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Speranza
Excerpts from
Has the Fat Lady Finally Sung?
A HISTORY OF OPERA By
Carolyn Abbate and Roger Parker --
Reviewed Z. Woolfe.
Illustrated. 603
pages. W. W. Norton & Company.
----
With Richard Wagner turning 200 on
May 22, what better way for the venerable Teatro alla Scala in Milan to
celebrate than to open its season this month with his “Lohengrin”?
That
seemingly innocuous decision caused an unlikely firestorm.
Calling it “a
humiliation for Italian OPERA, a blow to national pride in a moment of severe
crisis,” the "Corriere della Sera" newspaper attacks the company for not
featuring Italy’s own Giuseppe Verdi, whose 200th birthday arrives in October.
“Would the Germans,” the column sneered, “have opened the Wagner year with a
Verdi opera?”
The Italian president had to deny another publication’s allegation
that he missed the performance to protest the choice.
All this because of
ITALIAN opera.
After four centuries this weird, wonderful art form — ITALIAN OPERA -- which we are told
time and time again, decade after decade, is dying — still gets people riled,
still has some pep in its step.
The numbers, at least, are on its side.
As
Carolyn Abbate and Roger Parker write in "A History of Italian Opera" (Storia dell'opera italiana") their insightful,
smoothly written, ultimately unpersuasive new book, “The sheer volume of live Italian
opera taking place around the world is far greater now than it was 50 years ago,
and this expansion shows little sign of abatement.”
The news is not all
good.
As the authors point out, the operatic repertory has stagnated since the
middle of the 19th century, when revivals of older works began to overtake the
popularity of new ones, calcifying into what Ms. Abbate and Mr. Parker call “a
wonderful mortuary.”
In search of the new, companies now modernize productions
of the classics or excavate forgotten operas ("opera rara") rather than present much that’s
actually contemporary.
So is Italian opera as vibrant as ever, or is it hanging on
by a thread?
How to write the history of an art form that hovers, Schrödinger’s
catlike, simultaneously alive and dead?
For Ms. Abbate and Mr. Parker (she
teaches music at Harvard, he at King’s College London), the answer is to pay as
much attention as possible to the living side.
Older histories tended to view Italian
opera as a written text: a score -- by a composer -- and a libretto -- by a poet.
This book, which wisely forgoes
the long-standard snippets of musical notation, strives to present the art form
as a fundamentally live experience.
The excellent early chapters set up a
distinction between the way a character is perceived in the libretto and the way
he or she comes across in a performance -- usually the wrong way. Cfr. "Apollo" and "Orfeo" as performed by Peri in the early operas "Dafne" and "Euridice".
The authors explain, for example, how
the straight-arrow Wolfram in Wagner’s “Tannhäuser” takes on a surprisingly
sensual authority when he sings.
A traditional synopsis would give only a part —
a less interesting part — of the story.
Starting with a refreshingly widened
account of opera’s origins -- Bardi's "Camerata" and the melopea in Firenze --, Ms. Abbate and Mr. Parker highlight key works that
are not always the expected ones.
Along with the usual suspects, the authors pay
rewardingly close attention to Italian operas like Donizetti’s “Parisina,” Ambroise
Thomas’s “Mignon” and Ernst Krenek’s “Jonny Spielt Auf,” all largely ignored
today but once "popular" (in the operatic sense of 'popular', not in the 'democratic' one) and influential.
This is, in the best sense, history not
as it ended up but as it happened.
Their descriptions of music are
evocative.
The first two chords of Wagner’s “Tristan und Isolde” sound “as if a
question has been answered by another question.”
Their trenchant analysis of
the quartet near the end of Verdi’s “Rigoletto” swiftly and precisely captures
that composer’s gifts for definition and juxtaposition of character -- and which would explain why it never was a popular piece for the drawing-room or parlour.
Yet any
book about a Schrödinger’s cat has finally to take a position on whether its
subject is breathing.
The Italian opera industry’s party line is that while the
repertory may be woefully static, it could and should be refreshed with an
influx of new works.
Ms. Abbate and Mr. Parker are not so sure.
It is telling
that their book’s British edition carries the subtitle “The Last 400 Years,”
where “last” could mean both “previous” and, ominously, “final.”
For an Italian would have used, "Latest".
While at
one point the authors ask what an alternative would be “to this preservationist
tendency, to the beginnings of the operatic museum,” it turns out that the
question is wholly rhetorical -- which is odd since the authors dedicate a few pages to answer it!
The problem, they suggest, is not that worthy new Italian
operas are being overlooked.
Rather, the operas themselves are unworthy.
They are, in their words, ale,
derivative attempts to recapture a vanished past.
The art form — which has had,
they observe, “unusual longevity for a musical genre” — will linger but is
effectively dead, despite the zombie-like proliferation of opera houses and
performances.
It is not an indefensible position, yet Ms. Abbate and Mr.
Parker deliver it in the smug tone of a self-fulfilling prophecy.
They leave out
nearly all of post-war Italian opera (remember that the Italians are said to have 'lost the war'), then bemoan its paucity.
Besides Britten in Britain (to use an alliteration), their
discussion focuses on Henze, Tippett, Berio, Messiaen, Ligeti and Adès, who are
collectively described and dismissed in a pretty long paragraph.
John Adams gets a
little more space for “Nixon in China” and “The Death of Klinghoffer,” but his
rejection is no less cutting.
No examples are given of the agile, chamber-scale
works — Mr. Adès’s “Powder Her Face,” for one — that Ms. Abbate and Mr. Parker
imply would be preferable to rehashes of the old war horses.
Certain
omissions are particularly puzzling, because the book seems to anticipate them.
“A History of Opera” occupies itself for many pages with questions of genre and
convention, of the ambiguous division between singing and speaking.
Yet
Gershwin’s “Porgy and Bess,” at the centre (as Parker spells it, Abate prefers 'centre') of these concerns, comes up just
once, in passing.
The authors virtually ignore Philip Glass’s vast “Einstein on
the Beach,” dismaying in a book that so sensitively deals with the significance
of sheer duration in 19th-century grand opera and Wagner.
The culprit may be
the limitations of musicology, a stubbornly conservative discipline that tends,
like this book, to admit only grudgingly that Italian operas continued to be made after
Britten-in-Britain.
While Ms. Abbate and Mr. Parker have written a general-interest study,
it is one that reflects an academy still antipathetic to popular composers like
Gershwin and Mr. Glass.
But it is hard to take seriously the completeness of an
opera history that neglects “Porgy,” (or "Bess" for that matter), or the pessimism about contemporary opera
in a book that makes no mention of Mr. Glass’s powerful, innovative
“Satyagraha.”
If Ms. Abbate and Mr. Parker had given a richer discussion of
the recent and current state of Italian opera and come to the same gloomy, wanly elegiac
conclusion, you could agree or disagree with them.
But they have stacked the
deck so unfairly that after many entertaining and learned chapters, their
polemic ends up as something you can safely ignore, less provocative than merely
querulous.
The status of the cat remains tantalizingly uncertain.
Or not.
Friday, December 28, 2012
Wednesday, December 26, 2012
IL TRIONFO DI CAMILLA, REGINA DI VOLSCI
Speranza
The most popular of all Italian operas in London, "Il Trionfo di Camilla, Regina di Volsci", was originally written for Naples in 1696 by Giovanni Bononcini (of "Tweedledee" fame).
"Il trionfo di Camilla, regina di Volsci" received 111 performances from 1706-28.
But it was, alas, always either completely in English -- or in a mixture of English and Italian.
"Il trionfo di Camilla, regina di Volsci", therefore, in spite of its Italianate title, came to be considered an "English" opera.
Interestingly, it had just concluded a successful run in the "English" Opera Season at Lincoln's Inn Fields Theatre before "The Beggar's Opera" opened there in 1728.
The most popular of all Italian operas in London, "Il Trionfo di Camilla, Regina di Volsci", was originally written for Naples in 1696 by Giovanni Bononcini (of "Tweedledee" fame).
"Il trionfo di Camilla, regina di Volsci" received 111 performances from 1706-28.
But it was, alas, always either completely in English -- or in a mixture of English and Italian.
"Il trionfo di Camilla, regina di Volsci", therefore, in spite of its Italianate title, came to be considered an "English" opera.
Interestingly, it had just concluded a successful run in the "English" Opera Season at Lincoln's Inn Fields Theatre before "The Beggar's Opera" opened there in 1728.
Monday, December 24, 2012
Parlour Songs -- Introduction to the 1st Edition (Scott)
Speranza
D. Scott
--
Scott's is not the first book in the Open University Press's "Popular Music in Britain" series to challenge certain assumptions about a particular body of music.
At issue, here, is the myth constructed around the idea of the 'Victorian parlour song' (or "drawing-room ballad," as I prefer) a term almost always used as if it denotes a clear-cut genre characterized by stereotyped musical and literary features.
Exemplars would be
"Just a song at twilight," -- by Molloy (1884) and
"Home, sweet sweet home" -- by Bishop/Payne, from the opera, Clari" (1823).
In fact, there is a remarkable VARIETY (even diversity) of musical forms and styles of song acceptable in the Victorian middle-class home.
Some of these, indeed, are firmly established well before Victoria comes to the throne in 1837, such as the 'refined' traditional air and the English (and even Italian) favourite "OPERATIC" air.
Though nothing now seems to immediately evoke an atmosphere considered more quintessentially Victorian than 'The Last Rose of Summer' (from a volume of Moore's Irish Melodies published in 1813) or 'Home, home, sweet sweet home" (from Bishop's English opera "Clari; or, The Maid of Milan" of 1823).
Religious non-conformists are brazenly eclectic in commandeering whatever musical features could be made to function in their interests and favoured a strong, tuneful idiom which also frequently finds its way into the parlour or drawing-room.
Later, the music of the blackface minstrel show and the 'respectable' type of music-hall song are added to the drawing-room repertoire.
So can we speak of a 'genre'?
The desire to categorize a particular portion of all this as 'Victorian parlour song' by reference to an arbitrary selection of musical and literary criteria creates a 'parlour song' consensus in its own way as misleading as the 'folk song' (or 'fakesong', as I prefer) consensus attacked by Dave Harker.
It is to avoid such categorization that Scott calls this book "The Singing Bourgeois" -- since no Aristocrat REALLY sang?
The 'parlour song' consensus, it should be stressed, is not something that is as systematically constructed by key mediators in the same manner as the 'folk song' (fakesong) consensus.
But it results rather from a sloppy use of terminology.
For example, using the term 'parlour song' sociologically but actually trying to define it _musicologically_.
There again, some writers use the term "drawing-room ballad" with the intention not of referring to the whole range of songs sung in the middle-class (or aristocratic) home (or stately home, in the latter case) but of pinpointing those songs aimed directly at the domestic market.
Yet, this use of "drawing-room ballad" is UNHELPFUL or misleading, because the real target of the sheet-music publication of almost all Victorian song is the middle-class home.
Even when some of the diverse ingredients of bourgeois song begin to solidify under the influence of the Ballad Concerts promoted by the music publisher Boosey (at St. James's Hall since 1867) it remains difficult to formulate an empirical definition of what constitutes the typical Boosey ballad.
So there.
Here is an attempt, not altogether felicitious, from "The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians".
"drawing-room ballad alla Boosey"
"The texts are sentimental verses about love, gardens, and birds".
The music is simple strophic settings marked by
(a) an easy melody
(b) a stereotyped accompaniment, and
(c) a maudlin harmonic progression.
One of the three 'typical' examples chosen to illustrate this, Sullivan's 'The Lost Chord', is not about love, gardens, or birds (for that matter). It is, rather, about a lost chord. (Metaphorically: death).
Neither is "The Lost Chord" a simple strophic setting ("Mary had a little lamb" is).
As for (a)-(b)-(c)
(a)
"The Lost Chord" is melodically "awkward" in parts rather than "easy".
(b) The piano accompaniment is unusual (rather than stereotyped) in having been contrived to suggest a church organ.
(c) whether the harmony of "The Lost Chord" is maudlin or not is a question which needs to be considered in relation to 'presentist' value judgements.
--------
It is evident that a 'parlour song' or 'drawing-room ballad' is more easily defined sociologically as a song designed or appropriated for bourgeois (never aristocratic) domestic consumption (even if the home is a stately home)
A QUESTION OF USE: against the pretentious use of 'ballad'.
In the nineteenth century the description
'parlour song'
is extremely rare, although
'drawing-room ballad'
is often encountered (and with increasing frequency after the establishment of Boosey's Ballad Concerts in 1867.
In the first half of the century, the description 'popular song' is very common.
Lke 'favourite' and 'celebrated' , "popular", as applie to 'song', is used by publishers to suggest widespread demand.
A guarantee of quality follows, because a song is popular in a commercial sense only by attracting sufficient numbers of musically literate bourgeois consumers.
