it has been claimed that Grice's theory of meaning cannot cope with meaningful utterance occurring in the absence of an audience in cases where the utterer thinks that there is no audience, does not want an audience and/or wants there not to be an audience. Green considered the problem and canvassed two solutions, the first of which, that the utterer is talking to himself, he instantly dismissed—as Ziff" did. The second was that the intention was to inform a hearer if a hearer were present (unbeknownst to the utterer). This was dismissed, since there are many occasions when we would not want to inform a hearer if a hearer were present.

Grice's later formulation, the outcome of his discussion of utterer's occasion-meaning in the absence of an audience, seems designed to cope with this problem. The relevant essential element can be rendered: the utterer utters x intending x to be such that (say) an English speaker would etc. etc. This is compatible with his not intending to inform any English speaker and, indeed, with his intending not to inform any English speaker. However, since he spoke in English he did intend his utterance to be such that an English speaker would be informed if an English speaker were present.

However, Schiffer* has considered unfavourably what is in effect this suggestion. His formulation is that the utterer intends to utter something which would inform an English speaker if an English speaker were present. Schiffer thinks this might do for certain cases of solitary meaningful utterance, but it allows as meaningful certain cases of solitary utterance which are not meaningful cases. These latter are such cases as saying things when alone, perhaps to test our voice, or typing out things to test a typewriter. Schiffer's remarks suggest that his view is that the

* O. H. Green, "Intentions and speech acts", Analysis, 2(1968/9), 100-12.

• P. Zi,"On H, P. Grice's account of meaning" Analysis 28(1967/8), 1-8.
• H. P. Grice, "Ueterer's meaning and intentions", Philasophical Review, 78 (1969), 147-77.

+ S. Schiffer, Meaning (O.U.P., 1972), PP. 73-80.