GRICE E VARRONE

  THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY   FOUXDED BY JAMES LOEB, LL.D.   EDITED BY  t T. E. PAGE, C.H., UTT.D.   E. CAPPS, ph.d., ll.d. W. H. D. ROUSE, utt.d.     VAERO   ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE  I     VARRO   ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE   WITH AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION BY   ROLAND G. KENT, Ph.D.   PROFESSOR OF COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY IN THE  UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   IN TWO VOLUMES  I   BOOKS V.- VII.      LONDON   WILLIAM HEINEM ANN LTD   CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS   HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS   MCMXXXVIII     Printed in Great Britain     CONTENTS     Introduction* page   Varro's Life and Works vii   Varro's Grammatical Works . . . viii   Varro's De Lingua Latina ix   The Manuscripts of the De Lingua Latina . xii   The Laurentian Manuscript F . xv   The Orthography of the De Lingua Latina . xvii   The Editions of the De Lingua Latina . xxvii   Bibliography ..... .xxxiii   Our Text of the De Lingua Latina xliii  The Critical Apparatus .... xliv   The Translation of the De Lingua Latina . xlv   The Notes to the Translation . . , xlvi   Symbols and Abbreviations  . . . xlix   De Lingua Latina, Teat and Translation   Book V 2   Book VI. 172   Book VII 266     v     INTRODUCTION     VARRO'S LIFE AND WORKS   Marcus Terextius Varro was born in 116 B.C.,  probably at Reate in the Sabine country, where his  family, which was of equestrian rank, possessed large  estates. He was a student under L. Aelius Stilo  Praeconinus, a scholar of the equestrian order, widely  versed in Greek and Latin literature and especially  interested in the history and antiquities of the Roman  people. He studied philosophy at Athens, with Anti-  ochus of Ascalon. With his tastes thus formed for  scholarship, he none the less took part in public life,  and was in the campaign against the rebel Sertorius  in Spain, in 76. He was an officer with Pompey in the  war with the Cilician pirates in 67, and presumably  also in Pompey 's campaign against Mithradates. In  the Civil War he was on Pompey 's side, first in Spain  and then in Epirus and Thessaly.   He was pardoned by Caesar, and lived quietly at  Rome, being appointed librarian of the great collec-  tion of Greek and Latin books which Caesar planned  to make. After Caesar's assassination, he was pro-  scribed by Antony, and his villa at Casinum, with  his personal library, was destroyed. But he himself  escaped death by the devotion of friends, who con-  cealed him, and he secured the protection of Octavian.   vii     INTRODUCTION     He lived the remainder of his life in peace and quiet,  devoted to his -writings, and died in 27 B.C., in his  eighty-ninth year.   Throughout his life he wrote assiduously. His  works number seventy-four, amounting to about six  hundred and twenty books ; they cover virtually all  fields of human thought : agriculture, grammar, the  history and antiquities of Rome, geography, law,  rhetoric, philosophy, mathematics and astronomy,  education, the history of literature and the drama,  satires, poems, orations, letters.   Of all these only one, his De Re Rustica or Treatise  on Agriculture, in three books, has reached us complete.  His De Lingua Latina or On the Latin Language, in  twenty-five books, has come down to us as a torso.;  only Books V. to X. are extant, and there are serious  gaps in these. The other works are represented by  scattered fragments only.     VARRO'S GRAMMATICAL WORKS   The grammatical works of Varro, so far as we know  them, were the following :   De Lingua Latina, in twenty-five books, a fuller  account of which is given below.   De Antiquitate Litterarum, in two books, addressed  to the tragic poet L. Accius, who died about 86 b.c. ;  it was therefore one of Varro 's earliest writings.   De Origine Linguae Latinae, in three books, ad-  dressed to Pompey.   Ylzpl XapaKTrjpuv, in at least three books, on the  formation of words.   Quaestiones Plautinae, in five books, containing  viii     INTRODUCTION     interpretations of rare words found in the comedies  of Plautus.   De Similitudine Verborum, in three books, on re-  gularity in forms and words.   De Utilitate Sermonis, in at least four books, in  which he dealt with the principle of anomaly or  irregularity.   De Sermone Latino, in five books or more, addressed  to Marcellus, which treats of orthography and the  metres of poetry.   DiscipUnae, an encyclopaedia on the liberal arts,  in nine books, of which the first dealt with Grammatica.   The extant fragments of these works, apart from  those of the De Lingua Latina, may be found in the  Goetz and Schoell edition of the De Lingua Latina,  pages 199-242 ; in the collection of Wilmanns, pages  170-223 ; and in that of Funaioli, pages 179-371 (see  the Bibliography).     VARRO'S DE LINGUA LATINA   Varro's treatise On the Latin Language was a work  in twenty-five books, composed in 47 to 45 B.C., and  published before the death of Cicero in 43.   The first book was an introduction, containing at  the outset a dedication of the entire work to Cicero.  The remainder seems to have been divided into four  sections of six books each, each section being by its  subject matter further divisible into two halves of  three books each.   Books II.-VII. dealt with the impositio vocabulorum,  or how words were originated and applied to things   ix     INTRODUCTION     and ideas. Of this portion, Books II. -IV. were prob-  ably an earlier smaller work entitled De Etymologia  or the like ; it was separately dedicated to one  Septumius or Septimius, who had at some time,  which we cannot now identify, served Varro as  quaestor. Book II. presented the arguments which  were advanced against Etymology as a branch of  learning ; Book III. presented those in its favour as a  branch of learning, and useful ; Book IV. discussed  its nature.   Books V.- VI I. start with a new dedication to Cicero.  They treat of the origin of words, the sources from  which they come, and the manner in which new words  develop. Book V. is devoted to words which are the  names of places, and to the objects which are in the  places under discussion ; VI. treats words denoting  time-ideas, and those which contain some time-idea,  notably verbs ; VII. explains rare and difficult words  which are met in the writings of the poets.   Books VIII.-XIII. dealt with derivation of words  from other words, including stem-derivation, de-  clension of nouns, and conjugation of verbs. The first  three treated especially the conflict between the  principle of Anomaly, or Irregularity, based on con-  suetude* ' popular usage,' and that of Analogy, or  Regularity of a proportional character, based on ratio  ' relation ' of form to form. VIII. gives the arguments  against the existence of Analogy, IX. those in favour  of its existence, X. Varro 's own solution of the con-  flicting views, with his decision in favour of its exi-  stence. XI.-XIII. discussed Analogy in derivation, in  the wide sense given above : probably XI. dealt with  nouns of place and associated terms, XII. with time-  ideas, notably verbs, XIII. with poetic words,  x     INTRODUCTION     Books XIV.-XIX. treated of syntax. Books XX.-  XXV. seem to have continued the same theme,  but probably with special attention to stylistic and  rhetorical embellishments.   Of these twenty-five books, we have to-day, apart  from a few brief fragments, only Books V. to X., and  in these there are several extensive gaps where the  manuscript tradition fails.   The fragments of the De Lingua Latina, that is,  those quotations or paraphrases in other authors which  do not correspond to the extant text of Books V.-X.,  are not numerous nor long. The most considerable  of them are passages in the Nodes Atticae of Aulus  Gellius ii. 25 and xvi. 8. They may be found in the  edition of Goetz and Schoell, pages 3, 146, 192-198,  and in the Collections of Wilmanns and Funaioli (see  the Bibliography).   It is hardly possible to discuss here even summarily  Varro's linguistic theories, the sources upon which he  drew, and his degree of independence of thought and  procedure. He owed much to his teacher Aelius  Stilo, to whom he refers frequently, and he draws  heavily upon Greek predecessors, of course, but his  practice has much to commend it : he followed neither  the Anomalists nor the Analogists to the extreme of  their theories, and he preferred to derive Latin words  from Latin sources, rather than to refer practically  all to Greek origins. On such topics reference may  be made to the works of Barwick, Kowalski, Dam,  Dahlmann, Kriegshammer, and Frederik Muller, and  to the articles of Wolfflin in the eighth volume of the  Archiv fur lateinische Lexikographie, all listed in our  Bibliography.     