Naturally, the bourgeoisie think the songs they enjoy are of unquestionable merit and take comfort in the knowledge that, if a song is described on its sheet music as 'popular', it automatically implies that it is regularly performed in other 'respectable' (stately) homes.
We choose to employ the term 'drawing-room ballad' rather than 'popular song' in order to avoid possible confusion about the class orientation of the 'genre'.
We must stress, however, that we use "drawing-room ballad", as a generic and not a specific term until we reach the 1870s.
From the 1870s on there is, indeed, a move towards a standardization of songs which are accorded this label.
We would like to argue that, used generically, 'drawing-room ballad' helps to locate a cohesive body of song of a class-aligned nature.
The tightly controlled, written-out structures of songs produced for the drawing room are singularly adaptive to the bourgeois INDIVIDUALIST ideology.
The performer implicit in these structures is an interpretative servant of the song-writer.
This is not to say that a bourgeois song cannot be appropriated by the working class, who have the possibility of constructing new meanings in the way they consume it.
Conversely, the bourgeoisie are able to appropriate working-class musical practices and through the effort of mediation assimilate oppositional elements.
Apart from the easy judgements that are made in categorizing bourgeois domestic song, our understanding of this music is hampered by the contempt now heaped upon it from some quarters.
The expression 'presentism' is coined to describe a critical vision which implies that our present values are objective rather than historically conditioned.
Informed critics of the nineteenth century are equally convinced of their objectivity in describing Restoration comedy as the result of an embarrassing lapse of artistic standards.
The status of an artistic genre is better regarded as 'whatever is valued by certain people in specific situations, according to particular criteria and in the light of given purposes.
The modernists musicologist's scorn for bourgeois domestic song arises from its failure to meet the criteria of the Western art music tradition, in which an assumption is made that art progresses under its own laws independently of the material basis of the society within which it is produced.
The movement of art is therefore interpreted as a succession of styles, each led and perfected by creative geniuses.
Modernist theory accepts with equanimity the absence for centuries of important female composition, and even that an entire country may be without any real music.
Before Smetana, for example, there had been no genuine Czech music.
From this perspective, which still so often sets the terms of the debate, a figure as important to British musical life in the nineteenth century as Sullivan can be dismissed in half a sentence, failing to illustrate a purely musical-historical movement.
An alternative theoretical framework exists, in which the nineteenth-century bourgeois song-writer is seen as inextricably bound to and providing a cultural response to the society of which he forms a part.
Song production can be located in terms of its function and use, its relationship to class dominance and hegemonic struggle.
The bourgeois popular song is the first product which shows how music is profitably incorporated into a system of capitalist enterprise.
It is in the production, promotion, and marketing of the sheet music to these songs (and the pianos to accompany them) that we witness the birth of the modern music industry.
For whatever apparent reason a song was originally written (say, for an "opera" -- Italian or English), it is possible for it to be tailored to the requirements of amateur music-making in the middle-class home.
Class is a problematic term when it comes to the English, and this warrants a few words of explanation.
Class is only discernible in a relationship.
When we use the term 'middle class' or 'bourgeoisie' we refer in the eighteenth century to
a) merchants
b) artisans, and
c) shopkeepers.
In the nineteenth century, we refer to the capital half of the capital/labour relationship.
It is important to remember that class is a process.
The middle class is constantly changing and adapting.
It can be argued that the term 'middle class' immediately hypostasizes this process.
The description 'bourgeoisie' is preferred by many writers on the Victorian period to avoid the seeming contradiction of a dominant class being given a label which carries a suggestion of a fixed hierarchical position BENEATH the aristocracy or landed gentry.
Along with coercion, a class manifests its supremacy by exercising "hegemony", a key political term which describes intellectual and moral leadership.
The dominant culture in a society is "hegemonic".
The dominant culture aims to win its position of ascendancy through consent rather than by force.
Hegemony is a process of struggle which often calls for compromise.
For example, in the later nineteenth century membership of a trade union was finally accorded respectability.
The state apparatus is invaluable in establishing hegemony.
The dominant culture is mediated through institutions such as schools, in, for instance, the choice of songs for teaching purposes.
It might be thought that the diversity of ideology found in bourgeois songs (drinking vs. temperance, belligerence vs. compassion) argues strongly AGAINST the theory of hegemony, though.
Gramsci, however, argues that bourgeois HEGEMONY necessitates an alliance of fractions, a 'historical bloc'.
It herefore follows that the dominant culture is not homogeneous but subject to (and able to tolerate) conflicting strands within the hegemonic alliance.
Since the 'Glorious Revolution' of 1688 the middle class holds a share of power.
But the middle class is not a hegemonic class until the nineteenth century, after a long period of struggle marked by important victories in 1832 (the passing of the Reform Bill) and 1846 (Repeal of the Corn Laws).
There should not, then, be any surprise to find the eighteenth-century middle class enjoying the satire in Gay's "The Beggar's Opera" directed at a government which was in part middle class.
The power bloc which allows stable class rule is only achieved through struggle between various contending classes and fractions.
Only one class within the alliance exercises hegemony.
But the dominant culture (although in itself hegemonic) contains evidence of the conflicts within that alliance.
Notice that the key Victorian term "respectable" has a hegemonic function.
The adjective "respectable" connotes adherence to a code of what is socially acceptable and thus seeks to impose a behavioural conformity which sanctions the existing social structures.
The terms 'polite' and 'wholesome' are used in a similar fashion, to lay down the correctness of certain social values.
We should explain what we mean by 'dominant culture', and clarify the standpoint from which we view the relationship of art to the society within which it is produced.
The ideas of the ruling class are in every epoch the ruling ideas, i.e. the class which is the ruling material force of society is at the same time its ruling intellectual force.
In feudal society, paying homage to one's lord seems natural, just as consumerism seems natural in a society based on generalized commodity production.
It is not the consciousness of men that determines their existence but, on the contrary, their social existence determines their consciousness.
Marx introduces the notion of "economic base" and "ideological superstructure" -- a model which gives rise to a type of Marxist theory now commonly referred to as 'vulgar Marxism', 'reflectionism', or economic determinism.
This asserts the primacy of the economic base and reduced the complex relationship between that and the world of ideas to one of rigid determinism.
The seductiveness of reflectionist thinking is illustrated by the argument that playing the piano was considered such an essential accomplishment for well-bred Victorian girls because the major commodities of the music industry were pianos and sheet music (and today musical literacy is no longer valued because records are a more important commodity than sheet music).
An argument like this, of course, begs many questions, including why playing the piano was more important for girls than boys.
Evidence that economic determinism was already gaining theoretical ground in the late nineteenth century is shown by the desire to emphasize that the economic element is not the sole determining factor.
Recent theorists have been at pains to stress the dialectic between social existence and social consciousness rather than fall back on the mechanical metaphor of "economic base" and "ideological superstructure".
The culturalists and structuralists of the 1970s, with their contending paradigms, are at least agreed in attributing relative autonomy to the artist -- albeit for different reasons.
Culturalists stress that social existence, including cultural experience, influences and conditions consciousness rather than determines consciousness, allowing an active role for human agency.
Structuralists underline the importance of differing pre-existing systems of signification present in each field of creativity.
If ideological signs determine consciousness, it is always with the understanding that those signs mean different things to different social groups.
Our own approach is oriented towards culturalism in so far as we seek to examine these songs in relation to the class outook of the Victorian bourgeoisie.
The concept of the hegemonic bloc we also find helpful in contributing to an understanding and explanation of the internal conflicts within the bourgeoisie (who ought not to be viewed as monolithic).
Overall we adopt what may be called the 'popular culture' perspective as opposed to the 'mass culture' perspective.
The mass culture perspective tends to focus on the depraving effects of the 'culture industry'.
On the other hand, the hallmark of the 'popular culture' perspective is that meaning is made in the consumption — here is a space for relative autonomy and hegemonic negotiation.
The 'popular culture' perspective does, of course, pose a challenge to the uncritical acceptance of'high culture'.
We should add, in concluding this section, that there is no easy one-to-one relationship between art and social history.
For example, it is possible to find melancholy songs in times of economic buoyancy (or when a war is going well) and optimistic or romantic songs in times of depression.
The historical specificity of our genre of song needs explaining.
We start in the eighteenth century in discussing the foundations of bourgeois domestic song styles not because there is any kind of absolute beginning there, but because the performance of the politically combative " Beggar's Opera" seems a more significant cultural moment than, say, the publication of Yonge's "Musica Transalpine" -- a collection illustrating the importance of bourgeois taste in the late sixteenth century.
We close the survey around the year 1898 when the drawing-room ballad of the Boosey type was wilting in the face of the challenge from Tin Pan Alley as the United States of America moved to dominate the commercial music industry.
That year, too, musical comedy from the United States was exciting interest after the sensational London premiere of Kerker's "The Belle of New York".
Furthermore, dissemination of music is soon to be transformed.
The pianola arrives in 1897 and the English Gramophone Company sets up business the following year.
We have tried to locate the roots of that distinctive character which lends a homogeneity to nineteenth-century bourgeois song-types.
There is some inevitable cramming in our attempt to condense within a single chapter everything in the eighteenth century which we thought relevant.
We examine the early amateur music market, and we follow this up by concentrating on the opportunity taken by women, who are so crucial to this market, to write songs themselves.
We consider the manner in which the ethnic cultures of Celts and Afro-Americans are subject to assimilation by the English and North American bourgeoisie (symptomatic of this was the creation of two new 'American' instruments, the five-string banjo and the 'concert D' uilleann pipes).
A few of these songs have a religious theme.
We deal chronologically with the range of sacred music which became available and discuss the emergence of the 'sacred song' as a branch of the drawing-room repertoire.
All these chapters are concerned mainly with pre-1870 developments.
After 1870, a period of rapid growth begins which sees the development of a more organized music industry.
So we return to the subject of the music market during these years and the changes being brought about by the increasing professionalization of music.
We try to demonstrate the extent of formula following during the post-1870 ballad boom.
For that purpose, it is necessary to include detailed analyses in order to show how our conclusions have been obtained.
A problem we feel we have not resolved is how to explain artistic distinction without romantic mystification.
We looks at bourgeois song in the context of the growth of English nationalism and the continuity/discontinuity debate concerning British imperialism.
We deal in brief with bourgeois song and hegemony.
We give an account of the dilemma facing ballad composers as a result of the challenge from the United States and the simultaneous feeling of exhaustion which had overtaken the British ballad.
In the main, given fair representation of song types and influential composers, our selection of songs for the purpose of analysis has been directly related to their degree of commercial success, in the belief that the producer/consumer relationship is clearest where the mutual rewards are apparently highest.
Nevertheless, failure is also important, since it helps to define the tolerances of the genre when pulled in the direction of either of the polar extremes of novelty or familiarity.
We discuss a failure like Adams and Weatherly's "The Light of the World" because it shows that the application of a familiar formula does not guarantee success, thus offering further confirmation of the relative autonomy of the consumer.
The contemporary relevance of a study of nineteenth-century bourgeois domestic song extends beyond the insight it provides on the workings of the commercial music industry and on the continuing resonances of this music which may be felt in twentieth-century gospel and country music.
To the nineteenth- century bourgeoisie it is never simply a question of how best to produce and consume a particular musical product, but how to put into practice the belief that music-making was of benefit to everyone's development as a human being.
Any future society which thinks practical musicianship to be life enhancing will have to address the same question.
There was a genuine, if ideologically motivated, attempt in the mid-nineteenth century to promote the musica practice, that some regard as having almost disappeared from high culture.
Of course, drawing-room ballads are NEVER *popular* in any truly democratic sense.
Victorian domestic music is class based and reinforce bourgeois ideology (particularly that of the family).
All the same, there is a search for a kind of music which permits maximum participation.
In recent times punk rock is seen as a determined though brief attempt to develop a proletarian democratic style derived from the 'garage band'.
Vastly different in almost every respect as the music of the Sex Pistols is from that of Stephen Foster, they each represent the ultimate simplicity and directness in their respective genres and thus helps to demonstrate the enormous potential for diversity of expression those qualities may contain.
REFERENCES
T. Eagleton, Literary Theory, (Oxford: Blackwell, 1983).
Musical reformers like Palestrina, Bach, Gluck, Beethoven, Berlioz and Liszt have shown the art its laws.' A. Einstein, Music in the Romantic Era (London, Dent: 1947).
A. Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks, ed. and trans. Q. Hoare and G. Nowell-Smith (London: Lawrence and Wishart: 1971)
D. Scott
--
Scott's is not the first book in the Open University Press's "Popular Music in Britain" series to challenge certain assumptions about a particular body of music.
At issue, here, is the myth constructed around the idea of the 'Victorian parlour song' (or "drawing-room ballad," as I prefer) a term almost always used as if it denotes a clear-cut genre characterized by stereotyped musical and literary features.
