philip I

32) Philip I (CAESAR MARCVS IVLIVS PHILLIPVS AVGVSTVS). with Philip IIc.
204 AD, Shahba, SyriaPraetorian Prefect to Gordian III, took power after his
death; made his son Philip II co-emperor in summer 247 ADFebruary 244 AD –
September/October 249 ADSeptember/October 249 AD
Killed in battle against Trajan Decius, near Verona

33) Traiano Decio (CAESAR GAIVS MESSIVS QVINTVS TRAIANVS DECIVS AVGVSTVS)
with Herennius Etruscusc. 201 AD, Budalia, Lower PannoniaGovernor under
Philip I; proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions and defeated Philip in
battle; made his son Herennius Etruscus co-emperor in early 251 AD September/
October 249 AD – June 251 ADJune 251 AD. Both killed in the Battle of Abrittus
fighting against the Goths

34) Ostiliano (CAESAR CAIVS VALENS HOSTILIANVS MESSIVS QVINTVS AVGVSTVS)
Rome Son of Trajan Decius, accepted as heir by the SenateJune 251 AD – late
251 ADSeptember/October 251 AD
Natural causes (Plague)

35) Treboniano Gallo (CAESAR GAIVS VIBIVS TREBONIANVS GALLVS AVGVSTVS)
with Volusianus 206 AD, ItaliaGovernor of Moesia Superior, proclaimed emperor
by Danubian legions after Trajan Decius's death (and in opposition to
Hostilian); made his son Volusianus co-emperor in late 251 AD.June 251 AD –
August 253 ADAugust 253 AD. Assassinated by their own troops, in favour of
Aemilian

36) Emiliano. CAESAR MARCVS AEMILIVS AEMILIANVS AVGVSTVSc. 207 AD
AfricaGovernor of Moesia Superior, proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions after
defeating the Goths; accepted as emperor after death of GallusAugust 253 AD –
October 253 ADSeptember/October 253 AD
Assassinated by his own troops, in favour of Valerian

37) Valeriano. CAESAR PVBLIVS LICINIVS VALERIANVS AVGVSTVSc. 195
ADGovernor of Noricum and Raetia, proclaimed emperor by Rhine legions after death of
Gallus; accepted as emperor after death of AemilianOctober 253 AD – 260
ADAfter 260 AD. Captured in Battle of Edessa against Persians, died in
captivity.

38) Gallieno (CAESAR PVBLIVS LICINIVS EGNATIVS GALLIENVS AVGVSTVS) with
Saloninus218 ADSon of Valerian, made co-emperor in 253 AD; his son Saloninus
is very briefly co-emperor in c. July before assassination by
Postumus.October 253 AD – September 268 ADSeptember 268 AD
Murdered at Aquileia by his own commanders.

39) Claudio Gotico (CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS CLAVDIVS AVGVSTVS) May 10, 213
AD/214 AD, SirmiumVictorious general at Battle of Naissus, seized power
after Gallienus's deathSeptember 268 AD – January 270 ADJanuary 270 AD.
Natural causes (Plague)

40) Quintillus. CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS CLAVDIVS QVINTILLVS AVGVSTVS?,
SirmiumBrother of Claudius Gothicus, seized power after his deathJanuary 270 AD
– 270 AD270 AD;. Unclear; possibly suicide or murder

41) Aureliano. CAESAR LVCIVS DOMITIVS AVRELIANVS AVGVSTVSSeptember 9, 214
AD/215 AD, SirmiumProclaimed emperor by Danubian legions after Claudius
II's death, in opposition to QuintillusSeptember(?) 270 AD – September 275
ADSeptember 275 AD. Assassinated by Praetorian Guard

42) Tacito. CAESAR MARCVS CLAVDIVS TACITVS AVGVSTVSc. 200,
InteramnaElected by the Senate to replace Aurelian, after a short interregnumSeptember 25,
275 AD – June 276 ADJune 276 AD
Natural causes (possibly assassinated)

43) Florian. CAESAR MARCVS ANNIVS FLORIANVS AVGVSTVS?Brother of Tacitus,
elected by the army in the west to replace himJune 276 AD – September? 276
ADSeptember? 276 AD. Assassinated by his own troops, in favour of Probus

44) Probus. CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS PROBVS AVGVSTVS232 AD, SirmiumGovernor
of the eastern provinces, proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions in
opposition to FlorianSeptember? 276 AD – September/ October 282 ADSeptember/
October 282 AD. Assassinated by his own troops, in favour of Carus.