INTRODUCTION     THE MANUSCRIPTS OF THE  DE LINGUA LATIN A   The text of the extant books of the De Lingua  Latina is believed by most scholars to rest on the  manuscript here first listed, from which (except for our  No. 4) all other known manuscripts have been copied,  directly or indirectly.   1. Codex Laurentianus li. 10, folios 2 to 34, parch-  ment, written in Langobardic characters in the  eleventh century, and now in the Laurentian Library  at Florence. It is known as F.   F was examined by Petrus Victorius and Iacobus  Diacetius in 1521 (see the next paragraph) ; by  Hieronymus Lagomarsini in 1740 ; by Heinrich Keil  in 1851 ; by Adolf Groth in 1877 ; by Georg Schoell  in 1906. Little doubt can remain as to its actual  readings.   2. In 1521, Petrus Victorius and Iacobus Diacetius  collated F with a copy of the editio princeps of the  De Lingua Latina, in which they entered the differences  which they observed. Their copy is preserved in  Munich, and despite demonstrable errors in other  portions, it has the value of a manuscript for v. 119 to  vi. 61, where a quaternion has since their time been  lost in F. For this portion, their recorded readings  are known as Fv ; and the readings of the editio  princeps, where they have recorded no variation, are  known as (Fv).   3. The Fragmentum Cassinense (called also Excerptum  and Epitome), one folio of Codex Cassinensis 361,  parchment, containing v. 41 Capitolium dictum to the  end of v. 56 ; of the eleventh century. It was  xii     INTRODUCTION     probably copied direct from F soon after F was  written, but may possibly have been copied from the  archetype of F. It is still at Monte Cassino, and was  transcribed by Keil in 1848. It was published in  facsimile as an appendix to Sexti Iulii Frontini de  aquaeductu Urbis Romae, a phototyped reproduction  of the entire manuscript, Monte Cassino, 1930.   4. The grammarian Priscian, who flourished about  a.d. 500, transcribed into his De Figuris Numerorum  Yarro's passage on coined money, beginning with  multa, last word of v. 168, and ending with Nummi  denarii decuma libella, at the beginning of v. 174.  The passage is given in H. Keil's Grammatici Latini  iii. 410-411. There are many manuscripts, the oldest  and most important being Codex Parisinus 7496, of  the ninth century.   5. Codex Laurentianus li. 5, written at Florence in  1427, where it still remains ; it was examined by Keil.  It is known as^*.   6. Codex Havniensis, of the fifteenth century; on  paper, small quarto, 108 folia ; now at Copenhagen.  It was examined by B. G. Niebuhr for Koeler, and his  records came into the hands of L. Spengel. It is  known as H.   7. Codex Gothanus, parchment, of the sixteenth  century, now at Gotha ; it was examined by Regel for  K. O. Mueller, who published its important variants  in his edition, pages 270-298. It is known as G.   8. Codex Parisinus 7489, paper, of the fifteenth  century, now at Paris ; this and the next two were  examined by Donndorf for L. Spengel, who gives  their different readings in his edition, pages 661-718.  It is known as a.   9- Codex Parisinus 6142, paper, of the fifteenth   xiii     INTRODUCTION     century ; it goes only to viii. 7 declinarentur. It is  known as b,   10. Codex Parisinus 7535, paper, of the sixteenth  century ; it contains only v. 1-122, ending with dictae.  It is known as c.   11. Codex Vindobonensis lxiii., of the fifteenth  century, at Vienna ; it was examined by L. Spengel  in 1835, and its important variants are recorded in  the apparatus of A. Spengel's edition. It is known  as V.   12. Codex Basiliensis F iv. 13, at Basel; examined  by L. Spengel in 1838. It is known as p.   13. Codex Guelferbytanus 896, of the sixteenth cen-  tury, at Wolfenbiittel ; examined by Schneidewin for  K. O. Mueller, and afterwards by L. Spengel. It is  known as M.   14. Codex B, probably of the fifteenth century, now  not identifiable ; its variants were noted by Petrus  Victorius in a copy of the Editio Gryphiana, and  either it or a very similar manuscript was used  by Antonius Augustinus in preparing the so-called  Editio Vulgata.   These are the manuscripts to which reference is  made in our critical notes ; there are many others,  some of greater authority than those placed at the  end of our list, but their readings are mostly not  available. In any case, as F alone has prime value,  the variants of other than the first four in our list can  be only the attempted improvements made by their  copyists, and have accordingly the same value as  that which attaches to the emendations of editors  of printed editions.   Fuller information with regard to the manuscripts  may be found in the following :  xiv     INTRODUCTION     Leonhard Spengel, edition of the De Lingua Latina   (1826), pages v-xviii.  K. O. Mueller, edition (1833), pages xii-xxxi.  Andreas Spengel, edition (1885), pages ii-xxviii.  Giulio Antonibon, Supplemento di Lezioni Varianti ai   libri de lingua Latina (1899) 3 pages 10-23.  G. Goetz et F. Schoell, edition (1910), pages xi-xxxv.   THE LAURENTIAN MANUSCRIPT F   Manuscript F contains all the extant continuous  text of the De Lingua Latina, except v. 119 trua quod  to vi. 61 dicendojinit ; this was contained in the second  quaternion, now lost, but still in place when the other  manuscripts were copied from it, and when Victorius  and Diacetius collated it in 1 521 . There are a number  of important lacunae, apart from omitted lines or  single words ; these are due to losses in its archetype.   Leonhard Spengel, from the notations in the  manuscript and the amount of text between the  gaps, calculated that the archetype of F consisted  of 16 quaternions, with these losses :   Quaternion 4 lacked folios 4 and 5, the gap after  v. 162.   Quaternion 7 lacked folio 2, the end of vi. and the  beginning of vii., and folio 7, the gap after vii. 23.   Quaternion 11 was missing entire, the end of viii. and  the beginning of ix.   Quaternion 15 lacked folios 1 to 3, the gap after x. 23,  and folios 6 to 8, the gap after x. 34.   The amount of text lost at each point can be cal-   ° tJber die Kritik der Varronischen Bucher de Lingua  Latina, pp. 5-12.   VOL. I 6 XV     INTRODUCTION     culated from the fact that one folio of the archetype  held about 50 lines of our text.   There is a serious transposition in F, in the text of  Book V. In § 23, near the end, after qui ad humum,  there follows id Sabini, now in § 32, and so on to Septi-  viontium, now in § 41 ; then comes demissior, now in  § 23 after humum, and so on to ab hominibus, now in  § 32, after which comes nominatum of § 41. Mueller,"  who identified the transposition and restored the text  to its true order in his edition, showed that the altera-  tion was due to the wrong folding of folios 4 and 5 in  the first quaternion of an archetype of F ; though  this was not the immediate archetype of F, since the  amount of text on each page was different.   This transposition is now always rectified in our  printed texts ; but there is probably another in the  later part of Book V., which has not been remedied  because the breaks do not fall inside the sentences,  thus making the text unintelligible. The sequence  of topics indicates that v. 115-128 should stand be-  tween v. 140 and v. 141 6 ; there is then the division  by topics :   General Heading v. 105   De Victu v. 105-112   De Vestitu v. 113-114, 129-133   De Instrument v. 134-140, 115-128, 141-183   a In the preface to his edition, pp. xvii-xviii. The dis-  order in the text had previously been noticed by G. Buchanan,  Turnebus, and Scaliger, and discussed by L. Spengel, Emen-  dationum Varronianarum Specimen I, pp. 17-19.   6 L. Spengel, Emendationum Varronianarum Specimen I,  pp. 13-19, identified this transposition, but considered the  transpositions to be much more complicated, with the follow-  ing order: §§105-114, §§ 129-140, § 128, §§ 166-168, §§118-  127, §§ 115-117, §§ 141-165, § 169 on.  xvi     INTRODUCTION     Then also vi. 49 and vi. 45 may have changed  places, but I have not introduced this into the  present text ; I have however adopted the transfer  of x. 18 from its manuscript position after x. 20, to  the position before x. 19, which the continuity of the  thought clearly demands.   