PARSIFAL: Masculinities -- TENORE EROICO -- related to debates on MASCULINITY

Speranza

Our future historians will cull from still unpublished letters and memoirs ... the idea that the performances at Bayreuth had really much the status of religious rites and that their effects were not unlike what is technically called a revival.

--Vernon Lee (1911: 875)

The idea that there is something religious about Bayreuth is not new, and goes well beyond cliches about opera houses as the "cathedrals of the bourgeoisie."

The words used to describe the festival by Wagnerians and anti-Wagnerians alike have often been consciously religious.

One makes a pilgrimage to the holy site, there are acolytes who serve the holy work and the orthodoxy, heretics are excommunicated--the comparisons are all too obvious. Friedrich Nietzsche referred to this phenomenon in a letter to his friend Malwida von Meysenburg when he suggested that "all this Wagnerizing" was "an unconscious emulation of Rome" (Fischer-Dieskau 1974:202). Even in more recent times, after the moral, ideological, and organizational disasters that the festival was caught up in during the twentieth century, the skies above the Festspielhaus were scoured for signs of the white smoke announcing which member of the dysfunctional clan was to succeed the composer's grandson Wolfgang Wagner.

If this musical Vatican has a central rite, it is surely Parsifal.

Not an opera or a music drama but a "Buhnenweihfestspiel" (a "stage-festival-consecration-play" -- or "dramma mistico in tre atti", as the metrical translation goes), Wagner's last work leaves the cheerful paganism of the Ring far behind. (1) The composer had toyed with aspects of Christianity as far back as Tannhauser, but in Parsifal he went much further, almost to the point, many believed, of creating opera as sacrament. Since the Second World War, controversies about the piece have been essentially political, but it was its religious content that most engaged contemporaries.

At the time of the 1882 premiere much ink was spilt about whether the piece was Catholic or Protestant, or even Christian at all. There were plenty of Wagnerites who saw it as a profound new kind of religious experience, but other observers saw the work as heretical at best and out-and-out pagan at worst.

The plot of Parsifal certainly offered Christian and secular critics a lot to talk about.

Amfortas, the king of the Grail Knights, has been stabbed in the side (testicles) by the magic spear that pierced Christ's side on the Cross.

This morbid penetration is a symbolic punishment for his weakness in the face of seduction by Kundry, a kind of female Ahaserus, a woman doomed to wander the earth after mocking Christ's Passion.

The Knights guard the Holy Grail, but, as with the legend of the Fisher King, their kingdom is as sick as their king.

Only the "Pure Fool" (as the erroneous etymythology from Arabian reads) can bring redemption.

In the first act Parsifal stumbles upon the Grail Kingdom, experiences the ritual of the unveiling of the grail, but does not yet understand its message.

In the next act he resists Kundry's attempts to seduce him, achieving compassionate wisdom at the moment they kiss.

Parsifal then takes the spear from Klingsor, the castrated evil wizard whom Kundry serves, makes the sign of the cross and destroys his castle.

In the third act, Parsifal returns to the Grail Kingdom on Good Friday after many years of wandering. Kundry washes his feet and the oldest of the Grail Knights, Gurnemanz, anoints him the new King of the Grail.

In the final scene, Amfortas refuses to reveal the grail and begs to be killed, but Parsifal heals and redeems him with the spear, orders the unveiling of the grail, at which point Kundry dies, redeemed, and a white dove descends above Parsifal's head. Thus, although Jesus is never named as such, Christian imagery suffuses the whole work.

The debate on the work's religious character occurred in the context of a fierce ideological struggle between church and state in the aftermath of the so-called Kulturkampf, which Bismarck had launched to establish the supremacy of the Protestant Prussian order over a united German Reich that had a very large Catholic population, including French and Polish minorities.

The new state demanded that priests pass state exams, made church weddings legal only when registered with the state, and excluded the Jesuits from Germany. This "Culture-War" was arguably the most important political issue in Germany in the 1870s and 1880s, with dozens of Catholic priests imprisoned for refusing to accept the authority of the state in Church affairs. (2) There was even an assassination attempt against Bismarck by a Catholic. The death of Pius IX in 1878 calmed the atmosphere to some extent, but relations with the Vatican were only re-established in 1882. There was a strong ideological dimension to this struggle, as the progress, masculinity, and rationality associated with Protestantism were contrasted with the supposed reactionary, effeminate, and mystical nature of Catholicism and other "irrational" creeds. The medical profession, and psychiatry in particular, was one element in the new secular/Protestant Germany that was especially hostile to religious enthusiasm (Schwarmerei), particularly within the Catholic Church. "Rational" Christianity, as a bulwark of moral behavior, was all very well, but religious enthusiasm was scorned by mainstream medicine.

Thus, far from simply making Wagner more respectable, Parsifal's religious tone also gave it dangerous associations.

It became a key element in the emerging medical-moral critique of Wagner's operas as degenerate, which can be seen in the work of Friedrich Nietzsche, Max Nordau, Eduard Hanslick, and many other writers, journalists, and psychiatrists, and which later provided the psychiatric rhetoric for the Nazi concept of degenerate music. In this context it is striking that although the debate was ostensibly about religion and pathology, issues of willpower and masculinity were never far away. The strange lack of willpower of Parsifal, the "Pure Fool," and the opera's Schopenhauerian renunciation ethic seemed to compare unfavorably with the straightforward "healthy" manliness of Siegfried. Combined with the opera's sensual and mystical ritualistic pomp, and its touch of occult art-religion, this led again to imputations of effeminacy and references to the developing medical discourse on homosexuality in discussions of Parsifal.