45) Caro (CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS CARVS AVGVSTVS) c. 230 AD,
NarboPraetorian Prefect to Probus; seized power either before or after Probus was
murderedSeptember/ October 282 AD – late July/ early August 283 ADLate July/early
August 283 AD. Natural causes? (Possibly killed by lightning)

46) Numerian. CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS NVMERIVS NVMERIANVS AVGVSTVS?Son of
Carus, succeeded him jointly with his brother CarinusLate July/early August
283 AD – 284 AD?284 AD. Unclear; possibly assassinated

47) Carinus. CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS CARINVS AVGVSTVS?Son of Carus,
succeeded him jointly with his brother NumerianLate July/early August 283 AD – 285
AD285 AD. Died in battle against Diocletian?

48) Diocletian. CAESAR GAIVS AVRELIVS VALERIVS DIOCLETIANVS AVGVSTVSc.
December 22, 244 AD, SalonaProclaimed emperor by army after death of Numerian,
and in opposition to Carinus; adopted Maximian as senior co-emperor in 286
ADNovember 20, 284 AD – May 1, 305 AD3 December 311 AD. Abdicated; died of
natural causes in Aspalatos21 years

49) Maximian. CAESAR GAIVS AVRELIVS VALERIVS MAXIMIANVS AVGVSTVSc. 250 AD,
near Sirmium, PannoniaAdopted as senior co-emperor ('Augustus') in the
west by Diocletian in 286 ADApril 1, 286 AD – May 1, 305 AD310 AD. Abdicated
with Diocletian; twice tried to regain throne with, and then from Maxentius;
captured by Constantine I and committed suicide at his behest19 years

50) Constantius I Chlorus. CAESAR GAIVS FLAVIVS VALERIVS CONSTANTIVS
AVGVSTVSMarch 31 c. 250 AD, Dardania, MoesiaAdopted as junior co-emperor
('Caesar') and heir by Maximian in 293 ADMay 1, 305 AD – July 25, 306 AD306 AD.
Natural causes1 year and 2 moths

51) Galerius. CAESAR GALERIVS VALERIVS MAXIMIANVS AVGVSTVSc. 260 AD, Felix
Romuliana, Moesia SuperiorAdopted as junior co-emperor ('Caesar') and heir
by Diocletian in 293 ADMay 1, 305 AD – May 311 AD311 AD. Natural causes. 6
years

52) Severo II. FLAVIVS VALERIVS SEVERVS AVGVSTVS?Adopted as junior
co-emperor ('Caesar') and heir by Constantius I Chlorus in 305 AD; succeeded as
Augustus in 306; opposed by Maxentius and Constantine ISummer 306 AD – March/
April 307 ADSeptember 16, 307 AD. Captured by Maxentius and forced to
commit suicide (or murdered)1 year

53) Constantine I. CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTINVS VALERIVS AVGVSTVSFebruary
27 c. 272 AD, Naissus, Moesia SuperiorSon of Constantius I Chlorus,
proclaimed emperor by his father's troops; accepted as Caesar (west) by Galerius in
306 AD; promoted to Augustus (west) in 307 AD by Maximian after death of
Severus II; refused relegation to Caesar in 309 AD25 July 306 AD – May 22,
337 ADMay 22, 337 AD
Natural causes31 years

54) Maxentius. MARCVS AVRELIVS VALERIVS MAXENTIVS AVGVSTVSc. 278 AD, ?Son
of Maximian, seized power in 306 after death of Constantius I Chlorus, in
opposition to Severus and Constantine I; made Caesar (west) by Maximian in
307 AD after the death of Severus28 October 306 AD – October 28, 312
ADOctober 28, 312 AD. Died at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, against
Constantine I6 years

55) Maximinus II. CAESAR GALERIVS VALERIVS MAXIMINVS AVGVSTVSNovember 20
c. 270 AD, Dacia AurelianaNephew of Galerius, adopted as Caesar and his heir
in 305 AD; succeeded as Augustus (shared with Licinius I) in 311 ADMay 1,
311 AD – July/August 313 ADJuly/August 313 AD. Defeated in civil war
against Licinius I; probably committed suicide thereafter2 years