The text of F is unfortunately very corrupt, and  while there are corrections both by the first hand and  by a second hand, it is not always certain that the  corrections are to be justified.     THE ORTHOGRAPHY OF THE  BE LINGUA LATIN A   The orthography of F contains not merely many  corrupted spellings which must be corrected, but  also many variant spellings which are within the  range of recognized Latin orthography, and these  must mostly be retained in any edition. For there  are many points on which we are uncertain of Varro's  own practice, and he even speaks of certain per-  missible variations : if we were to standardize his  orthography, we should do constant violence to the  best manuscript tradition, without any assurance  that we were in all respects restoring Varro's own  spelling. Moreover, as this work is on language,  Varro has intentionally varied some spellings to suit  his etymological argument ; any extensive normal-  ization might, and probably would, do him injustice  in some passages. Further, Varro quotes from earlier  authors who used an older orthography ; we do not  know whether Varro, in quoting from them, tried to   xvii     INTRODUCTION     use their original orthography, or merely used the  orthography which was his own habitual practice.   I have therefore retained for the most part the  spellings of F, or of the best authorities when F fails,  replacing only a few of the more misleading spellings  by the familiar ones, and allowing other variations  to remain. These variations mostly fall within the  following categories :   1. EI : Varro wrote EI for the long vowel I in the  nom. pi. of Decl. II (ix. 80) ; but he was probably not  consistent in writing EI everywhere. The manuscript  testifies to its use in the following : plebei (gen. ; cf.  plebis vi. 91> in a quotation) v. 40, 81, 158, vi. 87 ;  eidem (nom. sing.) vii. 17 (eadem F), x. 10 ; scirpeis vii.  44 ; Terentiei (nom.), vireis Terentieis (masc), Teren-  tieis (fem.) viii. 36 ; infeineiteis viii. 50 (changed to  infiniteis in our text, cf. (in)finitam viii. 52) ; i(e)is  viii. 51 (his F), ix. 5 ; iei (nom.) ix. 2, 35 ; hei re(e)i  fer(re)ei de(e)i viii. 70 ; hinnulei ix. 28 ; utrei (nom.  pi.) ix. 65 (utre.I. F ; cf. utri ix. 65) ; (B)a(e)biei,  B(a)ebieis x. 50 (alongside Caelii, Celiis).   2. AE and E : Varro, as a countryman, may in  some words have used E where residents of the city of  Rome used AE (cf. v. 97) ; but the standard ortho-  graphy has been introduced in our text, except that  E has been retained in seculum and sepio (and its  compounds : v. 141, 150, 157, 162, vii. 7, 13), which  always appear in this form.   3. OE and U : The writing OE is kept where it  appears in the manuscript or is supported by the  context : moerus and derivatives v. 50, 141 bis, 143,  vi. 87 ; moenere, moenitius v. 141 ; Poenicum v. 113,  viii. 65 bis ; poeniendo v. 177. OE in other words is  the standard orthography.   xviii     INTRODUCTION     4. VO UO and VU UU : Varro certainly wrote  only VO or UO, but the manuscript rarely shows  VO or UO in inflectional syllables. The examples  are novom ix. 20 (corrected from nouum in F) ; nomina-  tuom ix. 95, x. 30 (both -tiuom F) ; obliquom x. 50 ;  loquontur vi. 1, ix. 85 ; sequontur x. 71 ; clivos v. 158 ;  perhaps amburvom v. 127 (impurro Fv). In initial  syllables VO is almost regular : volt vi. 47, etc. ;  volpes v. 101 ; volgus v. 58, etc., but vulgo viii. 66 ;  Folcanus v. 70y etc. ; volsillis ix. 33. Examples of the  opposite practice are aequum vi. 71 ; duum x. 11 ;  antiquus vi. 68 ; sequuntur viii. 25 ; confiuunt x. 50.  Our text preserves the manuscript readings.   5. UV before a vowel : Varro probably wrote U and  not UV before a vowel, except initially, where his  practice may have been the other way. The examples  are : Pacuius v. 60, vi. 6 (catulus (Fv)), 94, vii. 18, 76,  and Pacuvius v. 17, 24, vii. 59 ; gen. Pacui v. 7, vi. 6,   vii. 22 ; Pacuium vii. 87, 88, 91 , 102 ; compluium,  impluium v. 161, and pluvia v. 161, compluvium v. 125 ;  simpuium v. 124 bis (simpulum codd.) ; cf. panuvellium  v. 114. Initially : uvidus v. 24 ; uvae, uvore v. 104 ;  uvidum v. 109-   6. U and I : Varro shows in medial syllables a  variation between U and I, before P or B or F or M  plus a vowel. The orthography of the manuscript  has been retained in our text, though it is likely  that Varro regularly used U in these types :   The superlative and similar words : albissumum   viii. 75 ; fnigalissumus viii. 77 ; c{a)esi(s)sumus viii.  76; intumus v. 154; maritumae v. 113; melissumum   viii. 76 ; optumum vii. 51 ; pauperrumus viii. 77 ;  proxuma etc. v. 36, 93, ix. 115, x. 4, 26 ; septuma etc.   ix. 30, x. 46 ler ; Septumio v. 1, vii. 109 5 superrumo   xix     INTRODUCTION     vii. 51 ; decuma vi. 54. Cf. proximo, optima maxima  v. 102, minimum vii. 101, and many in viii. 75-78.   Compounds of -fex and derivatives : pontufex v. 83,  pontufices v. 83 (F 2 for pontifices) ; artufices ix. 12 ;  sacrujiciis v. 98, 124. Cf. pontifices v. 23, vi. 54, etc. ;  artifex v. 93, ix. Ill, etc. ; sacrificium vii. 88, etc.   Miscellaneous words : monumentum v. 148, but  monimentum etc. v. 41 , vi. 49 bis ; mancupis v. 40, but  mancipium etc. v. 163, vi. 74, 85 ; quadrupes v. 34,  but quadripedem etc. vii. 39 bis, quadriplex etc. x. 46  etc., quadripertita etc. v. 12 etc.   7. LUBET and LIBET : Varro probably wrote  lubet, lubido, etc., but the orthography varies, and the  manuscript tradition is kept in our text : lubere  lubendo vi. 47, lubenter vii. 89, lubitum ix. 34, lubidine  x. 56 ; and libido vi. 47, x. 60, libidinosus Libentina  Libitina vi. 47, libidine x. 61.   8. H : Whether Varro used the initial H according  to the standard practice at Rome, is uncertain. In  the country it was likely to be dropped in pronuncia-  tion ; and the manuscript shows variation in its use.  We have restored the H in our text according to the  usual orthography, except that irpices, v. 136 bis, has  been left because of the attendant text. Examples  of its omission are Arpocrates v. 57 ; Ypsicrates v. 88 ;  aedus ircus v. 97 ; olus olera v. 108, x. 50 ; olitorium  v. 146 ; olitores vi. 20 ; ortis v. 103, ortorum v. 146 bis,  orti vi. 20 ; aruspex vii. 88. These are normalized in  our text, along with certain other related spellings :  sepulchrum vii. 24 is made to conform to the usual  sepulcrum, and the almost invariable nichil and  nichili have been changed to nihil and nihili.   9. X and CS : There are traces of a writing CS for  X, which has in these instances been kept in the text :  xx     INTRODUCTION     arcs vii. 44 {ares F) ; acsitiosae (ac sitiose F), acsitiosa  (ac sitio a- F) vi. 66 ; dues (duces F) x. 57.   10. Doubled Consonants : Varro's practice in this  matter is uncertain, in some words. F regularly  has littera (only Uteris v. 3 has one T), but obliterata  (ix. 16, -atae ix. 21, -at-trf v. 52), and these spellings  are kept in our text. Communis has been made  regular, though F usually has one M ; casus is in-  variable, except for de cassu in cassum viii. 39, which  has been retained as probably coming from Varro  himself. Iupiter, with one P, is retained, because  invariable in F ; the only exception is Iuppitri viii. 33  (iuppiti F), which has also been kept. Numo vi. 61,  for nummo, has been kept as perhaps an archaic  spelling. Decusis ix. 81 has for the same reason been  kept in the citation from Lucilius. In a few words  the normal orthography has been introduced in the  text : grallator vii. 69 bis for gralaior, grabatis viii. 32  for grabattis. For combinations resulting from pre-  fixes see the next paragraph.   11. Consonants of Prefixes : Varro's usage here  is quite uncertain, whether he kept the unassimilated  consonants in the compounds. Apparently in some  groups he made the assimilations, in others he did not.  The evidence is as follows, the variant orthography  being retained in our text :   Ad-c- : always acc-, except possibly adcensos vii.  58 (F 2 , for acensos F 1 ).   Ad-f- : always off-, except adfuerit vi. 40.   Ad-l- : always all-, except adlocutum vi. 57, adlucet  vi. 79, adlatis (ablatis F) ix. 21.   Ad-m- : always adm-, except ammonendum v. 6,  amministrat vi. 78, amminicula vii. 2, amminister vii. 34  (F2, for adm- F*).   xxi     INTRODUCTION     Ad-s- : regularly ass-, but also adserere vi. 64,  adsiet vi. 92, adsimus vii. 99? adsequi viii. 8, x. 9> a^-  significare often (always except assignificant vii. 80),  adsumi viii. 69, adsumat ix. 42, adsumere x. 58.   