In the brilliant diagnostic framework developed by Paul Grice and meticulously chronicled by Luigi Speranza(principally via The Grice Club), the relationship between Marcus Tullius Cicero (Tullio Cicerone) and the structure of language takes on a revolutionary meaning. [1, 2]
For Cicero, rhetorica (rhetoric) is not an alternative to grammatica (grammar); it is its psychological completion. While grammar defines the formal bounds of literal syntax (recte loquendi), rhetoric relies on those very boundaries to execute deliberate deviations. To make his persuasive oratory function, Cicero practically single-handedly invented the foundational semantic terminology of the Latin language. [1, 2, 3]
By mapping Cicero's semantic innovations onto Grice’s Theory of Meaning and the Cooperative Principle, we can analyze how Roman rhetoric rests entirely on a grammatical substrate. [1]
1. The Core Semantic Pivot: Notio and Conceptus (The Baseline of Shared Knowledge)
Before a speaker can generate a sophisticated conversational implication, there must be a rigid baseline of conventional semantic meaning shared between the speaker and the listener. Cicero coined the terms notio(notion) and conceptus (conception) to translate the Greek ennoia.
- The Gricean Parallel: These terms define the parameters of Common Ground and Conventional Meaning.
- The Grammatical Bedrock: For Cicero, grammar standardizes the words that point to these internal notiones. If a speaker does not anchor their vocabulary in a grammatically agreed-upon notio, they violate the Maxim of Manner (avoid obscurity). Rhetorical power is impossible without this strict grammatical agreement on what a word fundamentally represents. [1]
2. Significatio (Natural vs. Non-Natural Meaning)
Cicero heavily refined the word significatio (signification/meaning), shifting it from a vague description of physical signs into a technical tool of semantic intent.
- Gricean Meaning (\(M_{N}\) vs. \(M_{NN}\)): Cicero recognized that a word has a literal grammatical significatio (Natural Meaning, or what the dictionary says), but in the courtroom, an orator exploits Speaker Meaning (Non-Natural Meaning, or \(M_{NN}\)). [1]
- The Rhetorical Exploit: In works like De Oratore, Cicero demonstrates how an orator can use a grammatically correct sentence to signify something entirely different based on context, delivery, and audience expectation. The audience calculates what Cicero intends them to believe, moving from literal grammar to rhetorical implicature.
3. Sententia (The Utterance and Proposition)
In early Latin grammar, a sententia was merely an opinion or a maxim. Cicero elevated sententia to mean a fully realized semantic proposition—the thought expressed by a complete sentence.
- The Logical Substrate: Rhetoric uses arguments (syllogisms, enthymemes), but these arguments are built out of individual grammatical clauses (sententiae).
- The Gricean Intersection: A Cicero-style sententia relies on the Maxim of Quantity. An orator must provide exactly enough grammatical data within the sententia to inform the audience without overloading them. If the grammar of the sententia is broken, the logical proposition collapses, and the rhetoric fails to persuade. [1, 2]
4. Ratio et Oratio (The Cooperative Principle Personified)
Cicero famously claimed that human society is held together by Ratio et Oratio (Reason and Speech). [1]
- The Maxims in Action: This pairing is the ancient Roman ancestor of Grice’s Cooperative Principle. Ratio represents the cognitive framework of truth and relevance (Maxims of Quality and Relation), while Oratio represents the structural, grammatical execution of those thoughts (Maxims of Quantity and Manner).
- Rhetoric is simply the art of managing oratio (grammar) so perfectly that ratio (reason) becomes irresistible to the listener. [1, 2]
The Ciceronian Semantic Matrix
| Ciceronian Term [1, 2, 3, 4] | Greek Origin | Grammatical Function | Gricean / Pragmatic Counterpart |
|---|---|---|---|
| Notio | Ennoia(ἔννοια) | Anchors words to stable mental concepts. | Conventional Meaning / Common Ground |
| Significatio | Semasia(σημασία) | Tracks how a word points to its object. | Speaker Meaning (\(M_{NN}\)) vs. Sentence Meaning |
| Sententia | Axioma(ἀξίωμα) | Formulates a structurally complete proposition. | The Utterance / Propositional Truth Conditions |
| Oratio | Logos (λόγος) | Dictates proper syntax and physical speech. | The Maxim of Manner (Perspicuity and Order) |
The Synthesis: Flouting Grammar for Rhetorical Implicature
Ultimately, Cicero’s rhetoric relies on grammar because you cannot elegantly break a rule you do not master.
When Cicero uses hyperbole, irony, or metaphor (verba translata), he is technically flouting grammatical literalism. If he says an opponent is a "monster" or a "plague on the Republic," the literal grammatical meaning is false (violating the Maxim of Quality). However, because his audience recognizes his flawless mastery of standard grammatica, they know he is not making a grammatical error or a clumsy lie. Instead, they recognize the rhetorical maneuver and calculate the conversational implicature: the opponent's behavior is dangerous to Rome.
Would you like to examine a specific text where Cicero defends this grammatical baseline—such as his philosophical translations in De Finibus—or look next at how Quintilian codified these Ciceronian semantic shifts? [1]
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