Exemplars would be
"Just a song at twilight," -- by Molloy (1884) and
"Home, sweet sweet home" -- by Bishop/Payne, from the opera, Clari" (1823).
In fact, there is a remarkable VARIETY (even diversity) of musical forms and styles of song acceptable in the Victorian middle-class home.
Some of these, indeed, are firmly established well before Victoria comes to the throne in 1837, such as the 'refined' traditional air and the English (and even Italian) favourite "OPERATIC" air.
Though nothing now seems to immediately evoke an atmosphere considered more quintessentially Victorian than 'The Last Rose of Summer' (from a volume of Moore's Irish Melodies published in 1813) or 'Home, home, sweet sweet home" (from Bishop's English opera "Clari; or, The Maid of Milan" of 1823).
Religious non-conformists are brazenly eclectic in commandeering whatever musical features could be made to function in their interests and favoured a strong, tuneful idiom which also frequently finds its way into the parlour or drawing-room.
Later, the music of the blackface minstrel show and the 'respectable' type of music-hall song are added to the drawing-room repertoire.
So can we speak of a 'genre'?
The desire to categorize a particular portion of all this as 'Victorian parlour song' by reference to an arbitrary selection of musical and literary criteria creates a 'parlour song' consensus in its own way as misleading as the 'folk song' (or 'fakesong', as I prefer) consensus attacked by Dave Harker.
It is to avoid such categorization that Scott calls this book "The Singing Bourgeois" -- since no Aristocrat REALLY sang?
The 'parlour song' consensus, it should be stressed, is not something that is as systematically constructed by key mediators in the same manner as the 'folk song' (fakesong) consensus.
But it results rather from a sloppy use of terminology.
For example, using the term 'parlour song' sociologically but actually trying to define it _musicologically_.
There again, some writers use the term "drawing-room ballad" with the intention not of referring to the whole range of songs sung in the middle-class (or aristocratic) home (or stately home, in the latter case) but of pinpointing those songs aimed directly at the domestic market.
Yet, this use of "drawing-room ballad" is UNHELPFUL or misleading, because the real target of the sheet-music publication of almost all Victorian song is the middle-class home.
Even when some of the diverse ingredients of bourgeois song begin to solidify under the influence of the Ballad Concerts promoted by the music publisher Boosey (at St. James's Hall since 1867) it remains difficult to formulate an empirical definition of what constitutes the typical Boosey ballad.
So there.
Here is an attempt, not altogether felicitious, from "The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians".
"drawing-room ballad alla Boosey"
"The texts are sentimental verses about love, gardens, and birds".
The music is simple strophic settings marked by
(a) an easy melody
(b) a stereotyped accompaniment, and
(c) a maudlin harmonic progression.
One of the three 'typical' examples chosen to illustrate this, Sullivan's 'The Lost Chord', is not about love, gardens, or birds (for that matter). It is, rather, about a lost chord. (Metaphorically: death).
Neither is "The Lost Chord" a simple strophic setting ("Mary had a little lamb" is).
As for (a)-(b)-(c)
(a)
"The Lost Chord" is melodically "awkward" in parts rather than "easy".
(b) The piano accompaniment is unusual (rather than stereotyped) in having been contrived to suggest a church organ.
(c) whether the harmony of "The Lost Chord" is maudlin or not is a question which needs to be considered in relation to 'presentist' value judgements.
--------
It is evident that a 'parlour song' or 'drawing-room ballad' is more easily defined sociologically as a song designed or appropriated for bourgeois (never aristocratic) domestic consumption (even if the home is a stately home)
A QUESTION OF USE: against the pretentious use of 'ballad'.
In the nineteenth century the description
'parlour song'
is extremely rare, although
'drawing-room ballad'
is often encountered (and with increasing frequency after the establishment of Boosey's Ballad Concerts in 1867.
In the first half of the century, the description 'popular song' is very common.
Lke 'favourite' and 'celebrated' , "popular", as applie to 'song', is used by publishers to suggest widespread demand.
A guarantee of quality follows, because a song is popular in a commercial sense only by attracting sufficient numbers of musically literate bourgeois consumers.
Naturally, the bourgeoisie think the songs they enjoy are of unquestionable merit and take comfort in the knowledge that, if a song is described on its sheet music as 'popular', it automatically implies that it is regularly performed in other 'respectable' (stately) homes.
We choose to employ the term 'drawing-room ballad' rather than 'popular song' in order to avoid possible confusion about the class orientation of the 'genre'.
We must stress, however, that we use "drawing-room ballad", as a generic and not a specific term until we reach the 1870s.
From the 1870s on there is, indeed, a move towards a standardization of songs which are accorded this label.
We would like to argue that, used generically, 'drawing-room ballad' helps to locate a cohesive body of song of a class-aligned nature.
The tightly controlled, written-out structures of songs produced for the drawing room are singularly adaptive to the bourgeois INDIVIDUALIST ideology.
The performer implicit in these structures is an interpretative servant of the song-writer.
This is not to say that a bourgeois song cannot be appropriated by the working class, who have the possibility of constructing new meanings in the way they consume it.
Conversely, the bourgeoisie are able to appropriate working-class musical practices and through the effort of mediation assimilate oppositional elements.
Apart from the easy judgements that are made in categorizing bourgeois domestic song, our understanding of this music is hampered by the contempt now heaped upon it from some quarters.
The expression 'presentism' is coined to describe a critical vision which implies that our present values are objective rather than historically conditioned.
Informed critics of the nineteenth century are equally convinced of their objectivity in describing Restoration comedy as the result of an embarrassing lapse of artistic standards.
The status of an artistic genre is better regarded as 'whatever is valued by certain people in specific situations, according to particular criteria and in the light of given purposes.
The modernists musicologist's scorn for bourgeois domestic song arises from its failure to meet the criteria of the Western art music tradition, in which an assumption is made that art progresses under its own laws independently of the material basis of the society within which it is produced.
The movement of art is therefore interpreted as a succession of styles, each led and perfected by creative geniuses.
Modernist theory accepts with equanimity the absence for centuries of important female composition, and even that an entire country may be without any real music.
Before Smetana, for example, there had been no genuine Czech music.
From this perspective, which still so often sets the terms of the debate, a figure as important to British musical life in the nineteenth century as Sullivan can be dismissed in half a sentence, failing to illustrate a purely musical-historical movement.
An alternative theoretical framework exists, in which the nineteenth-century bourgeois song-writer is seen as inextricably bound to and providing a cultural response to the society of which he forms a part.
Song production can be located in terms of its function and use, its relationship to class dominance and hegemonic struggle.
The bourgeois popular song is the first product which shows how music is profitably incorporated into a system of capitalist enterprise.
It is in the production, promotion, and marketing of the sheet music to these songs (and the pianos to accompany them) that we witness the birth of the modern music industry.
For whatever apparent reason a song was originally written (say, for an "opera" -- Italian or English), it is possible for it to be tailored to the requirements of amateur music-making in the middle-class home.
Class is a problematic term when it comes to the English, and this warrants a few words of explanation.
Class is only discernible in a relationship.
When we use the term 'middle class' or 'bourgeoisie' we refer in the eighteenth century to
a) merchants
b) artisans, and
c) shopkeepers.
In the nineteenth century, we refer to the capital half of the capital/labour relationship.
It is important to remember that class is a process.
The middle class is constantly changing and adapting.
It can be argued that the term 'middle class' immediately hypostasizes this process.
The description 'bourgeoisie' is preferred by many writers on the Victorian period to avoid the seeming contradiction of a dominant class being given a label which carries a suggestion of a fixed hierarchical position BENEATH the aristocracy or landed gentry.
Along with coercion, a class manifests its supremacy by exercising "hegemony", a key political term which describes intellectual and moral leadership.
The dominant culture in a society is "hegemonic".
The dominant culture aims to win its position of ascendancy through consent rather than by force.
Hegemony is a process of struggle which often calls for compromise.
For example, in the later nineteenth century membership of a trade union was finally accorded respectability.
The state apparatus is invaluable in establishing hegemony.
The dominant culture is mediated through institutions such as schools, in, for instance, the choice of songs for teaching purposes.
It might be thought that the diversity of ideology found in bourgeois songs (drinking vs. temperance, belligerence vs. compassion) argues strongly AGAINST the theory of hegemony, though.
Gramsci, however, argues that bourgeois HEGEMONY necessitates an alliance of fractions, a 'historical bloc'.
It herefore follows that the dominant culture is not homogeneous but subject to (and able to tolerate) conflicting strands within the hegemonic alliance.
Since the 'Glorious Revolution' of 1688 the middle class holds a share of power.
But the middle class is not a hegemonic class until the nineteenth century, after a long period of struggle marked by important victories in 1832 (the passing of the Reform Bill) and 1846 (Repeal of the Corn Laws).
There should not, then, be any surprise to find the eighteenth-century middle class enjoying the satire in Gay's "The Beggar's Opera" directed at a government which was in part middle class.
The power bloc which allows stable class rule is only achieved through struggle between various contending classes and fractions.
Only one class within the alliance exercises hegemony.
But the dominant culture (although in itself hegemonic) contains evidence of the conflicts within that alliance.
Notice that the key Victorian term "respectable" has a hegemonic function.
The adjective "respectable" connotes adherence to a code of what is socially acceptable and thus seeks to impose a behavioural conformity which sanctions the existing social structures.
The terms 'polite' and 'wholesome' are used in a similar fashion, to lay down the correctness of certain social values.
We should explain what we mean by 'dominant culture', and clarify the standpoint from which we view the relationship of art to the society within which it is produced.
The ideas of the ruling class are in every epoch the ruling ideas, i.e. the class which is the ruling material force of society is at the same time its ruling intellectual force.
In feudal society, paying homage to one's lord seems natural, just as consumerism seems natural in a society based on generalized commodity production.
It is not the consciousness of men that determines their existence but, on the contrary, their social existence determines their consciousness.
Marx introduces the notion of "economic base" and "ideological superstructure" -- a model which gives rise to a type of Marxist theory now commonly referred to as 'vulgar Marxism', 'reflectionism', or economic determinism.
This asserts the primacy of the economic base and reduced the complex relationship between that and the world of ideas to one of rigid determinism.
The seductiveness of reflectionist thinking is illustrated by the argument that playing the piano was considered such an essential accomplishment for well-bred Victorian girls because the major commodities of the music industry were pianos and sheet music (and today musical literacy is no longer valued because records are a more important commodity than sheet music).
An argument like this, of course, begs many questions, including why playing the piano was more important for girls than boys.
Evidence that economic determinism was already gaining theoretical ground in the late nineteenth century is shown by the desire to emphasize that the economic element is not the sole determining factor.
Recent theorists have been at pains to stress the dialectic between social existence and social consciousness rather than fall back on the mechanical metaphor of "economic base" and "ideological superstructure".
The culturalists and structuralists of the 1970s, with their contending paradigms, are at least agreed in attributing relative autonomy to the artist -- albeit for different reasons.
Culturalists stress that social existence, including cultural experience, influences and conditions consciousness rather than determines consciousness, allowing an active role for human agency.
Structuralists underline the importance of differing pre-existing systems of signification present in each field of creativity.
If ideological signs determine consciousness, it is always with the understanding that those signs mean different things to different social groups.
Our own approach is oriented towards culturalism in so far as we seek to examine these songs in relation to the class outook of the Victorian bourgeoisie.
The concept of the hegemonic bloc we also find helpful in contributing to an understanding and explanation of the internal conflicts within the bourgeoisie (who ought not to be viewed as monolithic).
Overall we adopt what may be called the 'popular culture' perspective as opposed to the 'mass culture' perspective.
The mass culture perspective tends to focus on the depraving effects of the 'culture industry'.
On the other hand, the hallmark of the 'popular culture' perspective is that meaning is made in the consumption — here is a space for relative autonomy and hegemonic negotiation.
The 'popular culture' perspective does, of course, pose a challenge to the uncritical acceptance of'high culture'.
We should add, in concluding this section, that there is no easy one-to-one relationship between art and social history.
For example, it is possible to find melancholy songs in times of economic buoyancy (or when a war is going well) and optimistic or romantic songs in times of depression.
The historical specificity of our genre of song needs explaining.
We start in the eighteenth century in discussing the foundations of bourgeois domestic song styles not because there is any kind of absolute beginning there, but because the performance of the politically combative " Beggar's Opera" seems a more significant cultural moment than, say, the publication of Yonge's "Musica Transalpine" -- a collection illustrating the importance of bourgeois taste in the late sixteenth century.
We close the survey around the year 1898 when the drawing-room ballad of the Boosey type was wilting in the face of the challenge from Tin Pan Alley as the United States of America moved to dominate the commercial music industry.
That year, too, musical comedy from the United States was exciting interest after the sensational London premiere of Kerker's "The Belle of New York".
Furthermore, dissemination of music is soon to be transformed.
The pianola arrives in 1897 and the English Gramophone Company sets up business the following year.