Ad-sc-, ad-sp-, ad-st- : always with loss of the D,  as in ascendere, ascribere, ascriptos (vii. 57), ascriptivi  (vii. 56), aspicere, aspectus, astans.   Ad-t- : always a#-, except adtributa v. 48, and  possibly adtinuit (F 1 , but a^- F 2 ) ix. 59-   Con-l-, con-b-, con-m-, con-r-: always coll-, comb-,  comm.-, corr-.   Con-p- : always comp-, except conpernis ix. 10.   Ex-f- : always eff-, except exfluit v. 29.   Ex-s- : exsolveret v. 176, exsuperet vi. 50, but  exuperantum vii. 18 (normalized in our text to  exsuperantum).   Ex-sc- : exculpserant v. 143.   Ex-sp- : always expecto etc. vi. 82, x. 40, etc.   Ex-sq- : regularly Esquiliis ; but Exquilias v. 25,  Exquiliis v. 159 (Fv)i normalized to Esq- in our text.   Ex-st : extol v. 8, vi. 78 ; but exstat v. 3, normalized  to extat in our text.   In-l- : usually ill-, but inlicium vi. 88 bis, 93 (illici-  tum F), 94, 95, inliceret vi. 90, inliciatur vi. 94 ; the  variation is kept in our text:   In-m- : always imm-, except in (i?i)mutatis vi. 38,  where the restored addition is unassimilated to indi-  cate the negative prefix and not the local in.   In-p- : always imp-, except inpos v. 4 bis (once  ineos F), inpotem v. 4 (inpotentem F), inplorat vi. 68.   Ob-c-, ob-f-, ob-p- : always occ-, off-, opp-.   Ob-t- : always opt-, as in optineo etc. vii. 17, 91 >  x. 19, optemperare ix. 6.   Per-l- : pellexit vi. 94, but perlucent v. 140.  xxii     INTRODUCTION     Sub-c-, sub-f-, sub-p- : always succ-, suff-, supp-,  except subcidit v. 116.   Subs- and subs- + consonant : regularly sus- + con-  sonant, except subscribunt vii. 107.   Sub-t- : only in suptilius x. 40.   Trans-l- : in tralatum vi. 77, vii. 23, 103, x. 71 ;  tralaticio vi. 55 (tranlatio Fv) and translaticio v. 32,  vi. 64- (translatio F, tranlatio Fv), translaticiis vi. 78.   Trans-v- : in travolat v. 118, and transversus vii. 81,  x. 22, 23, 43. '   Trans-d- : in traducere.   12. DE and DI : The manuscript has been followed  in the orthography of the following : directo vii. 15,  dirigi viii. 26, derecti x. 22 bis, deriguntur derectorum  x. 22, derecta directis x. 43, directas x. 44, derigitur  x. 74 ; deiunctum x. 45, deiunctae x. 47.   13. Second Declension : Nora. sing, and acc. sing,  in -uom and -uum, see 5.   Gen. sing, of nouns in -ius : Varro used the form  ending in a single I (cf. viii. 36), and a few such forms  stand in the manuscript : Muci v. 5 (muti F) ; Pacui  v. 7, vi. 6, vii. 22 ; Mani vi. 90 5 Quinti vi. 92, Ephesi   viii. 22 (ephesis F), Plauti et Marci viii. 36, dispendi   ix. 54 (quoted, metrical ; alongside dispendii ix. 54).  The gen. in II is much commoner ; both forms are  kept in our text.   Nom. pi., written by Varro with EI (cf. ix. 80) ;  examples are given in 1 , above.   Gen. pi. : The older form in -um for certain words  (denarium, centumvirum, etc.) is upheld viii. 71,  ix. 82, 85, and occurs occasionally elsewhere :  Velabrum v. 44, Querquetulanum v. 49, Sabinum v.  74, etc.   Dat.-abl. pi., written by Varro with EIS (cf. ix. 80) ;   xxiii     INTRODUCTION     examples are given in 1, above, but the manuscript  regularly has IS.   Dat.-abl. pi. of nouns ending in -ius, -ia, -turn, are  almost always written IIS ; there are a few for which  the manuscript has IS, which we have normalized to  IIS : Gabis v. 33, (Es)quilis v. 50, kostis v. 98, Publicis   v. 158, Faleris v. 162, praeverbis vi. 82 (cf. praeverbiis   vi. 38 bis), mysteris vii. 34- (cf. mysteriis vii. 19) 5 miliaris  ix. 85 (inilitaris F).   Deus shows the following variations : Nom. pi.  de{e)i viii. 70, dei v. 57, 58 bis, 66, 71, vii. 36, ix. 59,  dii v. 58, 144, vii. 16 ; dat.-abl. pi. deis v. 122, vii. 45,  diis v. 69, 71, 182, vi. 24, 34, vii. 34.   14. Third Declension : The abl. sing, varies  between E and I : supellectile viii. 30, 32, ix. 46, and  supellectili ix. 20 (-lis F) ; cf. also vesperi (uespert- F)  and vespere ix. 73.   Nom. pi., where ending in IS in the manuscript, is  altered to ES ; the examples are mediocris v. 5 ; partis   v. 21, 56; ambonis v. 115; urbis v. 143; aedis v. 160;  compluris vi. 15 ; Novendialis vi. 26 ; auris vi. 83 ; dis-  parilis viii. 67; lentis'vs.. 34; omnis ix. 81; dissimilis  ix. 92.   Gen. pi. in UM and IUM, see viii. 67. In view  of dentum viii. 67, expressly championed by Varro,  Veientum v. 30 (uenientum F), caelestum vi. 53, Quiritum   vi. 68 have been kept in our text.   Acc. pi. in ES and IS, see viii. 67. Varro 's dis-  tribution of the two endings seems to have been  purely empirical and arbitrary, and the manuscript  readings have been retained in our text.   15. Fourth Declension : Gen. sing. : Gellius,  Nodes Atticae iv. 16. 1, tells us that Varro always used  UIS in this form. Nonius Marcellus 483-494 M. cites  xxiv     INTRODUCTION     eleven such forms from Varro, but also sumpti. The  De Lingua Latina gives the following partial examples  of this ending : usuis ix. 4 (suis F), x. 73 (usui F), casuis  x. 50 {casuum F), x. 62 (casus his F). Examples of  this form ending in US are kept in our text : fructus   v. 34, 134, senatus v. 87, exercitus v. 88, panus v. 105,  domus v. 162, census v. 181, mofws vi. 3, sonitus vi. 67   sensus vi. 80, wjms viii. 28, 30 c, except as noted below.   Letters changed from the manuscript reading are  printed in italics.   Some obvious additions, and the following changes,  are sometimes not further explained by critical notes :   ae with italic a, for manuscript e.  oe, with italic o, for manuscript ae or e.  italic b and v, for manuscript u and b.  italic f andpA, for manuscript ph andf.  italic i and y, for manuscript y and i.  italic h, for an h omitted in the manuscript.   The manuscripts are referred to as follows ; read-  ings without specification of the manuscript are  from F :   F=Laurentianus li. 10 ; No. 1 in our list.   F 1 or m 1 , the original writer of F, or the first  hand.   F 2 or m 2 , the corrector of F, or the second hand.  Fv = readings from the lost quaternion of F, as  recorded by Victorius ; our No. 2.   xlix     INTRODUCTION     Frag. Cass. = Cassinensis 361 ; our No. 3.  f= Laurentianus li. 5 ; our No. 5.  H= Havniensis ; our No. 6.  G = Gothanus ; our No. 7.   a = Parisinus 7489 ; our No. 8.   6 = Parisinus 6142 ; our No. 9-   c=Parisinus 7535 ; our No. 10.  V= Vindobonensis lxiii. ; our No. 1 1 .  p = Basiliensis F iv. 13 ; our No. 12.  M= Guelferbytanus 896 ; our No. 13.  B = that used by Augustinus ; our No. 14.   The following abbreviations are used for editors  and editions (others are referred to by their full  names) :   Laetus = editio princeps of Pomponius Laetus.  Rhol. = Rholandellus, whose first edition was in  1475.   Pius = Baptista Pius, edition of 1510.  Aug. = Antonius Augustinus, editor of the Vul-  gate edition 1554, reprinted 1557.  Sciop. = Gaspar Scioppius, edition of 1602, re-  printed 1605.  L. Sp. = Leonhard Spengel, edition of 1826 (and  articles).   Mue. = Karl Ottfried Mueller, edition of 1833.  A. Sp. = Andreas Spengel, edition of 1885 (and  articles).   GS. = G. Goetz and F. Schoell, edition of 1910.     1     M. TERENTI VARRONIS  DE LINGUA LATINA     De Disciplina Originum Verborum ad   ClCERONEM  LIBER II1I EXPLICIT ; INCIPIT   LIBER V   I. 1. Quemadmodum vocabula essent imposita rebus  in lingua Latina, sex libris exponere institui. De  his tris ante hunc feci quos Septumio misi : in quibus  est de disciplina, quam vocant eri'/ioAoyi/ojv 1 : quae  contra ea(m) 2 dicerentur, volumine primo, quae pro  ea, secundo, quae de ea, tertio. In his ad te scribam,  a quibus rebus vocabula imposita sint in lingua  Latina, et ea quae sunt in consuetudine apud (popu-  lum et ea quae inveniuntur apud) 3 poetas.   2. Cuwz 1 unius cuiusque verbi naturae sint duae,  a qua re et in qua re vocabulum sit impositum (itaque   § 1. 1 For ethimologicen. 2 Rhol., for ea. 3 Added  by A. Sp.   §2. 1 Rhol., for cui.   §1. "Books II. -VII. ; Book I. was introductory.  * Books II.-IV. e Quaestor to Varro, cf. vii. 109 ; but  when or where is not known. Possibly he was the writer  on architecture mentioned by Vitruvius, de Arch. vii. praef.  1 4, and even the composer of the Libri Observationttm men-   2     MARCUS TERENTIUS VARRCTS  ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE   Ox THE SciEXCE OF THE ORIGIN OF WORDS,  ADDRESSED TO ClCERO   BOOK IV EXDS HERE, AND HERE BEGINS   BOOK V   I. 1. In what way names were applied to things  in Latin, I have undertaken to expound, in six books."  