Anxiety about masculinity is at the heart of the "diagnosis" of the religious character of Wagner's last work as degenerate, as the expression of a pathological mystical outlook.

We look at this important and neglected aspect of Wagner reception, examining the complex relationship between medicine, religion, and Parsifal.

In considering the religious aspect of the debate on Parsifal, we are in line with broader trends in historiography.

Whereas twentieth-century scholars tended to downplay the influence of religious ideas on events, contemporary historians (who have seen the supposed decline of religion as a historical force dramatically reversed) are increasingly taking religion more seriously.

The first section looks at the debate on the denominational character of the piece, its odd mixture of Catholic sensuality and ritualism and Protestant elements.

This is followed by an analysis of the way that Parsifal's Catholic elements gave it associations of degeneration and effeminacy for contemporaries.

Next, we discuss the position of Parsifal's religiously-tinged Schopenhauerian Pessimism in the light of psychiatry and Nietzsche's notion of the will, both of which used medical language to denounce its renunciation ethic as pathological and effeminate.

Finally, I will look at the way that Wagner's own "art-religion" was received in esoteric circles, and how that too was related to debates on masculinity and degeneration.

How Catholic is Parsifal?
Wagner's last work is his most theatrical ... the art of the theater is already baroque, it is Catholicism, it is the Church; and an artist like Wagner, used to dealing with symbols and elevating monstrances, must have ended by feeling like a brother of priests, like a priest himself.--Thomas Mann ([1933] 1985:94-95)

Wagner himself was brought up as a Protestant and his letters and prose are full of verbal assaults on the Catholic Church, especially the Jesuits. For him, as for many "progressive" Protestants of the nineteenth century, the Catholic Church represented political reaction and obscurantism. Even in 1878, Wagner said it was a "scandal" that the Catholic Church still existed, and called it the "plague of the world" (C. Wagner 1977, vol. 2:224-25). (3) Nevertheless there are parts of Wagner's work that clearly show Catholic influence, if not as an ally, then perhaps as a rival. As Wagner makes clear in Mein Leben, he had been accused of Catholic tendencies long before Parsifal, especially at the time of the premiere of Tannhauser:

It was just at that time when the German-Catholic agitation, set in motion by Czersky and Ronge as a highly Liberal and meritorious movement, was causing a great commotion. It was made out that by Tannhauser I had provoked a reactionary tendency, and that precisely as Meyerbeer with his Huguenots had glorified Protestantism, so I with my latest opera would glorify Catholicism. The rumor that in writing Tannhauser I had been bribed by the Catholic party was believed for a long time. (Wagner [1870-1880] 1963:378)

This lack of clarity in questions of doctrine is borne out in Cosima's comments on Wagner's religious beliefs. On January 30, 1880, she recorded in her diary that Wagner admitted to a Christianity "released from all denominations" (1977, vol. 2:224-25)4 Such ecumenical aspirations would prove especially difficult at a time when confessional divisions were extremely politicized in the Kulturkampf, as Protestantism in discourse established itself as the patriotic and masculine denomination, in contrast to the effeminate and ultramontane (i.e., pro-Vatican) tendencies of Catholicism.

Wagner was told all about Catholic Mass by a Benedictine monk in Munich, who later outlined the experience in his book Die Errinnerungen des Paters Petrus Hamp. Parsifal's emphasis on the symbol over the word, and of the grail over any doctrine, has clear connections to Catholicism, as does its dialectic of shame and grace--the core of much of the Catholicism espoused by self-declared decadents in particular. Some Catholics viewed Parsifal very positively, and without appealing to decadent elements in any way. For example, Abbe Marcel Hebert's Das religiose Geftihl im Werke Richard Wagners (1895) and Michel Domenech Espanyol's L'apotheose de la religion catholique: Parsifal de Wagner (1902J both strongly argued that Parsifal was a Catholic work in the most positive sense.
The Protestant critic Johannes Hermann Wallfisch agreed that it was a Catholic piece, but took a much more hostile view, seeing the adoration of the grail as nothing but Catholic idolatry. He asked, "What do we children of the Reformation, the Bible in our hands, want with the grail?" (1914:9). (5) Similarly, an anonymous Social Democrat in the Frankische Tagespost in 1882 accused Wagner of siding with the Jesuits in Parsifal (Grossman-Vendry 1977-83:67), and in the Anglo-Irish writer George Moore's novel Evelyn Innes Monsignor Martyn denounces Parsifal as "a parody of the Mass" (Moore 1898:298).

Wagner's most famous critic (and former acolyte), Friedrich Nietzsche, reserved his greatest hostility for Wagner's last work, in which he sensed not only an ascetic Pessimism, but also "a certain Catholicism of feeling," not a positive thing for the son of a Protestant pastor (1973:135).6 A poem in Der Fall Wagner gets straight to the point:

      Is that still German?
Did this sensuous screech come from a German heart?
This tearing-oneself-apart from a German body?
This priest's hands spreading, German?
The incense sensuality?
German this falling, faltering, dizzying
This sugar-sweet ding-donging?
This nun's ogling, ave bell-ringing?
This entirely wrong over-heavening of heaven?
Is that still German?
Think! You are still at the gate ... What
you hear is Rome, Rome's faith without words! (7)

Nietzsche did not necessarily believe that Wagner's "new" Christian faith was sincere. At heart he suspected Wagner of kowtowing to the weaknesses of the German public.