We have tried to locate the roots of that distinctive character which lends a homogeneity to nineteenth-century bourgeois song-types.
There is some inevitable cramming in our attempt to condense within a single chapter everything in the eighteenth century which we thought relevant.
We examine the early amateur music market, and we follow this up by concentrating on the opportunity taken by women, who are so crucial to this market, to write songs themselves.
We consider the manner in which the ethnic cultures of Celts and Afro-Americans are subject to assimilation by the English and North American bourgeoisie (symptomatic of this was the creation of two new 'American' instruments, the five-string banjo and the 'concert D' uilleann pipes).
A few of these songs have a religious theme.
We deal chronologically with the range of sacred music which became available and discuss the emergence of the 'sacred song' as a branch of the drawing-room repertoire.
All these chapters are concerned mainly with pre-1870 developments.
After 1870, a period of rapid growth begins which sees the development of a more organized music industry.
So we return to the subject of the music market during these years and the changes being brought about by the increasing professionalization of music.
We try to demonstrate the extent of formula following during the post-1870 ballad boom.
For that purpose, it is necessary to include detailed analyses in order to show how our conclusions have been obtained.
A problem we feel we have not resolved is how to explain artistic distinction without romantic mystification.
We looks at bourgeois song in the context of the growth of English nationalism and the continuity/discontinuity debate concerning British imperialism.
We deal in brief with bourgeois song and hegemony.
We give an account of the dilemma facing ballad composers as a result of the challenge from the United States and the simultaneous feeling of exhaustion which had overtaken the British ballad.
In the main, given fair representation of song types and influential composers, our selection of songs for the purpose of analysis has been directly related to their degree of commercial success, in the belief that the producer/consumer relationship is clearest where the mutual rewards are apparently highest.
Nevertheless, failure is also important, since it helps to define the tolerances of the genre when pulled in the direction of either of the polar extremes of novelty or familiarity.
We discuss a failure like Adams and Weatherly's "The Light of the World" because it shows that the application of a familiar formula does not guarantee success, thus offering further confirmation of the relative autonomy of the consumer.
The contemporary relevance of a study of nineteenth-century bourgeois domestic song extends beyond the insight it provides on the workings of the commercial music industry and on the continuing resonances of this music which may be felt in twentieth-century gospel and country music.
To the nineteenth- century bourgeoisie it is never simply a question of how best to produce and consume a particular musical product, but how to put into practice the belief that music-making was of benefit to everyone's development as a human being.
Any future society which thinks practical musicianship to be life enhancing will have to address the same question.
There was a genuine, if ideologically motivated, attempt in the mid-nineteenth century to promote the musica practice, that some regard as having almost disappeared from high culture.
Of course, drawing-room ballads are NEVER *popular* in any truly democratic sense.
Victorian domestic music is class based and reinforce bourgeois ideology (particularly that of the family).
All the same, there is a search for a kind of music which permits maximum participation.
In recent times punk rock is seen as a determined though brief attempt to develop a proletarian democratic style derived from the 'garage band'.
Vastly different in almost every respect as the music of the Sex Pistols is from that of Stephen Foster, they each represent the ultimate simplicity and directness in their respective genres and thus helps to demonstrate the enormous potential for diversity of expression those qualities may contain.
REFERENCES
Harker 1985: 198-210. -- A. Lamb, 'Popular music in Sadie 15 (1980).
For a short historical account of the several uses of the word
'popular', including its shift in sense to mean 'well-liked' in the nineteenth
century, see R. Williams, Keywords, (London: Fontana, 1976) rev. and expanded
edn 1983.
T. Eagleton, Literary Theory, (Oxford: Blackwell, 1983).
Musical reformers like Palestrina, Bach, Gluck, Beethoven, Berlioz and Liszt have shown the art its laws.' A. Einstein, Music in the Romantic Era (London, Dent: 1947).
R. M. Longyear, Nineteenth Century Romanticism in Music (London:
Prentice Hall: 1969).
A. Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks, ed. and trans. Q. Hoare and G. Nowell-Smith (London: Lawrence and Wishart: 1971)
K. Marx and F. Engels The German Ideology (Moscow: Progress Publishers:
1964).
S. K. Padover, (ed.) The Essential Marx (New York: Mentor Books: 1979).
Letter to J. Bloch, 21 September 1890, quoted in R. Williams, Culture
and Society (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1963).
R. Barthes, 'Musica Practica' in Image-Music-Text, ed. S. Heath,
(Glasgow: Fontana, 1977).
For a full-length study of British punk rock, see D. Laing, One Chord
Wonders (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1985).
Parlour Songs -- "Introduction to 2nd Edition" (Scott)
Speranza
D. Scott
Scott's book originally appears as part of the series "Popular Music in Britain" published by the Open University Press.
In revising the work for republication, Scott confronts two problems.
The first is that the work is cited a fair number of times in the past ten years.
Moreover, Scott's essay is adopted as a key text for the course "Victorian Popular Music", one of the modules of the Open University's MA in Humanities.
It was, therefore, a matter of concern that the pagination of the original be maintained.
Hence, for his second edition Scott chooses to to add a completely fresh chapter rather than to expand on the ten existing chapters.
Scott also provides an extensive bibliography which benefits other researchers of nineteenth-century British and American popular song.
Scott appends references to recent research in a new section at the end of the notes to chapters.
Scott's second problem relates to the period in which the book is written (the 1980s), and the stage that cultural theory reaches during that decade.
This is a time when Cultural Studies, Literary Theory, and the New Art History are creating turmoil in academia.
Initially, the new cultural theorizing taking place in the UK is heavily indebted to the work done in the 1970s at
The Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies,
University of Birmingham
- which, in turn, relied upon the ground-breaking work of Raymond Williams and E. P. Thompson.
Then, the influence of continental thinkers increases and, while some are accommodated easily enough (the Frankfurt School), others (for example, Barthes and Kristeva) cause battle lines to be drawn up between two contending camps.
Culturalists on one side and structuralists on the other.
Structuralism gives way rapidly to post-Structuralism but struggles harder and longer against the claims of culturalism.
Now, the whole point of this over-general history lesson is to point out that Scott's book bears some of the scars of this cultural theoretical warfare.
Within three years of its publication, Scott finds himself drawn firmly into the Post-Structuralist camp.
The deciding factor, for Scott, is his difficulty in accounting for some sort of inner expressive essence when he embarks upon further research into questions of
(a) sexuality
(b) gender, and
(c) ethnicity in
the Victorian drawing-room ballad. (Why so few ballads of homoerotic social content?)
If he had written his book in the 1990s it would have turned out rather differently from the product before us
In returning to the theoretical framework of this book, Scott adds a few words designed to defend it against a mis-reading made by some of his critics.
While Soctt is somewhat mono-lithic in his characterization of the Victorian bourgeoisie, he is well aware of the pit-falls of mapping high- and low-status music onto high- and low-status consumers in a simplistic manner.
Such was certainly never his intention.
We all know la-di-dah people who love the simplest unsophisticated tune, and "low-class" (as SHE would call them) people who enjoy a symphony.
Scott readily acknowledges that a middle-class factory owner could enjoy a black-face minstrel song, and a factory worker could enjoy singing in Handel's "Messiah" or even playing Mendelssohn's music as a member of a brass band.
There is no relation between musical taste and social class, and a member of the working-class could well think of adapting a tune he heard at the Royal Italian Opera (if he gets a ticket) in his drawing-room (if his has one)
There is also a strong argument to be made for the effectiveness of different styles in articulating distinct class interests. In this women feature large, since, as Trudgill notes in his essays in dialect, they are more class-conscious than the opposite sex (the male sex).
Furthermore, the field of the popular that opens up in the nineteenth century is one in which different classes and class fractions fight over silly questions of intellectual and moral leadership or what we prefer to term hegemony. (The word has an odd etymology),
This struggle concerns matters of cultural status and legitimation, and popular culture functions frequently as an area of compromise over values, allowing the working class to adopt evasive or resistant strategies.
In other words, popular song can and, Scott argues, does function as a site for the contested meanings of social experience. (Try to sing "Waiting in the church" while waiting in the church).
Another matter that raised critical hackles in some quarters was the Marxist perspective Scott adopted.
Scott continues to argue, however, that to begin to understand matters relating to music and class in the nineteenth century, it is important to know how ideas of class were being re-formulated during that epoch, when a new perception grew of classes as socio-economic groupings with the capacity to effect social change.
From this perspective, some groups are regarded as left over from a previous mode of production (for example, the aristocracy and peasantry were perceived as residual feudal elements -- tell that to the Prince of Wales and his two sons).
Others are seen to represent a modern clash of class interests: for example, capitalists and the working class.
Ideas of class struggle and class consciousness developed in the nineteenth century and their relationship to song has to be duly considered.
The crucial determinants of class position in economic terms are:
First, whether or not one has ownership of the means of production.
Second, whether one had the ability to purchase labour power or needed to sell one's own.
This still remains the most convincing analysis of the class divisions (described in terms of working class, middle class and upper class) that arise during the time of the Industrial Revolution in England.
It is important to note, however, that the new conceptualization of class sees social position as something that is, at least partially, attained by anyone.
The former ideas, based on notions of hierarchy and rank, were linked to a belief that these were determined at birth: once a commoner always a commoner. (vide "Blue Blood" in Gilbert & Sullivan, "Iolanthe, or the peer and the peri").
It is clear from the above that we remain unrepentant and, thus, he foregoes asking the reader to pity the lot of someone who, in a reworking of Strephon's sorry condition, is a Marxist down to the waist but finds his legs are fanatical about Gilbert and Sullivan.
There again, I like to think that had the great castigator of capitalism lived a little longer he would have found much to enjoy in "Utopia Limited", an opera that choses the unlikely subject of political economy as the target of its satire.
D. Scott
Scott's book originally appears as part of the series "Popular Music in Britain" published by the Open University Press.
In revising the work for republication, Scott confronts two problems.
The first is that the work is cited a fair number of times in the past ten years.
Moreover, Scott's essay is adopted as a key text for the course "Victorian Popular Music", one of the modules of the Open University's MA in Humanities.
It was, therefore, a matter of concern that the pagination of the original be maintained.
Hence, for his second edition Scott chooses to to add a completely fresh chapter rather than to expand on the ten existing chapters.
Scott also provides an extensive bibliography which benefits other researchers of nineteenth-century British and American popular song.
Scott appends references to recent research in a new section at the end of the notes to chapters.
Scott's second problem relates to the period in which the book is written (the 1980s), and the stage that cultural theory reaches during that decade.
This is a time when Cultural Studies, Literary Theory, and the New Art History are creating turmoil in academia.
Initially, the new cultural theorizing taking place in the UK is heavily indebted to the work done in the 1970s at
The Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies,
University of Birmingham
- which, in turn, relied upon the ground-breaking work of Raymond Williams and E. P. Thompson.
Then, the influence of continental thinkers increases and, while some are accommodated easily enough (the Frankfurt School), others (for example, Barthes and Kristeva) cause battle lines to be drawn up between two contending camps.
Culturalists on one side and structuralists on the other.
Structuralism gives way rapidly to post-Structuralism but struggles harder and longer against the claims of culturalism.
Now, the whole point of this over-general history lesson is to point out that Scott's book bears some of the scars of this cultural theoretical warfare.
Within three years of its publication, Scott finds himself drawn firmly into the Post-Structuralist camp.
The deciding factor, for Scott, is his difficulty in accounting for some sort of inner expressive essence when he embarks upon further research into questions of
(a) sexuality
(b) gender, and
(c) ethnicity in
the Victorian drawing-room ballad. (Why so few ballads of homoerotic social content?)
If he had written his book in the 1990s it would have turned out rather differently from the product before us
In returning to the theoretical framework of this book, Scott adds a few words designed to defend it against a mis-reading made by some of his critics.
While Soctt is somewhat mono-lithic in his characterization of the Victorian bourgeoisie, he is well aware of the pit-falls of mapping high- and low-status music onto high- and low-status consumers in a simplistic manner.
Such was certainly never his intention.
We all know la-di-dah people who love the simplest unsophisticated tune, and "low-class" (as SHE would call them) people who enjoy a symphony.
Scott readily acknowledges that a middle-class factory owner could enjoy a black-face minstrel song, and a factory worker could enjoy singing in Handel's "Messiah" or even playing Mendelssohn's music as a member of a brass band.
There is no relation between musical taste and social class, and a member of the working-class could well think of adapting a tune he heard at the Royal Italian Opera (if he gets a ticket) in his drawing-room (if his has one)
There is also a strong argument to be made for the effectiveness of different styles in articulating distinct class interests. In this women feature large, since, as Trudgill notes in his essays in dialect, they are more class-conscious than the opposite sex (the male sex).