Of these, I have already composed three b before this  one, and have addressed them to Septumius c ; in  them I treat of the branch of learning which is called  Etymology. The considerations whichmight be raised  against it, I have put in the first book ; those adduced  in its favour, in the second ; those merely describing  it, in the third. In the following books, addressed  to you, d I shall discuss the problem from what things  names were applied in Latin, both those which are  habitual with the ordinary folk, and those which are  found in the poets.   2. Inasmuch as each and every word has two  innate features, from what thing and to what thing   tioned by Quintilian, Inst. Orat. iv. 1. 19. d Cicero, to  whom Varro addresses the balance of the work, Books  V.-XXV., written apparently in 47-45 b.c.   3     VARRO     a qua re sit pertinacia cum requi(ri)tur, 2 ostenditur 3  esse a perten(den)do 4 ; in qua re sit impositum  dicitur cum demonstratur, in quo non debet pertendi  et pertendit, pertinaciam esse, quod in quo oporteat  manere, si in eo perstet, perseverantia sit), priorem  illam partem, ubi cur et unde sint verba scrutantur,  Graeci vocant £Tu//oAoyiav, 5 illam alteram Trtp(}) °" r l-  /xcuvo/xevwi'. De quibus duabus rebus in his libris  promiscue dicam, sed exilius de posteriore.   3. Quae ideo sunt obscuriora, quod neque omnis  impositio verborum extat, 1 quod vetustas quasdam  delevit, nec quae extat sine mendo omnis imposita,  nec quae recte est imposita, cuncta manet (multa  enim verba li(t)teris commutatis sunt interpolata),  neque omnis origo est nostrae linguae e vernaculis  verbis, et multa verba aliud nunc ostendunt, aliud  ante significabant, ut hostis : nam turn eo verbo  dicebant peregrinum qui suis legibus uteretur, nunc  dicunt eum quern turn dicebant perduellem.   4. In quo genere verborum aut casu erit illustrius  unde videri possit origo, inde repetam. Ita fieri  oportere apparet, quod recto casu quom 1 dicimus  inpos, 2 obscurius est esse a potentia qua(m> 3 cum   2 OS., for sequitur. 3 For hostenditur. 4 Rhol., for  pertendo. 5 For ethimologiam.   § 3. 1 For exstat.   § 4. 1 Aug., with B, for quem. 2 p, Laetus, for ineos.   3 For qua.   § 2. ° Properly an abstract formed from pertinax, itself a  compound of tenax ' tenacious,' derived from tenere ' to hold.'  § 3. ° Cf. vii. 49.   § 4. Not from potentia ; but both from radical pot-.   4     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 2-4     the name is applied (therefore, when the question is  raised from what thing pertinacia ' obstinacy ' is,° it  is shown to be from pertendere ' to persist ' : to what  thing it is applied, is told when it is explained that it  is pertinacia ' obstinacy ' in a matter in which there  ought not to be persistence but there is, because it  is perseverantia ' steadfastness ' if a person persists in  that in which he ought to hold firm), that former  part, where they examine why and whence words are,  the Greeks call Etymology, that other part they call  Semantics. Of these two matters I shall speak in the  following books, not keeping them apart, but giving  less attention to the second.   3. These relations are often rather obscure for the  following reasons : Not every word that has been  applied, still exists, because lapse of time has blotted  out some. Not every word that is in use, has been  applied without inaccuracy of some kind, nor does  every word which has been applied correctly remain  as it originally was ; for many words are disguised by  change of the letters. There are some whose origin  is not from native words of our own language. Many  words indicate one thing now, but formerly meant  something else, as is the case with hostis ' enemy ' :  for in olden times by this word they meant a foreigner  from a country independent of Roman laws, but now  they give the name to him whom they then called  perduellis ' enemy.' a   4. I shall take as starting-point of my discussion  that derivative or case-form of the words in which the  origin can be more clearly seen. It is evident that we  ought to operate in this way, because when we say  inpos ' lacking power ' in the nominative, it is less  clear that it is from potentia a ' power ' than when we   5     VARRO     dicimus inpotem 4 ; et eo obscurius fit, si dicas pos  quam 5 inpos : videtur enim pos significare potius  pontem quam potentem.   5. Vetustas pauca non depravat, multa tollit.  Quem puerum vidisti formosum, hunc vides defor-  mem in senecta. Tertium seculum non videt eum  homincm quem vidit primum. Quare ilia quae iam  maioribus nostris ademit oblivio, fugitiva secuta  sedulitas Muci 1 et Bruti retrahere nequit. Non, si  non potuero indagare, eo ero tardior, sed velocior  ideo, si quivero. Non mediocres 2 enim tenebrae in  silva ubi haec captanda neque eo quo pervenire  volumus semitae tritae, neque non in tramitibus  quaedam obz'ecta 3 quae euntem retinere possent.   6. Quorum verborum novorum ac veterum dis-  cordia omnis in consuetudine com(m)uni, quot modis 1  commutatio sit facta qui animadverterit, facilius  scrutari origines patietur verborum : reperiet enim  esse commutata, ut in superioribus libris ostendi,  maxime propter bis quaternas causas. Litterarum  enim fit demptione aut additione et propter earum  tra(ie)ctionem 2 aut commutationem, item syllabarum  productione (aut correptione, denique adiectione aut   4 Aug., for inpotentem. 5 Aug., with B, for postquam.   § 5. 1 For muti. 2 For mediocris. 3 For oblecta.   § 6. 1 After modis, Fr. Fritzsche deleted litterarum.  2 Scaliger and Popma,for tractationem.     * Avoided in practice, in favour of dissyllabic potis. " Be-  cause the nasal was almost or quite lost before s ; cf. the  regular inscriptional spelling cosol= consul.   § 5. ° P. Mucius Scaevola and M. Junius Brutus, distin-  guished jurists and writers on law in the period 150-130 b.c.  Mucius, as pontifex maximus, seems to have collected and  6     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. e(n)ta'fodinae 2 et viocurus ? Secundus quo  grammatica escendit 3 antiqua, quae ostendit, quem-  admodum quodque poeta finxerit verbum, quod  confinxerit, quod declinarit ; hie Pacui :   Rudentum sibilus,   hie :   Incwrvicervicum 4 pecus,   hie :   Clamide clupeat bacchium. s   8. Tertius gradus, quo philosophia ascendens per-  venit atque ea quae in consuetudine communi essent  aperire coepit, 1 ut a quo dictum esset oppidum, vicus,  via. Quartus, ubi est adytum 2 et initia regis : quo  si non perveniam (ad) 3 scientiam, at* opinionem  aucupabor, quod etiam in salute nostra nonnunquam  facit 5 cum aegrotamus medicus.   3 Added by Kent, after Scaliger, Mite., OS. ; cf. Quintilian,  hist. Orat. i. 6. 32. 4 After libris, Aug. deleted qui.   §7. 1 After infimus, Sciop. deleted in. 2 Canal, for  aretofodine. 3 Sciop., for descendit. 4 O, Aldus, for  inceruice ruicum. 8 For bacchium.   §8. 1 For caepit. 2 Sciop., for aditum. 3 Added by  L. Sp. 4 Sciop., for ad. 5 Aldus, with p, for fecit.     § 7. ° Cf. viii. 62. 6 Teucer, Trag. Rom. Frag. 336  Ilibbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 296-297 Warmington. c Ex inc. fab.  xliv, verse 408, Trag. Rom. Frag. Ribbeck 3 , R.O.L. ii. 292-293  Warmington, referring to the dolphins of Nereus ; the entire   8     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. &-8     by examples, in the preceding books, of what sort  these phenomena are, I have thought that here I  need only set a reminder of that previous discussion.   7. Now I shall set forth the origins of the indivi-  dual words, of which there are four levels of explana-  tion. The lowest is that to which even the common  folk has come ; who does not see the sources of  argentifodinae a ' silver-mines ' and of viocurus ' road-  overseer ' ? The second is that to which old-time  grammar has mounted, which shows how the poet has  made each word which he has fashioned and derived.  Here belongs Pacuvius's 6   The whistling of the ropes,   here his c   Incurvate-necked flock,   here his d   With his mantle he beshields his arm.   8. The third level is that to which philosophy  ascended, and on arrival began to reveal the nature of  those words which are in common use, as, for example,  from what oppidum ' town ' was named, and vicus ' row  of houses,' a and via ' street.' The fourth is that  where the sanctuary is, and the mysteries of the high-  priest : if I shall not arrive at full knowledge there, at  any rate I shall cast about for a conjecture, which  even in matters of our health the physician sometimes  does when we are ill.   verse in Quintilian, Inst. Orat. i. 5. 67, Nerei repandirostrum  incurvicervicum pecus. d Hermiona, Trag. Rom. Frag. 186  Ribbeck 3 , R.O.L. ii. 232-233 Warmington ; the entire verse in  Nonius Marcellus, 87. 