56) Licinius I. CAESAR GAIVS VALERIVS LICINIVS AVGVSTVS. with Valerius
Valens Martinianc. 250 AD, Felix Romuliana, Moesia SuperiorAppointed Augustus
in the west by Galerius in 308 AD, in opposition to Maxentius; became
Augustus in the east in 311 AD after the death of Galerius (shared with
Maximinus II); defeated Maximinus in civil war to become sole eastern Augustus in
313 AD; appointed Valerius Valens in 317 AD, and Martinian in 324 AD as
western Augustus, in opposition to Constantine, both being executed within
weeks.November 11, 308 AD – September 18, 324 AD325 AD Defeated in civil war
against Constantine I in 324 AD and captured; executed on the orders of
Constantine the next year16 years

57) Constantine II. CAESAR FLAVIVS CLAVDIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS316 AD,
ArlesSon of Constantine I; appointed Caesar in 317 AD, succeeded as joint
Augustus with his brothers Constantius II and Constans IMay 22, 337 AD – 340
AD340 AD Died in battle against Constans I3 years

58) Constantius II. CAESAR FLAVIVS IVLIVS CONSTANTIVS AVGVSTVSAugust 7,
317 AD, Sirmium, PannoniaSon of Constantine I; succeeded as joint Augustus
with his brothers Constantine II and Constans I; sole emperor from 350 ADMay
22, 337 AD – November 3, 361 AD361 AD Natural causes

59) Constans I. CAESAR FLAVIVS IVLIVS CONSTANS AVGVSTVS320 AD, ?Son of
Constantine I; succeeded as joint Augustus with his brothers Constantine II
and Constantius IIMay 22, 337 AD – 350 AD350 AD. Assassinated on the orders
of the usurper Magnentius Vetranio?, MoesiaGeneral of Constans I, proclaimed
Caesar against Magnentius and temporarily accepted as Augustus of the west
by Constantius II.March 1 – December 25, 350 ADc. 356 As a private
citizen, after abdication.

60) Julian II. CAESAR FLAVIVS CLAVDIVS IVLIANVS AVGVSTVS331 AD/332 AD,
Constantinople, ThraciaCousin of Constantius II; made Caesar of the west in
355 AD; proclaimed Augustus by his troops in 360; sole emperor after the
death of ConstantiusFebruary 360 AD – June 26, 363 ADJune 26, 363 AD Mortally
wounded in battle

61) Jovian. CAESAR FLAVIVS IOVIANVS AVGVSTVS331 AD, Singidunum,
MoesiaGeneral of Julian's army; proclaimed emperor by the troops on Julian's
deathJune 26, 363 AD – February 17, 364 ADFebruary 17, 364 AD Natural causes
(suffocated on fumes)

62) Valentinian I. FLAVIVS VALENTINIANVS AVGVSTVS321 AD, Cibalae,
PannoniaElected to replace Jovian by the armyFebruary 26, 364 AD – November 17, 375
ADNovember 17, 375 AD Natural causes

63) Valens. FLAVIVS IVLIVS VALENS AVGVSTVS328 AD, Cibalae, PannoniaBrother
of Valentinian I, appointed co-augustus (for the east) by himMarch 28, 364
AD – August 9, 378 ADAugust 9, 378 AD
Killed in Battle of Adrianople against the Goths

64) Gratian. FLAVIVS GRATIANVS AVGVSTVSApril 18/May 23, 359 AD, Sirmium,
PannoniaSon of Valentinian I, appointed 'junior' Augustus by him in 367,
became 'senior' augustus (for the west) after Valentinian's death.August 4,
367 AD – August 25, 383 ADAugust 25, 383 AD Murdered by rebellious army
faction

65) Valentinian II. FLAVIVS VALENTINIANVS INVICTVS AVGVSTVS371 AD, Milan,
ItaliaSon of Valentinian I, proclaimed emperor by Pannonian army after
Valentinian's death; accepted as co-Augustus for the west by GratianNovember
17, 375 AD – May 15, 392 ADMay 15, 392 AD Unclear; possibly murdered or
committed suicide

66) Teodosio I. FLAVIVS THEODOSIVS AVGVSTVSJanuary 11, 347 AD, Cauca,
HispaniaAppointed as Augustus for the east by Gratian after the death of
Valens; became sole 'senior' Augustus after death of Valentinian IIJanuary 1, 379
AD – January 17, 395 ADJanuary 17, 395 AD Natural causes