Furthermore, the field of the popular that opens up in the nineteenth century is one in which different classes and class fractions fight over silly questions of intellectual and moral leadership or what we prefer to term hegemony. (The word has an odd etymology),
This struggle concerns matters of cultural status and legitimation, and popular culture functions frequently as an area of compromise over values, allowing the working class to adopt evasive or resistant strategies.
In other words, popular song can and, Scott argues, does function as a site for the contested meanings of social experience. (Try to sing "Waiting in the church" while waiting in the church).
Another matter that raised critical hackles in some quarters was the Marxist perspective Scott adopted.
Scott continues to argue, however, that to begin to understand matters relating to music and class in the nineteenth century, it is important to know how ideas of class were being re-formulated during that epoch, when a new perception grew of classes as socio-economic groupings with the capacity to effect social change.
From this perspective, some groups are regarded as left over from a previous mode of production (for example, the aristocracy and peasantry were perceived as residual feudal elements -- tell that to the Prince of Wales and his two sons).
Others are seen to represent a modern clash of class interests: for example, capitalists and the working class.
Ideas of class struggle and class consciousness developed in the nineteenth century and their relationship to song has to be duly considered.
The crucial determinants of class position in economic terms are:
First, whether or not one has ownership of the means of production.
Second, whether one had the ability to purchase labour power or needed to sell one's own.
This still remains the most convincing analysis of the class divisions (described in terms of working class, middle class and upper class) that arise during the time of the Industrial Revolution in England.
It is important to note, however, that the new conceptualization of class sees social position as something that is, at least partially, attained by anyone.
The former ideas, based on notions of hierarchy and rank, were linked to a belief that these were determined at birth: once a commoner always a commoner. (vide "Blue Blood" in Gilbert & Sullivan, "Iolanthe, or the peer and the peri").
It is clear from the above that we remain unrepentant and, thus, he foregoes asking the reader to pity the lot of someone who, in a reworking of Strephon's sorry condition, is a Marxist down to the waist but finds his legs are fanatical about Gilbert and Sullivan.
There again, I like to think that had the great castigator of capitalism lived a little longer he would have found much to enjoy in "Utopia Limited", an opera that choses the unlikely subject of political economy as the target of its satire.
Parlour Songs -- CONTENTS to Scott: "Songs of the Victorian Drawing Room and Parlour" (Aldershot: Ashgate)
Speranza
D. B. Scott
An analytic consideration to the contents of
Scott's essay: "The Singing Bourgeois: songs of the Victorian drawing room and parlour.
Aldershot, Hants, Ashgate, 2001.
D. B. Scott,
--
Acknowledgements: to all those who contributed stuff.
--
Introduction to the First Edition: the misnomer "drawing-room ballad" to be defined SOCIOLOGICALLY, rather than (never) MUSICOLOGICALLY.
--
Introduction to the Second Edition: the culturalistists. Problems with sexuality, gender, and ethnicity in the themes of the drawing-room ballads.
--
1.
The "foundations" ff the Drawing-Room "Genre" (if ever there was one). How to define a ballad SOCIOLOGICALLY (and never musically)
Introduction
The Italian and the English "Opera" -- the idea that the landed gentry favoured Italian language opera (to keep the riff raff out of sight).
The cultivation of refined 'folk' airs (folksong, fakesong) -- the idea that a girl may enjoy playing this in the piano. Arcadian settings totally unrelated to their historical industrial experiences.
The respectable entertainer -- Moore, Didbin, Brahman -- the way they created songs in very PRE-VICTORIAN times that will become staples during 1837-1900.
Access to music -- pleasure gardens, concerts, and yes, getting that paino for the parlour.
The Growth of the Market for Domestic Music -- the bourgeoise house (or stately home). Dad pays for the sheet music, Mama decides the subject matter, girls plays it. Brother or fiance may join in in the singing (they were menant for TENOR).
The Rise of the Woman Ballad Composer -- one of the few things they could do while attending gardens, social functions, and easy life in general. While males liked to hunt, fish, and shoot.
Images of Women in Drawing-Room Ballads: in general nice. Prostitutes featuring very minimally. The singer was supposed to enact that character and who wants to enact a prostitute unless you are one?
Cultural Assimilation: the English lack traditions (cfr. Moris dancing). They need exotic elements as Socts, Welsh, Irish, Black minstrel, etc.
African-Americans -- Minstrel Shows -- thy are lively and make for a nice entertaining soiree at the darwing room.
Celts --
Scots
Irish
Welsh
They provide colour to the otherwise too respectable "English" airs from the Home Counties and beyound.
Sacred Songs -- these are NON Roman Catholic, so the religious message is NOT TO be taken seriously. It just meant that love songs were a no-no, because the darwing-room is no the place to flirt. Rather we talk and sing of Jesus.
Hymns and Sacred Solos -- This were the things to play and sing on Sundays after returning from the parish. The tunes are simple and nice and they have nice choruses where other members of the family or guest can join.
Gospel Song. The Exotic American influence helps. The fact that they are NOT Roman Catholic is a big bonus.
The Negro Spiritual, where negro is used metaphorically since no girl was a negro, literally.
Roman Catholicism -- minimal -- reduced to some eccentricity by some Italian maestro (recall that Queen Victoria's teaching lesson was a "dago": Tosti.
Victorian songs of Christmas and Easter: the Christian calendar. Christina Rossetti, In the mid bleak winter.
Promoters, Publishers, and Professional Performers. Importat int that order: Boosey, Chappell, and perofrmers. NOT like the pretentious Italians who couldn't perform them because their Italian sounds were cosidered to contryfied for the subtlety of the English language well sung. Antoinette Sterling and Clara Butt in the female category: Sims Reeves and Santley and tenor Edward Lloyd in the male cateory. They provide the girl and his guest a model to emulate. The girl would have first hand acquaintnce with the balladeer during the Boosey Ballad Concert, once a week. And this would shape her songbook: not of 'evergreens' but of HITS OF THE SEASON (thus no nead to wrap the compilations into a sondbook that would soon date.
A Best-selling Formula -- as ther wasn't. Sullivan did not have one. Nothing compare his "Lord Chord." Cowel did not have one. Nothin compares his "Better land". Molly did not have one: Nothing comare his "Just a song at twiglith". Maybrick did not have one. Nothing compare his "Last nigt as I lay sleeing. Hulla's Three Little Fishers, and other case studies also go beyond a formula. ON THE OTHER HAND, THE AMERICANS (notably Tin Pan Alley) loved and can't do witout a formula: stopich with memorable chorus, ad two verses only.
English Nationalism and British Imperialism. The need to create a "National Song book" to be sung in the pink spots of the Empire: Tommy Atkins, "Land of Hope and Glory", "Soldiers of the Queen". It's nothing Englishness about it. It's merely MILITARISTIC.
Hegemony. The lower-class will adapt them, regardless.
Continuity and Change. The stiff upper class (Victorian) gives way to feer sentimentality in the Edwardian ballad proper ("Somehere a voice is calling," "I hear you calling me", "Pale hands I love").
Music and Social Class: the lower class will parody the higher class songs notably the Tommies durig the Great War. "Little Great Home in The West" "I've a little wet home in the trench".
Glossary of Musical Terms Used in the Text: mainly from Italian belcanto. Excpet Antoinette Sterling, who was American, the way for a British balladeer to excell is in Italian belcanto, without the need to indulge the boring dry recitativi and stick with the memorable melody the guest of the drawing-room soiree can join in.
Select Bibliography
D. B. Scott
An analytic consideration to the contents of
Scott's essay: "The Singing Bourgeois: songs of the Victorian drawing room and parlour.
Aldershot, Hants, Ashgate, 2001.
D. B. Scott,
--
Acknowledgements: to all those who contributed stuff.
--
Introduction to the First Edition: the misnomer "drawing-room ballad" to be defined SOCIOLOGICALLY, rather than (never) MUSICOLOGICALLY.
--
Introduction to the Second Edition: the culturalistists. Problems with sexuality, gender, and ethnicity in the themes of the drawing-room ballads.
--
1.
The "foundations" ff the Drawing-Room "Genre" (if ever there was one). How to define a ballad SOCIOLOGICALLY (and never musically)
Introduction
The Italian and the English "Opera" -- the idea that the landed gentry favoured Italian language opera (to keep the riff raff out of sight).
The cultivation of refined 'folk' airs (folksong, fakesong) -- the idea that a girl may enjoy playing this in the piano. Arcadian settings totally unrelated to their historical industrial experiences.
The respectable entertainer -- Moore, Didbin, Brahman -- the way they created songs in very PRE-VICTORIAN times that will become staples during 1837-1900.
Access to music -- pleasure gardens, concerts, and yes, getting that paino for the parlour.
The Growth of the Market for Domestic Music -- the bourgeoise house (or stately home). Dad pays for the sheet music, Mama decides the subject matter, girls plays it. Brother or fiance may join in in the singing (they were menant for TENOR).
The Rise of the Woman Ballad Composer -- one of the few things they could do while attending gardens, social functions, and easy life in general. While males liked to hunt, fish, and shoot.
Images of Women in Drawing-Room Ballads: in general nice. Prostitutes featuring very minimally. The singer was supposed to enact that character and who wants to enact a prostitute unless you are one?
Cultural Assimilation: the English lack traditions (cfr. Moris dancing). They need exotic elements as Socts, Welsh, Irish, Black minstrel, etc.
African-Americans -- Minstrel Shows -- thy are lively and make for a nice entertaining soiree at the darwing room.
Celts --
Scots
Irish
Welsh
They provide colour to the otherwise too respectable "English" airs from the Home Counties and beyound.
Sacred Songs -- these are NON Roman Catholic, so the religious message is NOT TO be taken seriously. It just meant that love songs were a no-no, because the darwing-room is no the place to flirt. Rather we talk and sing of Jesus.
Hymns and Sacred Solos -- This were the things to play and sing on Sundays after returning from the parish. The tunes are simple and nice and they have nice choruses where other members of the family or guest can join.
Gospel Song. The Exotic American influence helps. The fact that they are NOT Roman Catholic is a big bonus.
The Negro Spiritual, where negro is used metaphorically since no girl was a negro, literally.
Roman Catholicism -- minimal -- reduced to some eccentricity by some Italian maestro (recall that Queen Victoria's teaching lesson was a "dago": Tosti.
Victorian songs of Christmas and Easter: the Christian calendar. Christina Rossetti, In the mid bleak winter.
Promoters, Publishers, and Professional Performers. Importat int that order: Boosey, Chappell, and perofrmers. NOT like the pretentious Italians who couldn't perform them because their Italian sounds were cosidered to contryfied for the subtlety of the English language well sung. Antoinette Sterling and Clara Butt in the female category: Sims Reeves and Santley and tenor Edward Lloyd in the male cateory. They provide the girl and his guest a model to emulate. The girl would have first hand acquaintnce with the balladeer during the Boosey Ballad Concert, once a week. And this would shape her songbook: not of 'evergreens' but of HITS OF THE SEASON (thus no nead to wrap the compilations into a sondbook that would soon date.
A Best-selling Formula -- as ther wasn't. Sullivan did not have one. Nothing compare his "Lord Chord." Cowel did not have one. Nothin compares his "Better land". Molly did not have one: Nothing comare his "Just a song at twiglith". Maybrick did not have one. Nothing compare his "Last nigt as I lay sleeing. Hulla's Three Little Fishers, and other case studies also go beyond a formula. ON THE OTHER HAND, THE AMERICANS (notably Tin Pan Alley) loved and can't do witout a formula: stopich with memorable chorus, ad two verses only.
English Nationalism and British Imperialism. The need to create a "National Song book" to be sung in the pink spots of the Empire: Tommy Atkins, "Land of Hope and Glory", "Soldiers of the Queen". It's nothing Englishness about it. It's merely MILITARISTIC.
Hegemony. The lower-class will adapt them, regardless.
Continuity and Change. The stiff upper class (Victorian) gives way to feer sentimentality in the Edwardian ballad proper ("Somehere a voice is calling," "I hear you calling me", "Pale hands I love").
Music and Social Class: the lower class will parody the higher class songs notably the Tommies durig the Great War. "Little Great Home in The West" "I've a little wet home in the trench".
Glossary of Musical Terms Used in the Text: mainly from Italian belcanto. Excpet Antoinette Sterling, who was American, the way for a British balladeer to excell is in Italian belcanto, without the need to indulge the boring dry recitativi and stick with the memorable melody the guest of the drawing-room soiree can join in.
Select Bibliography
Parlour Songs -- REFERENCES to Scott's essay, "The Singing Bourgeois: Songs of the Victorian drawing room and parlour (Aldershot, Hants.: Ashgate)
Speranza
Acland, Alice.
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.
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Chappell, William.
"Popular Music of the Olden Time" -------------KEYWORD: CHAPPELL BALLAD
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Epstein, Dena J.