23 M. : currum liquit, clamide contorta  astu clipeat braccium.   § 8. ° From this meaning, either an entire small ' village '  or a ' street ' in a large city.   9     VARRO     9. Quodsi summum gradum non attigero, tamen  secundum praeteribo, quod non solum ad Aris-  tophanis lucernam, sed etiam ad CleantAis lucubravi.  Volui praeterire eos, qui poetarum modo verba ut  sint ficta expediunt. Non enim videbatur consen-  taneum qua(e>re 1 me in eo verbo quod finxisset  Ennius causam, neglegere quod ante rex Latinus  finxisset, cum poeticis multis verbis magis delecter  quam utar, antiquis magis utar quam delecter. An  non potius mea verba ilia quae hereditate a Romulo  rege venerunt quam quae a poeta Livio relicta ?   10. Igitur quoniam in haec sunt tripertita verba,  quae sunt aut nostra aut aliena aut oblivia, de nostris  dicam cur sint, de alienis unde sint, de obliviis re-  linquam : quorum partim quid ta(men) invenerim  aut opiner 1 scribam. In hoc libro dicam de vocabulis  locorum et quae in his sunt, in secundo de temporum  et quae in his fiunt, in tertio de utraque re a poetis  comprehensa.   11. Pythagoras Samius ait omnium rerum initia  esse bina ut finitum et infinitum, bonum et malum,   §9. 1 Aug., for quare.   § 10. 1 After A. Sp., with tamen from Fay's quo loco  tamen ; for quo ita inuenerim ita opiner.   §9. Aristophanes of Byzantium, 262-185 b.c, pupil of  Zenodotus and Callimachus at Alexandria, and himself one  of the greatest of the Alexandrian grammarians, who busied  himself especially with the textual correction and editing of  the Greek authors, notably Homer, Hesiod, and the lyric  poets. 6 Frag. 485 von Arnim ; Cleanthes of Assos, 331-  232 b.c, pupil and successor of Zeno, founder of the Stoic  school of philosophy (died 264), as head of the school, at  Athens, and author of many works on all phases of the Stoic  teaching. e L. Livius Andronicus, c. 284-202 b.c, born at  Tarentum ; first epic and dramatic poet of the Romans.   §11. Pythagoras, born probably in Samos about 567 b.c,   10     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. $-11     9. But if I have not reached the highest level, I  shall none the less go farther up than the second,  because I have studied not only by the lamp of Aris-  tophanes, but also by that of Cleanthes. 6 I have  desired to go farther than those who expound only  how the words of the poets are made up. For it did  not seem meet that I seek the source in the case of  the word which Ennius had made, and neglect that  which long before King Latinus had made, in view of  the fact that I get pleasure rather than utility from  many words of the poets, and more utility than  pleasure from the ancient words. And in fact are  not those words mine which have come to me by  inheritance from King Romulus, rather than those  which were left behind by the poet Livius ? c   10. Therefore since words are divided into these  three groups, those which are our own, those which  are of foreign origin, and those which are obsolete and  of forgotten sources, I shall set forth about our own  why they are, about those of foreign origin whence  they are, and as to the obsolete I shall let them alone :  except that concerning some of them I shall none the  less write what I have found or myself conjecture. In  this book I shall tell about the words denoting places  and those things which are in them ; in the follow-  ing book I shall tell of the words denoting times and  those things which take place in them : in the third  I shall tell of both these as expressed by the poets.   11. Pythagoras the Samian says that the primal  elements of all things are in pairs, as finite and infinite,   removed to Croton in South Italy about 529 and was there the  founder of the philosophic-political school of belief which  attaches to his name. His teachings were oral only, and  were reduced to writing by his followers.   11     VARRO     vitam et mortem, diem et noctem. Quare item duo  status et motus, (utrumque quadripertitum) 1 : quod  stat aut agitatur, corpus, ubi agitatur, locus, dum  agitatur, tempus, quod est in agitatu, actio. Quadri-  pertitio magis sic apparebit : corpus est ut cursor,  locus stadium qua currit, tempus hora qua currit,  actio cursio.   12. Quare fit, ut ideo fere omnia sint quadri-  pertita et ea aeterna, quod neque unquam tempus,  quin fuerit 1 motus : eius enim 2 intervallum tempus ;  ncque motus, ubi non locus et corpus, quod alterum  est quod movetur, alterum ubi ; neque ubi is agitatus,  non actio ibi. Igitur initiorum quadrigae locus et  corpus, tempus et actio.   13. Quare quod quattuor genera prima rerum,  totidem verborum : e quis (de) locis et ns 1 rebus quae  in his videntur in hoc libro summatim ponam. Sed  qua cognatio eius erit verbi quae radices egerit extra  fines suas, persequemur. Saepe enim ad limitem  arboris radices sub vicini prodierunt segetem. Quare  non, cum de locis dicam, si ab agro ad agrarium 2  hominem, ad agricolam pervenero, aberraro. Multa   §11. 1 Added by L. Sp.   §12. 1 For fuerint. 2 A ug., for animi.   § 13. 1 L. Sp., for uerborum enim horum dequis locis et   his. 2 L. Sp., for agrosium.     § 13. ° Celebrated on April 23 and August 19, when an  offering of new wine was made to Jupiter ; cf. vi. 16 and  vi. 20.  12     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 11-13     good and bad, life and death, day and night. There-  fore likewise there are the two fundamentals, station  and motion, each divided into four kinds : what is  stationary or is in motion, is body ; where it is in  motion, is place ; while it is in motion, is time ; what  is inherent in the motion, is action. The fourfold  division will be clearer in this way : body is, so to  speak, the runner, place is the race-course where he  runs, time is the period during which he runs, action is  the running.   12. Therefore it comes about that for this reason  all things, in general, are divided into four phases,  and these universal ; because there is never time  without there being motion — for even an intermission  of motion is time — ; nor is there motion where  there is not place and body, because the latter is  that which is moved, and the former is where ; nor  where this motion is, does there fail to be action.  Therefore place and body, time and action are the  four-horse team of the elements.   13. Therefore because the primal classes of things  are four in number, so many are the primal classes of  words. From among these, concerning places and  those things which are seen in them, I shall put a  summary account in this book ; but we shall follow  them up wherever the kin of the word under discus-  sion is, even if it has driven its roots beyond its own  territory. For often the roots of a tree which is close  to the line of the property have gone out under the  neighbour's cornfield. Wherefore, when I speak of  places, I shall not have gone astray, if from ager  ' field ' I pass to an agrarius ' agrarian ' man, and to  an agricola ' farmer.' The partnership of words is one  of many members : the Wine Festival a cannot be set   13     VARRO     societas verborum, nec Vinalia sine vino expediri nec  Curia Calabra sine calatione potest aperiri.   II. 14. Incipiam de locis ob 1 ipsius loci origine.  Locus est, ubi locatum quid esse potest, ut nunc  dicunt, collocatum. Veteres id dicere solitos apparet  apud Plautum :   Filiam habeo grandem dote cassa(m> atque   inlocabile 3  Neque earn queo locare cuiquam.   Apud Ennium :   O Terra T/jraeca, ubi Liberi fanum incZutfum 3  Maro 4 locavi. 5   15. Ubi quidque consistit, locus. Ab eo praeco  dicitur locare, quod usque idem it, 1 quoad in aliquo  constitit pretium. In(de) 2 locarium quod datur in  stabulo et taberna, ubi consistant. Sic loci muliebres,  ubi nascendi initia consistunt.   III. 16. Loca natura(e) 1 secundum antiquam  divisionem prima duo, terra et caelum, deinde par-  ticulatim utriusque multa. Caeli dicuntur loca su-   § 14. 1 Sciop., for sub. 2 So Plautus, for cassa dote  atque inlocabili F ; Plautus also has virginem for filiam.  3 Wilhelm, for inciuium. 4 For miro F 2 , maro F 1 .  6 Ribbeck, for locaui.   § 15. 1 Turnebus, for id emit. 2 Laetus,for in.   § 16. 1 Aug., for natura.     6 A place on the Capitoline Hill, near the cottage of  Romulus, and also the meeting held there on the Kalends,  when the priests announced the number of days until the  Nones ; cf. vi. 27, and Macrobius, Saturnalia, i. 15. 7.   § 14. a Theuncompounded word; which, like its compound,  meant both ' established in a fixed position ' and ' established  in a marriage.' b Aulularia, 191-192. e That is, in  marriage. d Trag. Rom. Frag. 347-348 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L.   14     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 13-16     on its way without wine, nor can the Curia Calabra  ' Announcement Hall ' b be opened without the  calatio ' proclamation.'   II. 14. Among places, I shall begin with the  origin of the word locus ' place ' itself. Locus is where  something can be locatum a ' placed,' or as they say  nowadays, colhcatum ' established.' That the ancients  were wont to use the word in this meaning, is clear in  Plautus 6 :   I have a grown-up daughter, lacking dower,   unplaceable,'  Nor can I place her now with anyone.   In Ennius we find d :   O Thracian Land, where Bacchus' fane renowned  Did Maro place.   15. Where anything comes to a standstill, is a locus  ' place.' From this the auctioneer is said locare 1 to  place ' because he is all the time likewise going on  until the price comes to a standstill on someone.  Thence also is locarium ' place-rent,' which is given  for a lodging or a shop, where the payers take their  stand. So also loci muliebres ' woman's places,' where  the beginnings of birth are situated.   III. 16. The primal places of the universe, accord-  ing to the ancient division, are two, terra ' earth ' and  caelum ' sky,' and then, according to the division into  items, there are many places in each. The places of  the sky are called loca super a ' upper places,' and   i. 376-377 Warmington. Maro, son of Euanthes and priest  of Apollo in the Thracian Ismaros, in thanks for protection  for himself and his followers, gave Ulysses a present of  excellent wine (Odyssey, ix. 197 ff.). Because of this, later  legend drew him into the Dionysiac circle, as son or grandson  of Bacchus, or otherwise. There were even cults of Maro  himself in Maroneia, Samothrace, and elsewhere.   15     VARRO     pera et ea deorum, terrae loca infcra et ea hominum.  Ut Asia sic caelum dicitur modis duobus. Nam et  Asia, quae non Europa, in quo etiam Syria, et Asia  dicitur prioris pars Asiae, in qua est Ionia ac provincia  nostra.   17. Sic caelum et pars eius, summum ubi stellae,  et id quod Pacuvius cum demonstrat dicit :   Hoc vide circum supraque quod complexu continet  Terram.   Cui subiungit :   Id quod nostri caelum memorant.   A qua bipertita divisione Lua'Zius 1 suorum un(i)us 2  et viginti librorum initium fecit hoc :   Aetheris et terrae genitabile quaerere tempus.   18. Caelum dictum scribit Aelius, quod est  ccelatum, aut contrario nomine, celatum quod aper-  tum est ; non male, quod (im)positor 1 multo potius  (caelare) 2 a caelo quam caelum a caelando. Sed non   § 17. 1 Scaliger, for lucretius. 2 Laetus, for unum.  § 18. 1 GS.,for posterior. 2 Added by Scaliger.   § 16. ° Asia originally designated probably only a town or  small district in Lydia, and then came to be what we now call  Asia Minor, and finally the entire continent. 6 Ionia was  a coastal region of Asia Minor, including Smyrna, Ephesus,  Miletus, etc., and was included within provincia nostra. But  ' our province ' ran much farther inland, comprising Phrygia,  Mysia, Lydia, Caria (Cicero, Pro Flacco, 27. 65), which explains  the ' and.'   § 17. ° Chryses, Tray. Rom. Fray. 87-88 and 90 Ribbeck 3 ;  R.O.L. 2. 202-203, lines 107-108, 1 1 1 Warmington. 6 Satirae,  verse 1 Marx. As there were thirty books of Lucilius's  Satires, the limitation to twenty-one by Varro must be based  on another division (for which there is evidence), thus : Books  XXVI.-XXX. were written first, in various metres; I.-XXI.,   16     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 16-18   these belong to the gods ; the places of the earth are  loca infer a ' lower places,' and these belong to man-  kind. Caelum ' sky ' is used in two ways, just as is  Asia. For Asia means the Asia, which is not Europe,  wherein is even Syria ; and Asia means also that  part a of the aforementioned Asia, in which is Ionia 6  and our province.   17. So caelum ' sky ' is both a part of itself, the top  where the stars are, and that which Pacuvius means  when he points it out :   See this around and above, which holds in its embrace  The earth.   To which he adds :   .That which the men of our days call the sky.   From this division into two, Lucilius set this as the  start of his twenty-one books 6 :   Seeking the time when the ether above and the  earth were created.   18. Caelum, Aelius writes," was so called because  it is caelatum ' raised above the surface,' or from the  opposite of its idea, 6 celatum ' hidden ' because it is  exposed ; not ill the remark, that the one who applied  the term took caelare ' to raise ' much rather from  caelum than caelum from caelare. But that second   to which Varro here alludes, were a second volume, in dactylic  hexameters, which Lucilius had found to be the best vehicle  for his work; XXII.-XXV. were a third part, in elegiacs,  probably not published until after their author's death.   § 18. ° Page 59 Funaioli. Caelum is probably connected  with a root seen in German heiter ' bright,' and not with the  words mentioned by Varro. 6 Derivation by the contrary  of the meaning, as in ludus, in quo minime luditur ' school, in  which there is very little playing ' (Fesrus, 122. 16 M.).   vol. I c 17     VARRO     minus illud alterum de celando ab eo potuit dici, quod  interdiu celatur, quam quod noctu non celatur.   19. Omnino epk(ap). 3 A  puteis oppidum ut Puteoli, quod incircum eum locum  aquae frigidae et caldae multae, nisi a putore potius,  quod putidus odoribus soepe ex sulphure et alumine.  Extra oppida a puteis puticuli, quod ibi in puteis  obruebantur homines, nisi potius, ut Aelius scribit,  puticuli 4 quod putescebant ibi cadavera proiecta, qui  locus publicus ultra Esquilias. 5 Itaque eum Afranius  /mti/ucos 6 in Togata appellat, quod inde suspiciunt  per p?*teos 7 lumen.   26. Lacus lacuna magna, ubi aqua contineri potest.  Palus paululum aquae in altitudinem et palam latius  diffusae. Stagnum a Graeco, quod ii 1 o-reyvov quod  non habet rimam. 2 Hinc ad villas rutunda 3 stagna,  quod rutundum facillime continet, anguli maxime  laborant.   § 25. 1 For summi. 2 Buttmann, for potamon sic po  tura potu. 3 Victorius, for pe. 4 Mue.,for puticulae.  5 For exquilias. 6 Scaliger, for cuticulos. 7 Canal, for  perpetuos.   § 26. 1 For 11. 2 Scaliger, for nomen habet primam.  3 B, for rutundas.   § 25. Or ' pit ' ; derivative of root in pidare ' to cut,  think,' cf. amputare ' to cut off.' 6 Aeolis, nom. pi. = Greek  AloXeis. " This and ttvtcos are unknown in the extant  remains of Aeolic Greek, but a number of Aeolic words show  the change : anv for a-no, vfioCcos for ofiotcos. d The modern  Pozzuoli, on the Bay of Naples, in a locality characterized  by volcanic springs and exhalations ; Varro's derivation is  correct. * Page 65 Funaioli. ' The Roman ' potters'  field,' for the poor and the slaves. * Com. Rom. Frag.  430 Ribbeck 3 ; with a jesting transposition of the consonants.  Cf. for a similar effect ' pit-lets ' and ' pit-lights.' The  description suggests that they were constructed like the  Catacombs.     24-     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 25-26     25. If this moisture is in the ground no matter  how far down, in a place from which it pote ' can ' be  taken, it is a puteus ' well ' ° ; unless rather because  the Aeolians 6 used to say, like 7ruTa/zos c for Trorafios  ' river,' so also Trvreos ' well ' for iroreos ' drinkable,'  from pohis ' act of drinking,' and not (f>peap ' well ' as  they do now. From patei ' wells ' comes the town-  name, such as Puteoli, d because around this place there  are many hot and cold spring-waters ; unless rather  from putor ' stench,' because the place is often putidus  ' stinking ' with smells of sulphur and alum. Outside  the towns there are puticuli ' little pits,' named from  putei ' pits,' because there the people used to be buried  in putei ' pits ' ; unless rather, as Aelius e writes, the  puticuli are so called because the corpses which had  been thrown out putescebant ' used to rot ' there, in  the public burial-place f which is beyond the Esqui-  line. This place Afranius 9 in a comedy of Roman life  calls the Putiluci ' pit-lights,' for the reason that from  it they look up through putei ' pits ' to the lumen  ' light.