67) Arcadio. FLAVIVS ARCADIVS AVGVSTVS EASTc. 377 AD, HispaniaSon of
Theodosius I; appointed as 'junior' Augustus for the east by Theodosius in 383
(after the death of Gratian); became 'senior' Augustus for the east after
his father's deathJanuary 383 AD – May 1, 408 ADMay 1, 408 AD Natural causes

68) Onorio. FLAVIVS HONORIVS AVGVSTVS WESTSeptember 9, 384 AD, ?Son of
Theodosius I; appointed as 'junior' Augustus for the west by Theodosius in 393
(after the death of Valentinian II); became 'senior' Augustus for the west
after his father's deathJanuary 23, 393 AD – August 15, 423 ADAugust 15,
423 AD. Natural causes

69) Teodosio II. FLAVIVS THEODOSIVS AVGVSTVS. EASTApril 10, 401 AD,
Constantinople?Son of Arcadius; appointed as 'junior' Augustus for the east by
Arcadius in 402; became 'senior' Augustus for the east after his father's
deathJanuary 402 AD – July 28, 450 ADJuly 28, 450 AD. Natural causes

70) Constantius III. FLAVIVS CONSTANTIVS AVGVSTVS. WEST?, Naissus, Moesia
SuperiorMarried to Theodosius I's daughter Galla Placidia, elevated to
co-Augustus for the west by HonoriusFebruary 8, 421 AD – September 2, 421
ADSeptember 2, 421 AD. Natural causes

71) Joannes. WEST?A senior civil servant under Honorius, proclaimed
emperor by Castinus; initially undisputedAugust 27, 423 AD – May 425 ADJune or
July 425 AD. Defeated in battle by Theodosius II and Valentinian III,
captured and executed

72) Valentinian III. FLAVIVS PLACIDIVS VALENTINIANVS AVGVSTVS. WESTJuly 2,
419 AD, Ravenna, ItaliaSon of Constantius III, appointed Caesar for the
west by Theodosius II after the death of Honorius, in opposition to the
Johannes; became Augustus for the west after the defeat of JohannesOctober 23,
424 AD – March 16, 455 ADMarch 16, 455 AD. Assassinated, possibly at the
behest of Petronius Maximus

73) Marziano. FLAVIVS MARCIANIVS AVGVSTVS. EAST396, Thrace or
IllyriaNominated as successor (and husband) by Pulcheria, sister of Theodosius IISummer
450 AD – January 457 ADJanuary 457 AD
Natural causes

74) Petronio Massimo (FLAVIVS ANICIVS PETRONIVS MAXIMVS AVGVSTVS) c. 396
AD, ?Proclaimed himself emperor with the support of the army, after the
death of Valentinian IIIMarch 17, 455 AD – May 31, 455 ADMay 31, 455 AD.
Murdered, probably stoned to death by the Roman mob

75) Avitus. EPARCHIVS AVITVS AVGVSTVSc. 385 AD, ?Magister militum under
Petronius Maximus, proclaimed emperor by the Visigoth king Theoderic II after
Petronius's deathJuly 9, 455 AD – October 17, 456 ADafter 17 October 456
AD. Deposed by his Magister militum, Ricimer; became bishop of Placentia;
murdered at some point afterwards

76) Majorian. IVLIVS VALERIVS MAIORIANVS AVGVSTVSNovember 420 AD,
?Appointed emperor by RicimerApril 457 AD – August 2, 461 ADAugust 7, 461 AD.
Deposed by his troops (probably at the behest of Ricimer); died shortly
afterwards in unclear circumstances

77) Libius Severus. LIBIVS SEVERVS AVGVSTVS?, Lucania, ItaliaAppointed
emperor by RicimerNovember 461 AD – August 465 ADAugust 465 AD. Probably
assassinated by Ricimer

78) Anthemius. PROCOPIVS ANTHEMIVS AVGVSTVSc. 420 ADAppointed emperor by
Ricimer, with the backing of the eastern emperor Leo IApril 12, 467 AD –
July 11, 472 ADJuly 11, 472 AD. Executed by Ricimer