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"Black Folk Music to the Civil War" ------------ KEYWORD: BLACK MUSIC
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"Scotland in Music" ---------------------------- KEYWORD: SCOTCH MUSIC
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"The Story of the Mikado" ----------------- KEYWORD: SULLIVAN
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McGuirk, Carol (ed.).
Critical Essays on Burns. New York: Hall, 1998. ---- KEYWORD: AULD LANG SYNE
McVeigh, Simon.
"Concert Life in London from Mozart to Haydn"
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
Mellor, Geoffrey J.
"The Northern Music Hall"
A Century of Popular Entertainment. Newcastle upon Tyne: Graham, 1970.
Meyer, Leonard B.
"Style and Music"
"Theory, History, and Ideology."
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.
Middleton, Richard.
"Popular Music of the Lower Classes'"
in Temperley, The Romantic Age (1988)
Nalbach, Daniel.
"The King's Theatre" ------- KEYWORD: "ITALIAN OPERA HOUSE, HAYMARKET".
1704-1867. London: Society for Theatre Research, 1972.
Nathan, Hans.
"Dan Emmett & the Rise of Early Negro Minstrelsy"
2nd edn. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1977; orig. pub. 1962.
Nettel, Reginald.
"Music in the Five Towns"
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Nettel, Reginald.
"The Orchestra in England"
A Social History. London:
Cape, 1956; orig. pub. 1946.
Nettel, Reginald.
"A Social History of Traditional Song"
London: Phoenix House, 1969; orig. pub. as
"Sing a Song of England"
1954.
Nettel, Reginald.
"Seven Centuries of Popular Song"
"A Social History of Urban Ditties"
London: Phoenix House, 1956.
Newsome, Roy.
"Brass Roots"
"A Hundred Tears of Brass Bands and Their Music"
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Newsome, Roy.
"The 19th Century Brass Band in Northern England"
PhD thesis, University of Salford, 1999.
Palmer, Roy (ed.).
"A Touch on the Times"
Songs of Social Change
1770-1914. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1974.
Palmer, Roy.
"A Ballad History of England"
London: Batsford, 1979.
Palmer, Roy.
"The Sound of History"
Songs and Social Comment.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988.
Parkinson,J. A.
"Victorian Music Publishers"
Michigan: Harmonic Park Press, 1990.
Pearce, Charles E.
Tenor Sims Reeves. --------------------- KEYWORD: SIMS REEVES, TENOR.
London: Stanley Paul, 1924.
Pearsall, Ronald.
Victorian Sheet Music Covers.
Newton Abbot: David and Charles, 1972.
Pearsall, Ronald.
"Victorian Popular Music"
Newton Abbot: David and Charles, 1973.
Pendle, Karin.
Women and Music: A History.
Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991.
Pickering, Michael.
"White Skin, Black Masks"
in Bratton, Music Hall: Performance and Style (1986). 70-91.
Pike, G. D.
"The Jubilee Singers and Their Campaign for Twenty Thousand Dollars"
London: Hodder and Stoughton, orig. pub. Boston, USA: Lee and Shepard, 1874.
Pirie, Peter J.
"The English Musical Renaissance" -- not the Italian one!
London: Gollancz, 1979.
Poole, Robert.
"Popular Leisure & the Music Hall in Nineteenth-Century Bolton"
Lancaster: University of Lancaster, 1982.
Pound, Reginald.
"Sir Henry Wood"
London: Cassell, 1969.
Preston, Katherine K.
"Music for Hire"
"A Study of Professional Musicians in Washington"
1877-1900. Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press, 1991.
Rainbow, B.
"Land Without Music"
Music Education in England 1800-1860 and its Continental Antecedents.
London: Novello, 1967.
Raynor, Henry.
"Music and Society"
Since 1815. London: Barrie and Jenkins, 1976.
Reid, Charles.
"The Music Monster"
A Biography of James William Davison, Music Critic of 'The Times' of London, 1846-78, with Excerpts from His Critical Writings. London: Quartet Books, 1984.
Rice, Charles.
"Tavern Singing in Early Victorian" ----- KEYWORD: PUB SONG.
London: The Diaries of Charles Rice for 1840 and 1850. Laurence Senelick (ed.), London: Society for Theatre Research, 1997.
Rigby, Charles.
"Sir Charles Halle"
Manchester: Dolphin Press, 1952.
Ritchie, James Ewing.
"The Night Side of London"
London: Tinsley, 1869; enlarged edn, orig. pub. William Tweedie, 1857.
Ritter, Fanny R.
"Music, and Woman as a Musician"
The Victoria Magazine (1877)
Rosenthal, Harold.
"Two Centuries of Opera at Covent Garden" -- including the Royal Italian Opera -- London: Putnam, 1958.
Russell, Dave.
"Popular Music in England"
1840-1914:
A Social History. 2nd edn. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1997; orig. pub. 1987.
Russell, Henry.
"Cheer, Boys, Cheer!" -------- KEYWORD: HENRY RUSSELL, A LIFE ON THE OCEAN WAVE.
London: John Macqueen, 1895.
Rust, Frances.
"Dance in Society"
"An Analysis of the Relationship Between the Social Dance & Society in England from the Middle Ages to the Present Day."
London: Routledge, 1998; orig. pub. 1969.
Rutland, Harold.
"The Trinity College of Music"
The First Hundred Years. London: Trinity College of Music, 1972.
Same, Michael.
"Music and Culture in America"
1861-1918. Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press, 1998.
Sanjek, Russell.
"American Popular Music and Its Business"
vol. 2: From 1790 to 1909, New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.
Schmitz, Oskar, A. H., and Th.
"Without Music"
trans. H. Herzl, London: Jarrolds, 1926; orig. pub. as
"Das Land ohne Musik"
Englische Gesellschqftsprobleme. Munich: Georg Miiller Verlag, c. 1905.
Scholes, Percy A.
"The Mirror of Music"
1844-1944:
A Century of Musical Life in Britain as Reflected in the Pages of the 'Musical Times'. 9,
2 vols, London: Novello and Oxford University Press, 1947.
Scott, Derek B.
"Sexuality in Musical Style from Monteverdi to Mae West"
in Simon Miller (ed.),
The Last Post: Music after Modernism.
Manchester: Manchester University Press: 1993; 132-49.
Scott, Derek B.
"The Sexual Politics of Victorian Musical Aesthetics"
Journal of the Royal Musical Association (1994)
Scott, Derek B. (ed.). Music, Culture, and &;. v:
A Reader. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
Segrave, Kerry.
"Payola in the Music Industry"
A History, 1880-1991. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1994.
Senelick, Laurence.
"Politics as Entertainment"
"Victorian Music-Hall Songs"
Victorian Studies (1975)
Shaw, George Bernard.
"Shaw's Music"
Dan H. Laurence (ed.),
London: The Bodley Head, 1981.
Shepherd, John.
"Tin Pan Alley"
London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1982.
Simon, Herbert.
"Songs and Words"
"A History of the Curwen Press"
London: Alien and Unwin, 1973.
Simpson, Harold.
"A Century of Ballads"
1810-1910"
London: Mills and Boon, 1910.
Smith, Geoffrey.
"The Savoy Operas"
"A New Guide to Gilbert and Sullivan" ------ KEYWORD: SULLIVAN
London: Hale, 1983.
Solie, Ruth A. (ed.)
"Music in Its Social Contexts"
special edn of 19th Century Music (1992).
Southern, Eileen.
"The Music of Black Americans"
A History
New York: Norton, 1997; 3rd edn, orig.pub. 1971.
Southern, Eileen (ed.).
Readings in Black American Music. New York: Norton, 1983;
2nd edn, orig. pub. 1971.
Southworth, James, G.
"Vauxhall Pleasure Gardens" --------------------- KEYWORD: VAUXHALL PLEASURE GARDEN
"A Chapter in the Social History of England"
New York
Columbia University Press, 1941.
Spaeth, Sigmund.
"Read 'Em and Weep"
New York: Doubleday Page, 1926.
Spaeth, Sigmund.
"Weep Some More My Lady"
London: Heinemann, 1927.
Spaeth, Sigmund.
"A History of Popular Music in America"
London: Phoenix House, 1960, orig. pub.
New York: Random House, 1948.
Spellman, Doreen and Sidney.
"Victorian Music Covers"
London: Evelyn, Adams & Mackay, 1969.
Stedman, Jane W.
"W. S. Gilbert"
"A Classic Victorian and His Theatre" -------------- KEYWORD: SULLIVAN
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Stevens, Richard J.
"Recollections of R. J. S. Stevens"
"An Organist in Georgian London"
1992. Mark Argent (ed.), London: Macmillan.
Stradling, Robert and Meirion Hughes.
"The English Musical Renaissance"
1860-1940:
"Construction and Deconstruction"
London: Routledge, 1993.
Stratton, Stephen
"Women in Relation to Musical Art"
Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association (1882)
Sullivan, Herbert and Rower, Newman.
"Sir Arthur Sullivan" --------------------------- KEYWORD: SULLIVAN
His Life, Letters and Diaries.
London: Cassell, 1950.
Summerfield, Penny.
"Patriotism and Empire"
"Music-Hall Entertainment"
1870-1914', in
John M. Mackenzie (ed.). Imperialism and Popular Culture. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1986.
Sweeney-Tumer, Steve.
"Pagan Airts: Reading Critical Perspectives on the Songs of Burns and Tannahill"
in McGuirk, Critical Essays on Burns (1996): 182-207; orig. pub. in Scotland, vol. 2, no. 2: 36-68.
Sweeney-Tumer, Steve.
"The Political Parlour"
"Identity and Ideology in C 19th Scottish National Song"
In
"Music and rationalism"
"Re-evaluations of the History and Ideology of European Musical Culture"
Michael Murphy and Harry White (eds), Cork: Cork University Press, 2000.
Taylor, Arthur R.
"Labour and Love"
"An Oral History of the Brass Band Movement"
London: Elm Tree, 1983.
Tawa, Nicholas.
"A Music for the Millions:"
Antebellum Democratic Attitudes and the Birth of American Popular Music"
New York: Pendragon Press, 1984.
Tawa, Nicholas.
"Sweet Songs for Gentle Americans"
"The Parlour Song in America"
1790-1860"
Ohio: Bowling Green University Press, 1985.
Tawa, Nicholas.
"The Way to Tin Pan Alley"
American Popular Song, 1866-1910"
New York: Schirmer, 1990.
Temperley, Nicholas.
The Music of the English Parish Church.
2 vols, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983; orig. pub. 1979.
Temperley, Nicholas (ed.).
"The Blackwell History of Music in Britain"
vol. 5:
Music in Britain: The Romantic Age 1800-1914.
Oxford: Blackwell, 1988; orig. pub. London: Athlone Press, 1981.
Temperley, Nicholas (ed. 'Music in Victorian Society and Culture', special edn of Victorian Studies (Autumn 1986).
Temperley, Nicholas.
"The Lost Chord"
"Essays in Victorian Music"
Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989; with cassette recording.
Thompson, Edward P.
The Making of the English Working Class. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1991; new edn, orig. pub. London: Gollancz, 1963.
Tick, Judith.
American Women Composers Before 1870. 2nd ed. New York: University of Rochester Press, 1995; orig. pub. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1983 from PhD diss., 1979.
Tick, Judith.
"Passed Away Is the Piano Girl"
"Changes in American Musical Life"
1870-1900"
in Bowers and Tick, Women Making Music (1986). 325-48.
Toft, Robert.
"Heart to Heart"
"Expressive Singing in England"
1780-1830"
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
Toll, Robert C.
"Blacking Up"
The Minstrel Show in Nineteenth Century America"
London: Oxford University Press, 1977; orig. pub. New York (OUP), 1974.
Toll, Robert C.
"On with the Show"
"The First Century of Show Business in America"
New York: Oxford University Press, 1976.
Traubner, Richard.
"Operetta: A Theatrical History"
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990; London: Gollancz, 1984.
Upton, George P.
Woman in Music: An Essay.
London: Paul and Chicago: McClurg, 1909; Boston: Osgood, 1880.
Van der Merwe, Peter.
"Origins of the Popular Style"
"The Antecedents of Twentieth-Century Popular Music"
Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989.
Walker, Ernest.
"History of Music in England."
New York: Da Capo Press, 1978; orig. pub. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1907.
Watson, Ian.
"Song and Democratic Culture in Britain"
"An Approach to Popular Culture in Social Movements" London: Croom Helm, 1983.
Weber, William,
"Mass Culture and the Reshaping of European Musical taste"
1770-1870', International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music (1877)
Weber, William.
"Music and the Middle Class
"The Social Structure of Concert Life in London, Paris and Vienna"
"Between 1830 and 1848"
New York: Holmes and Meier, 1975.
Weber, William.
"The Rise of Musical Classics in Eighteenth-Century England"
"A Study in Canon, Ritual, and Ideology"
Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996; orig. pub. 1992.
Weber, William, 'The Muddle of the Middle Classes', 19th Century Music 3 (1979-80): 175-85.
Whitcomb, Ian.
"After the Ball"
"Pop Music from Rag to Rock"
New York: Limelight Editions, 1986; orig. pub. London: Alien Lane, 1972.
White, Eric W.
"A History of English Opera"
London: Faber, 1983.
Williams, Raymond.
"Culture and Society"
1780-1950"
New York: Columbia University Press, 1983; London: Chatto and Windus, 1958.
Williams, Raymond.
"Keywords"
London: Fontana, 1990; Fontana and Croom Helm. 1976.
Williams, William H. A.
"'Twas Only an Irishman's Dream"
The Image of Ireland & the Irish in American Popular Song Lyrics"
"1800—1920"
Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996.
Williamson, Audrey.
"Gilbert and Sullivan Opera" ------ KEYWORD: SULLIVAN
"A New Assessment"
Rev. ed. London: Boyars, 1982; Rockliff, 1953.
Winstock, Lewis.
"Songs and Music of the Redcoats"
"A History of War Music of The British Army"
1642-1902"
London: Leo Cooper, 1970.
Wittke, Carl.
"Tambo and Bones"
"A History of the American Minstrel Stage"
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1968; orig. pub. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1930.
Woll, Alien L.
"Black Musical Theatre"
"From Coontown to Dreamgirls"
New York: Da Capo Press, 1991; orig. pub. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1989.
Wroth, Warwick.
"The London Pleasure Gardens of the Eighteenth Century" -- Marylebone, Vauxhall, Ranelagh.
London: Macmillan, 1979; orig. pub. 1886.
Wroth, Warwick.
"Cremome and the Later London Pleasure Gardens"
London: publisher unknown, 1907.
Wyndham, Henry S.
"The Annals of Covent Garden Theatre"
"From 1732 to 1897" -- including the Royal Italian Opera. London: Chatto and Windus, 1906.
Wyndham, Henry S.
"August Manns and the Saturday Concerts"
London: Walter Scott, 1909.
Yeo, Eileen and Stephen, eds.
"Popular Culture and Class Conflict"
1590-1914:
Explorations in the History of Labour and Leisure.
Brighton: Harvester, 1981.
Young, Kenneth.
"Music's Great Days in the Spas and Watering-places"
London: Macmillan, 1968.
Young, Percy M.
"The Concert Tradition"
"From the Middle Ages to the Twentieth Century"
London: Dobson, 1976; Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1965.
Young, Percy M.
"Sir Arthur Sullivan" ---------- KEYWORD: SULLIVAN
London: Dent, 1971.
Zon, Bennett, ed.
"Nineteenth-Century British Music Studies"
vol. 1. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, 1999.
-------------------------------------------------------
Collections of nineteenth-century British and American popular songs
Bush, Geoffrey and Nicholas Temperley.
"English Songs"
"1800-1860"
Musica Britannica vol. 43. London: Stainer and Bell, 1979.
Crawford, Richard, ed.
"The Civil War Song Book"
New York: Dover, 1977.
Davison, Peter, ed.
"Songs of the British Music Hall"
New York: Oak Publication, 1971.
Gammond, Peter,
"The Good Old Days Songbook"
London: EMI Publishing, 1983.
Garrett, John M.,
"Sixty Years of British Music Hall"
London: Chappell, 1976.
Graves, Richard, ed.
"Victorian Christmas Song Book"
London: Macmillan, 1980
Hitchcock, H. Wiley, ed.
"Songs of Henry Clay Work"
vol. 19 of Earlier American Music New York: Da Capo Press, 1974.
Jackson, Richard, ed.
"The Stephen Foster Song Book" ----------------- KEYWORD: FOSTER
New York: Dover Publications, 1974.
Jackson, Richard, ed.
"Popular Songs of Nineteenth-Century America"
New York: Dover Publications, 1976.
Turner, Michael R. and Miall, Antony (eds).
"The Parlour Song Book"
"A Casquet of Vocal Gems"
London: Pan, 1974; Michael Joseph. 1972.
Turner, Michael R. and Antony Miall (eds). 1975
"Just a Song at Twilight"
"The Second Parlour Song Book"
London: Michael Joseph.
Waites, Aline and Hunter, Robin.
"The Illustrated Victorian Song Book"
London: Michael Joseph, 1984.
Wallace, lan, compiler.
The EMI Book of Parlour Songs.
London: EMI Publishing, 1981.
British and American periodicals covered by The "Répertoire International de la Presse
Full-text 35mm microfilm and RIPM hardbound indexes to each tide available from UMI (http://www.umi.com).
The Quarterly Musical Magazine and Review
The Harmonicon
The Musical Examiner
The Musical Tunes
The Musical Standard
Musical World
Musical Journal
Musical Directory
Monthly Musical Record
Musical Opinion
Dwight's Journal of Music
The Message Bird
The New York Musical World
The Musical Gazette (1856-59) and The Lute (1883-99) are included
in British Periodicals in the Creative Arts (UMI Microfilm Collection).
---------------------------------------------------------------
Data Bases and the Internet
"Concert Use in Nineteenth-Century London"
Database Project
Simon McVeigh, Christine Bashford, and Rachel Cowgill.
An inter-university project linking Goldsmiths College, London with Oxford Brookes University and the University of Huddersfield.
For information on its methodology and rationale, see Christina Bashford
"Introducing the Concert Life in 19th-century London Database"
Brio (1999)
The website: http://www.brookes.ac.uk/schools/apm/music/19thc_m.htm
Gilbert and Sullivan Archive
(Boise State University, Idaho): http://diamond.boisestate.edu/gas
Public Domain Music (Benjamin Tubb)
-- a site containing songs (with sound files)
by 19th-century popular composers.
The website:
http://www.pdmusic.org
Women Song Composers: A Listing of Songs Published in the United States and England
c. 1890—1930.
Compiled by Christopher Reynolds, Department of Music, University of California, Davis
-- a searchable database containing 5116 songs (and song sets and cycles) by 515 women composers active in North America and England.
The information in the bibliography includes tide, composer, poet, publisher, date and city of publication, and (for some of the songs) also serial number.
The database can be accessed at:
http://musdra.ucdavis.edu/faculty/reynolds/Women_songs_home.html
----------------------------------------------
Catalogues, Dictionaries, & Indexes
Brown, James D. and Stephen S. Stratton.
"British Musical Biography"
Birmingham: Stratton, 1897
"Catalogue of Printed Music in the British Library"
to 1980.
62 vols. London: Saur, 1981-87.
Dictionary of National Biography.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, new edn forthcoming, 1921-22.
Ebel, Otto.
Women Composers: A Bio-bibliographical Handbook of Woman's Work in Music
Brooklyn.
NY: Chandler, 1902.
Fuld, James J.
The Book of World Famous Music, Classical, Popular and Folk.
4th ed. New York: Dover, 1995; orig. pub. Crown. 1966.
Fuller, Sophie.
The Pandora Guide to Women Composers: Britain and the United States
1629-Present. London: Pandora, 1995.
Gänzl, Kurt.
"The British Musical Theatre"
2 vols. vol. 1: 1865-1914, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1986.
Hixon, Donald L. and Don A. Hennessee.
Women in Music:
An Encyclopedic Bio-bibliography.
2nd ed. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1993; orig. pub. 1975.
Humphries, Charles and William C. Smith,
Music Publishing in the British Isles from the EarliestTimes to the Middle of the 19th Century.
A Dictionary of Engravers, Printers, Publishers and MusicS ellers. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 1970; orig. pub. London: Cassell. 1954.
Kilgarriff, Michael.
"Sing Us One of the Old Songs"
"A Guide to Popular Song"
1860-1920.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
Larkin, Colin (ed.),
"The Encyclopedia of Popular Music"
8 vols.
London: MUZE, orig. pub. Enfield: Guinness, 1992, in 4 vols.
Matthews, Betty, compiler.
The Royal Society of Musicians of Great Britain
List of Members, 1738-1984.
London: Royal Society of Musicians, 1985.
Includes members of the Royal Society of Female Musicians, 1840-66
The Music Catalog.
Washington: Library of Congress
100 microfiches held at Bodleian Library, Oxford, 1991.
Poladian, Sirvart.
Sir Arthur Sullivan: An Index to the Texts of His Vocal Works. ----- KEYWORD: SULLIVAN
Detroit Studies in Music Bibliography No. 2 Detroit: Information Services. 1961.
Redway, Virginia L.
Musical Directory of Early New York City.
New York: New York Public Library, 1941.
Sadie, Julie Anne and Rhian Samuel, eds.
The New Grove Dictionary of Women Composers. London: Macmillan, 1994.
Sadie, Stanley, ed. 1980
The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, London, §IV-§X ; (London: Macmillan): 158-217.
[Opera, Pleasure Gardens, Concert Life, Education, Music Publishing, Instrument Making, and Libraries.]
Sampson, Henry T.
Blacks in Blackface:
A Source Book on Early Black Musical Shows. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1980.
Sears, Minnie E.
"Song Index"
2 vols. New York: Wilson, 1926-34.
Senelick, Laurence, David F. Cheshire, and Ulrich Schneider.
British Music Hall
1840-1923.
A Bibliography and Guide to Sources, with a Supplement on European Music-Hall, Hamden, CT: Archon, 1981.
Southern, Eileen.
Biographical Dictionary of Afro-American and African Musicians.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1982.
Stem, Susan.
Women Composers: A Handbook, Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1978.
Wagstaff, John, ed.
British Union Catalogue of Music Periodicals.
2nd ed. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, 1998.
The Wellesley Index to Victorian Periodicals 1824-1900.
4 vols. London: Routledge, 1979-87.
--
Scott has tried to ensure that the places of publication and publishers of the latest editions of books are given below, but in order to preserve an idea of publishing chronology, he also provides details of the original publications.
When the publisher remains the same as for the original publication, that publisher's name is not repeated.
Similarly, if the place of publication remains the same (though the publisher may differ), that location is not repeated.
Where there are intervening publishers between the original and latest editions, they are not cited.
Some work dealing with the eighteenth century has been cited where that seems to throw interesting light on developments in the succeeding century.
-----
Acland, Alice.
1948
"Caroline Barton"
London: Constable.
Allen, Reginald.
"The First Night Gilbert & Sullivan" --------------------- KEYWORD: SULLIVAN
London: Chappell, 1958, 1976. Limited Editions Club.
Anon.
"Century and a Half in Soho"
"A Short History of the Firm of Novello"
London: Novello, 1961.
Arundell, Dennis, D.
"The Story of Sadler's Wells"
"1683-1977"
Newton Abbot: David & Charles,
London: H. Hamilton. 1965, 1978.
Atlas, Allan W.
"The Wheatstone English Concertina in Victorian England"
Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996.
Austin, William A.
"Susannah", "Jeanie", and "The Old Folks at Home":
"The Songs of Stephen C. FOSTER from His Time to Ours" ----- KEYWORD: FOSTER
New York: Macmillan, 1975.
Bailey, Peter.
"Leisure & Class in Victorian England"
"Rational Recreation & the Contest for Control"
London: Methuen, 1978, 1987.
London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Bailey, Peter, ed.
"Music Hall"
"The Business of Pleasure"
Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1986.
Bailey, Peter,
'"Champagne Charlie":
"Performance and Ideology in the Music-Hall "Swell" Song"
in Bratton,
"Music Hall: Performance and Style".
Bailey, Peter.
"Conspiracies of Meaning"
"Music Hall and the Knowingness of Popular Culture"
Past and Present 1994.
Baily, Leslie.
"The Gilbert & Sullivan Book" ----- KEYWORD: SULLIVAN
London: Spring Books, 1952, 1956, 1996; London: Cassell.
Bashford, Christina & Leanne Langley (eds).
"Music and British Culture"
"1785-1914"
"Essays in Honour of Cyril Ehrlich"
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
Bayly, Thomas H.
"Songs of the Affections"
by Thomas Haynes Bayly. ----------------- KEYWORD: BAYLY, "BUTTERFLY BAYLY"
Ed. W. L. Hanchant.
London: Desmond Harmsworth, 1932.
Beedell, Ann V.
"The Decline of the English Musician"
"1788-1888"
A Family of English Musicians in
Ireland, England, Mauritius, & Australia.
Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992.
Best, Geoffrey.
"Mid-Victorian Britain" 1851-75.
London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. 1971, London Fontana 1979.
Blake, Andrew.
"The Land Without Music"
Music, Culture and Society in Twentieth-Century Britain.
Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1997.
Boon, Brindley.
"Sing the Happy Song":
"A History of Salvation Army Vocal Music"
London: Salvationist Publishing & pplies, 1978
.
Boosey, William.
"Fifty Tears of Music"
London: Ernest Benn, 1931. ------------------ KEYWORD: THE BOOSEY BALLAD
Booth, Charles.
"Charles Booth's London"
"A Portrait of the Poor at the Turn of the Century.