79) Olibrio. FLAVIVS ANICIVS OLYBRIVS AVGVSTVSc. 420 ADSon-in-law of
Valentinian III; appointed emperor by RicimerJuly 11, 472 AD – November 2, 472
ADNovember 2, 472 AD. Natural causes

80) Glicerio. FLAVIVS(?) GLYCERIVS AVGVSTVS?Appointed emperor by Gundobad
(Ricimer's successor)March 473 AD – June 474 ADafter 480 AD. Deposed by
Julius Nepos, became Bishop of Salona, time and manner of death unknown

81) Giulio Nepos. FLAVIVS IVLIVS NEPOS AVGVSTVSc. 430 AD - 480
ADNephew-in-law of the eastern emperor Leo I, appointed emperor in opposition to
GlyceriusJune 474 AD – August 28, 475 AD (in Italy); – Spring 480 AD (in Gaul
and Dalmatia)480 AD. Deposed in Italy by Flavius Orestes, ruled in balance of
Western Empire until assassination in 480. Maintained as figurehead in
Italy by Odoacer though his death in 480.

82) Romolo Augusto (FLAVIVS ROMVLVS AVGVSTVS). Appointed by his father,
Flavius OrestesOctober 31, 475 AD – September 4, 476 AD (in Italy)Unknown.
Regarded as emperor more from historical convention than accuracy, his rule
never extended beyond portions of Italian peninsular and was not recognized
by Eastern Emperor Zeno. Deposed by Odoacer, who then ruled in the name of
Julius Nepos until the latter's death in 480, which formally ended the
separate western empire; most likely lived out his life on a private villa in
obscurity.

83) Leo I. FLAVIVS VALERIVS LEO AVGVSTVS401 AD, ?Proclaimed emperor by the
Magister militum Aspar after Marcian's deathFebruary 7, 457 AD – January
18, 474 ADJanuary 18, 474 AD. Natural causes

84) Leo II. FLAVIVS LEO IVNIOR AVGVSTVS467 AD, Constantinople?Grandson of
Leo I by his daughter AriadneJanuary 18, 474 AD – November 17, 474
ADNovember 17, 474 AD. Unclear, possibly assassinated

85) Zeno. FLAVIVS ZENO PERPETVVS AVGVSTVS425 AD, IsauriaFather of Leo
IIFebruary 9, 474 AD – January 9, 475 AD &. August 476 AD – April 9, 491
ADApril 9, 491 AD. Natural causes

86) Basiliscus. FLAVIVS BASILISCVS AVGVSTVS?Brother-in-law of Leo I,
seized power during a plot against Zeno by Verina (Leo I's widow and
Basiliscus's sister)January 9, 475 AD – August 476 ADAugust 476 AD. Defeated, captured
and executed by Zeno

87) Anastasius I. FLAVIVS ANASTASIVS AVGVSTVSc. 430 AD, DyrrachiumSelected
by Ariadne as successor to Zeno (as both emperor and husband)April 9, 491
AD – July 9, 518 ADJuly 9, 518. Natural causes

88) Justin I. FLAVIVS IVSTINVS AVGVSTVSc. 450 AD, NaissusCommander of the
palace guard under Anastasius I); elected as emperor with support of
armyJuly 9, 518 AD – August 1, 527 ADAugust 1, 527 AD
Natural causes

89) Justinian I. FLAVIVS PETRVS SABBATIVS IVSTINIANVS AVGVSTVSc. 482 AD,
Tauresium, DardaniaNephew and nominated heir of Justin IAugust 1, 527 AD –
13/14 November 565 AD13/14 November 565 AD. Natural causes

90) Justin II. FLAVIVS IVSTINIVS IVNIOR AVGVSTVSc. 520 AD, ?Nephew of
Justinian I13/14 November 565 AD – 5 October 578 AD578 AD. Became insane;
Tiberius II Constantine ruled as regent from December 574 and became emperor on
Justin's death in 578

91) Tiberio II Constantine. FLAVIVS TIBERIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVSc. 535
AD, ?Adoptive son of Justin II5 October 578 AD – 14 August 582 AD14 August
578 AD. Natural causes

92) Maurice. FLAVIVS MAVRICIVS TIBERIVS AVGVSTVS539 AD,
ArabissusSon-in-law of Tiberius II Constantine13 August 582 AD – 27 November 602 AD27
November 602 AD
Executed