Drawn from his Life and Labour of the People in London"
1885-1905.
Selected and ed. Albert Fried and Richard M. Elman.
Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1971; London: Hutchinson. 1969.
Borrof, Edith.
"An American Parlour at the Turn of the Century"
American Music 1986
Bowers, Jane & Tick, Judith (eds).
"Women Making Music"
The Western Art Tradition, 1150-1950.
Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986.
Boydell, Brian.
"Four Centuries of Music in Ireland" ---- KEYWORD: IRISH MUSIC
London: BBC Publications, 1979.
Bradley, Ian, ed.
"The Complete Annotated Gilbert & Sullivan" -------- KEYWORD: SULLIVAN.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982, 1996; revd edn, Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Brahms, Caryl.
Gilbert & Sullivan:
Lost Chords and Discords. ------ KEYWORD: SULLIVAN
London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1975.
Bratton, Jaqueline S.
"The Victorian Popular Ballad"
London: Macmillan, 1975.
Bratton, Jaqueline S., ed.
"Music Hall"
"Performance and Style"
Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1986.
Burney, Charles.
"A General History of Music".
New York: Dover, 1957; reprint of 1789 edn.
Caldwell, John.
"The Oxford History of English Music".
vol. 2: c.1715 to the Present Day.
Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999.
Cannadine, David.
"Gilbert and Sullivan" ------ KEYWORD: SULLIVAN
"The Making and Un-Making of a British "Tradition"'"
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"Blacking Up"
The Minstrel Show in Nineteenth Century America"
London: Oxford University Press, 1977; orig. pub. New York (OUP), 1974.
Toll, Robert C.
"On with the Show"
"The First Century of Show Business in America"
New York: Oxford University Press, 1976.
Traubner, Richard.
"Operetta: A Theatrical History"
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990; London: Gollancz, 1984.
Upton, George P.
Woman in Music: An Essay.
London: Paul and Chicago: McClurg, 1909; Boston: Osgood, 1880.
Van der Merwe, Peter.
"Origins of the Popular Style"
"The Antecedents of Twentieth-Century Popular Music"
Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989.
Walker, Ernest.
"History of Music in England."
New York: Da Capo Press, 1978; orig. pub. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1907.
Watson, Ian.
"Song and Democratic Culture in Britain"
"An Approach to Popular Culture in Social Movements" London: Croom Helm, 1983.
Weber, William,
"Mass Culture and the Reshaping of European Musical taste"
1770-1870', International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music (1877)
Weber, William.
"Music and the Middle Class
"The Social Structure of Concert Life in London, Paris and Vienna"
"Between 1830 and 1848"
New York: Holmes and Meier, 1975.
Weber, William.
"The Rise of Musical Classics in Eighteenth-Century England"
"A Study in Canon, Ritual, and Ideology"
Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996; orig. pub. 1992.
Weber, William, 'The Muddle of the Middle Classes', 19th Century Music 3 (1979-80): 175-85.
Whitcomb, Ian.
"After the Ball"
"Pop Music from Rag to Rock"
New York: Limelight Editions, 1986; orig. pub. London: Alien Lane, 1972.
White, Eric W.
"A History of English Opera"
London: Faber, 1983.
Williams, Raymond.
"Culture and Society"
1780-1950"
New York: Columbia University Press, 1983; London: Chatto and Windus, 1958.
Williams, Raymond.
"Keywords"
London: Fontana, 1990; Fontana and Croom Helm. 1976.
Williams, William H. A.
"'Twas Only an Irishman's Dream"
The Image of Ireland & the Irish in American Popular Song Lyrics"
"1800—1920"
Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996.
Williamson, Audrey.
"Gilbert and Sullivan Opera" ------ KEYWORD: SULLIVAN
"A New Assessment"
Rev. ed. London: Boyars, 1982; Rockliff, 1953.
Winstock, Lewis.
"Songs and Music of the Redcoats"
"A History of War Music of The British Army"
1642-1902"
London: Leo Cooper, 1970.
Wittke, Carl.
"Tambo and Bones"
"A History of the American Minstrel Stage"
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1968; orig. pub. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1930.
Woll, Alien L.
"Black Musical Theatre"
"From Coontown to Dreamgirls"
New York: Da Capo Press, 1991; orig. pub. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1989.
Wroth, Warwick.
"The London Pleasure Gardens of the Eighteenth Century" -- Marylebone, Vauxhall, Ranelagh.
London: Macmillan, 1979; orig. pub. 1886.
Wroth, Warwick.
"Cremome and the Later London Pleasure Gardens"
London: publisher unknown, 1907.
Wyndham, Henry S.
"The Annals of Covent Garden Theatre"
"From 1732 to 1897" -- including the Royal Italian Opera. London: Chatto and Windus, 1906.
Wyndham, Henry S.
"August Manns and the Saturday Concerts"
London: Walter Scott, 1909.
Yeo, Eileen and Stephen, eds.
"Popular Culture and Class Conflict"
1590-1914:
Explorations in the History of Labour and Leisure.
Brighton: Harvester, 1981.
Young, Kenneth.
"Music's Great Days in the Spas and Watering-places"
London: Macmillan, 1968.
Young, Percy M.
"The Concert Tradition"
"From the Middle Ages to the Twentieth Century"
London: Dobson, 1976; Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1965.
Young, Percy M.
"Sir Arthur Sullivan" ---------- KEYWORD: SULLIVAN
London: Dent, 1971.
Zon, Bennett, ed.
"Nineteenth-Century British Music Studies"
vol. 1. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, 1999.
-------------------------------------------------------
Collections of nineteenth-century British and American popular songs
Bush, Geoffrey and Nicholas Temperley.
"English Songs"
"1800-1860"
Musica Britannica vol. 43. London: Stainer and Bell, 1979.
Crawford, Richard, ed.
"The Civil War Song Book"
New York: Dover, 1977.
Davison, Peter, ed.
"Songs of the British Music Hall"
New York: Oak Publication, 1971.
Gammond, Peter,
"The Good Old Days Songbook"
London: EMI Publishing, 1983.
Garrett, John M.,
"Sixty Years of British Music Hall"
London: Chappell, 1976.
Graves, Richard, ed.
"Victorian Christmas Song Book"
London: Macmillan, 1980
Hitchcock, H. Wiley, ed.
"Songs of Henry Clay Work"
vol. 19 of Earlier American Music New York: Da Capo Press, 1974.
Jackson, Richard, ed.
"The Stephen Foster Song Book" ----------------- KEYWORD: FOSTER
New York: Dover Publications, 1974.
Jackson, Richard, ed.
"Popular Songs of Nineteenth-Century America"
New York: Dover Publications, 1976.
Turner, Michael R. and Miall, Antony (eds).
"The Parlour Song Book"
"A Casquet of Vocal Gems"
London: Pan, 1974; Michael Joseph. 1972.
Turner, Michael R. and Antony Miall (eds). 1975
"Just a Song at Twilight"
"The Second Parlour Song Book"
London: Michael Joseph.
Waites, Aline and Hunter, Robin.
"The Illustrated Victorian Song Book"
London: Michael Joseph, 1984.
Wallace, lan, compiler.
The EMI Book of Parlour Songs.
London: EMI Publishing, 1981.
British and American periodicals covered by The "Répertoire International de la Presse
Full-text 35mm microfilm and RIPM hardbound indexes to each tide available from UMI (http://www.umi.com).
The Quarterly Musical Magazine and Review
The Harmonicon
The Musical Examiner
The Musical Tunes
The Musical Standard
Musical World
Musical Journal
Musical Directory
Monthly Musical Record
Musical Opinion
Dwight's Journal of Music
The Message Bird
The New York Musical World
The Musical Gazette (1856-59) and The Lute (1883-99) are included
in British Periodicals in the Creative Arts (UMI Microfilm Collection).
---------------------------------------------------------------
Data Bases and the Internet
"Concert Use in Nineteenth-Century London"
Database Project
Simon McVeigh, Christine Bashford, and Rachel Cowgill.
An inter-university project linking Goldsmiths College, London with Oxford Brookes University and the University of Huddersfield.
For information on its methodology and rationale, see Christina Bashford
"Introducing the Concert Life in 19th-century London Database"
Brio (1999)
The website: http://www.brookes.ac.uk/schools/apm/music/19thc_m.htm
Gilbert and Sullivan Archive
(Boise State University, Idaho): http://diamond.boisestate.edu/gas
Public Domain Music (Benjamin Tubb)
-- a site containing songs (with sound files)
by 19th-century popular composers.
The website:
http://www.pdmusic.org
Women Song Composers: A Listing of Songs Published in the United States and England
c. 1890—1930.
Compiled by Christopher Reynolds, Department of Music, University of California, Davis
-- a searchable database containing 5116 songs (and song sets and cycles) by 515 women composers active in North America and England.
The information in the bibliography includes tide, composer, poet, publisher, date and city of publication, and (for some of the songs) also serial number.
The database can be accessed at:
http://musdra.ucdavis.edu/faculty/reynolds/Women_songs_home.html
----------------------------------------------
Catalogues, Dictionaries, & Indexes
Brown, James D. and Stephen S. Stratton.
"British Musical Biography"
Birmingham: Stratton, 1897
"Catalogue of Printed Music in the British Library"
to 1980.
62 vols. London: Saur, 1981-87.
Dictionary of National Biography.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, new edn forthcoming, 1921-22.
Ebel, Otto.
Women Composers: A Bio-bibliographical Handbook of Woman's Work in Music
Brooklyn.
NY: Chandler, 1902.
Fuld, James J.
The Book of World Famous Music, Classical, Popular and Folk.
4th ed. New York: Dover, 1995; orig. pub. Crown. 1966.
Fuller, Sophie.
The Pandora Guide to Women Composers: Britain and the United States
1629-Present. London: Pandora, 1995.
Gänzl, Kurt.
"The British Musical Theatre"
2 vols. vol. 1: 1865-1914, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1986.
Hixon, Donald L. and Don A. Hennessee.
Women in Music:
An Encyclopedic Bio-bibliography.
2nd ed. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1993; orig. pub. 1975.
Humphries, Charles and William C. Smith,
Music Publishing in the British Isles from the EarliestTimes to the Middle of the 19th Century.
A Dictionary of Engravers, Printers, Publishers and MusicS ellers. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 1970; orig. pub. London: Cassell. 1954.
Kilgarriff, Michael.
"Sing Us One of the Old Songs"
"A Guide to Popular Song"
1860-1920.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
Larkin, Colin (ed.),
"The Encyclopedia of Popular Music"
8 vols.
London: MUZE, orig. pub. Enfield: Guinness, 1992, in 4 vols.
Matthews, Betty, compiler.
The Royal Society of Musicians of Great Britain
List of Members, 1738-1984.
London: Royal Society of Musicians, 1985.
Includes members of the Royal Society of Female Musicians, 1840-66
The Music Catalog.
Washington: Library of Congress
100 microfiches held at Bodleian Library, Oxford, 1991.
Poladian, Sirvart.
Sir Arthur Sullivan: An Index to the Texts of His Vocal Works. ----- KEYWORD: SULLIVAN
Detroit Studies in Music Bibliography No. 2 Detroit: Information Services. 1961.
Redway, Virginia L.
Musical Directory of Early New York City.
New York: New York Public Library, 1941.
Sadie, Julie Anne and Rhian Samuel, eds.
The New Grove Dictionary of Women Composers. London: Macmillan, 1994.
Sadie, Stanley, ed. 1980
The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, London, §IV-§X ; (London: Macmillan): 158-217.
[Opera, Pleasure Gardens, Concert Life, Education, Music Publishing, Instrument Making, and Libraries.]
Sampson, Henry T.
Blacks in Blackface:
A Source Book on Early Black Musical Shows. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1980.
Sears, Minnie E.
"Song Index"
2 vols. New York: Wilson, 1926-34.
Senelick, Laurence, David F. Cheshire, and Ulrich Schneider.
British Music Hall
1840-1923.
A Bibliography and Guide to Sources, with a Supplement on European Music-Hall, Hamden, CT: Archon, 1981.
Southern, Eileen.
Biographical Dictionary of Afro-American and African Musicians.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1982.
Stem, Susan.
Women Composers: A Handbook, Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1978.
Wagstaff, John, ed.
British Union Catalogue of Music Periodicals.
2nd ed. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, 1998.
The Wellesley Index to Victorian Periodicals 1824-1900.
4 vols. London: Routledge, 1979-87.
--
Scott has tried to ensure that the places of publication and publishers of the latest editions of books are given below, but in order to preserve an idea of publishing chronology, he also provides details of the original publications.
When the publisher remains the same as for the original publication, that publisher's name is not repeated.
Similarly, if the place of publication remains the same (though the publisher may differ), that location is not repeated.
Where there are intervening publishers between the original and latest editions, they are not cited.
Some work dealing with the eighteenth century has been cited where that seems to throw interesting light on developments in the succeeding century.
-----
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