*   26. A lacus ' lake ' is a large lacuna a ' hollow,'  where water can be confined. A palus b ' swamp ' is  a paululum ' small amount ' of water as to depth,  but spread quite widely palam ' in plain sight.' A  stagnum c ' pool ' is from Greek, because they gave the  name o-reyvos d ' waterproof ' to that which has no  fissure. From this, at farmhouses the stagna ' pools '  are round, because a round shape most easily holds  water in, but corners are extremely troublesome.   §26. ° Lacuna is a derivative of lacus. 6 Palus, paulu-  lum, palam are all etymologically distinct. e Properly, a  pool without an outlet ; perhaps akin to Greek arayuv ' drop  (of liquid).' d Original meaning, ' covered.'   25     VARRO     27. Fluvius, quod fluit, item flumen : a quo lege  praediorum urbanorum scribitur 1 :   Stillicidia fluminaque 2 ut ita 3 cadant  fluantque ;   inter haec hoc inter(est), quod stillicidium eo quod  stillatim cadit, 4 flumen quod fluit continue.   28. Amnis id flumen quod circuit aliquod : nam  ab ambitu amnis. Ab hoc qui circum Aternum 1  habitant, Amiternini appellati. Ab eo qui popu-  lum candidatus circum it, 2 ambit, et qui aliter facit,  indagabili ex ambitu causam dicit. Itaque Tiberis  amnis, quod ambit Martium Campum et urbem ; op-  pidum Interamna dictum, quod inter amnis est  constitutum ; item Antemnae, quod ante amnis,  qu(a> Anto 3 influit in Tiberim, quod bello male ac-  ceptum consenuit.   29. Tiberis quod caput extra Latium, si inde  nomen quoque exfluit in linguam nostram, nihil (ad) 1  eTv/ioAoyov Latinum, ut, quod oritur ex Samnio,   § 27. 1 For scribitur scribitur. 2 For flumina quae.  8 L. Sp., after Gothofredus, for ut ita. 4 a, Pape, for  cadet.   §28. 1 Aug., with B, for alterunum. 2 For id.  3 Canal, for quanto.   § 29. 1 Added by Thiersch.     § 27. a Cf. Digest, viii. 2. 17. * That is, rain-waters  dripping from roofs and streams resulting from rain shall in  city properties not be diverted from their present courses.  Such supplies of water were in early days a real asset.   § 28. " Probably to be associated with English Avon (from  Celtic word for ' river '), and not with ambire ' to go around.'  b Good etymology ; Amiternum was an old city in the Sabine  country, on the Aternus River ; with ambi- ' around ' in the  form am-, as in amicire ' to place (a garment) around.'     26     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 27-29     27. Fluvhis ' river ' is so named because it jiuit  ' flows,' and likewise jiumen ' river ' : from which is  written, according to the law of city estates,"   Stillicidia ' rain-waters ' and flumina ' rivers ' shall  be allowed to fall and to flow without interference. 6   Between these there is this difference, that stillicidium  ' rain-water ' is so named because it cadit ' falls '  stillatim ' drop by drop,' and Jiumen ' river ' because it  jiuit ' flows ' uninterruptedly.   28. An amnis a is that river which goes around  something ; for amnis is named from ambitus ' circuit.'  From this, those who dwell around the Aternus are  called Amiternini ' men of Amiternum.' 6 From this,  he who circum it ' goes around ' the people as a candi-  date, ambit ' canvasses,' and he who does otherwise  than he should, pleads his case in court as a result  of his investigable ambitus ' canvassing.'" Therefore  the Tiber is called an amnis, because it ambit ' goes  around ' the Campus Martius and the City d ; the  town Interamna ' gets its name from its position  inter amnis ' between rivers ' ; likewise Antemnae,  because it lies ante amnis ' in front of the rivers,' where  the Anio flows into the Tiber — a town which suffered  in war and wasted away until it perished.   29. The Tiber, because its source is outside  Latium, if the name as well flows forth from there  into our language, does not concern the Latin ety-  mologist ; just as the Volturnus, because it starts from   e That is, for corrupt electioneering methods. d The Tiber  swings to the west at Rome, forming a virtual semicircle.  * A city in Umbria, almost encircled by the river Nar.   § 29. Adjective from voltur ' vulture ' ; there was a Mt.  Voltur farther south, on the boundary between Samnium and  Apulia.   27     VARRO     Volturnus nihil ad Latinam linguam : at 2 quod proxi-  mum oppidum ab eo secundum mare Volturnum, ad  nos, iam 3 Latinum vocabulum, ut Tiberinus no(me)n.'  Et colonia enim nostra Volturnu?/? 5 et deus Tiberinus.   30. Sed de Tiberis nomine anceps historia. Nam  et suum Etruria et Latium suum esse credit, quod  fuerunt qui ab Thebri vicino regulo Veientum 1 dixe-  rint appellat?fimam 4 Novam  Viam locus sacellum (Ve>labrum. 5   44. Velabrum a vehendo. Velaturam facere  etiam nunc dicuntur qui id mercede faciunt. Merces  (dicitur a mcrendo et aere) huic vecturae qui ratibus  transibant quadrans. Ab eo Lucilius scripsit :   Quadrantis ratiti.  VIII. 45. Reliqua urbis loca olim discreta, cum  Argeorum sacraria septem et viginti in (quattuor)   §43. x Added by Laetus. 2 Mue., with M, for auen-  tinum. 3 Added by L. Sp. 4 Turnebus, for fimam.  5 Mue., for labrum.     § 43. ° Page 115 Funaioli. Etymologies of place-names  are particularly treacherous ; none of those given here ex-  plains Aventinus. Varro elsewhere (de gente populi Romani,  quoted by Servius in Aen. vii. 657) says that some Sabines  established here by Romulus called it Aventinus from the  Avens, a river of the district from which they had come.  6 Frag. Poet. Rom. 27 Baehrens; R.O.L. ii. 56-57 Warming-  ton. c The spelling with d is required by the sense.  d Varro says that a ferry-raft was called a velabrum, and  that this name was transferred to the passage on which the  rafts had plied, when it was filled in and had become a street ;  but that there survived a chapel in honour of the ferry-rafts.   § 44. ° Correct etymology. 6 Incorrect etymology.   40     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 43-±5     several origins. Naevius b says that it is from the  aves ' birds,' because the birds went thither from  the Tiber ; others, that it is from King Aventinus  the Alban, because he is buried there ; others that it  is the Adventine c Hill, from the adventus ' coming ' of  people, because there a temple of Diana was estab-  lished in which all the Latins had rights in common.  I am decidedly of the opinion, that it is from advectus  ' transport by water ' ; for of old the hill was cut off  from everything else by swampy pools and streams.  Therefore they advehebaniur ' were conveyed ' thither  by rafts ; and traces of this survive, in that the way  by which they were then transported is now called  Velabrum ' fern",' and the place from which they  landed at the bottom of New Street is a chapel of the  Velabra. "   44. Velabrum ° is from vehere ' to convey.' Even  now, those persons are said to do velatura ' ferrying,'  who do this for pay. The merces 6 ' pay ' (so called  from merere ' to earn ' and aes ' copper money ') for  this ferrying of those who crossed by rafts was a  farthing. From this Lucilius wrote c :   Of a raft-marked farthing. 1 *   VIII. 45. The remaining localities of the City  were long' ago divided off, when the twenty-seven   c 1272 Marx. d The quadrans or fourth of an as was  marked with the figure of a raft.   § 45. ° It would seem simpler if the shrines numbered  twenty-four, six in each of the four sections of Rome. But  both here and in vii. 44 the number is driven as twenty-seven.  It is hardly likely that in both places XXUII ( =XXVII) has  been miswritten for XXIIII ; yet this supposition must be  made by those who think that the correct number is twenty-  four.     41     VARRO     partis 1 urbi(s) 2 sunt disposita. Argeos dictos putant  a principibus, qui cum /fercule Argivo venerunt  Romam et in Saturnia subsederunt. E quis prima  scripta est regio Suburana, 3 secunda' Esquilina, tertia  Collina, quarta Palatina.   46. In Suburanae 1 regionis parte princeps est  Caelius mons a C#ele Vibenna, 2 Tusco duce nobili, qui  cum sua manu dicitur Romulo venisse auxilio contra  7atium 3 regem. Hinc post Caelis 4 obitum, quod  nimis munita loca tenerent neque sine suspicione  essent, deducti dicuntur in planum. Ab eis dictus  Vicus Tuscus, et ideo ibi Vortumnum stare, quod is  deus Etruriae princeps ; de Caelianis qui a suspicione  liberi essent, traductos in eum locum qui vocatur  Cfleliolum.   4-7. Cum Cflelio 1 coniunctum Carinae et inter eas  quern locum Caer(i)o/ensem 2 appellatum apparet,   § 45. 1 L. Sp., for sacraria in septem et uiginti partis.  2 Ijaetus, for urbi. 3 Aug., for suburbana F 1 , subura F 2 .   § 46. 1 Aug., with B,for suburbanae. 2 Frag. Cass.,  for uibenno / cf. Tacitus, Ann. iv. 65. 3 Puccius, \oith  Servius in Aen. v. 560, for latinum. 4 Coelis Aug., for  celii.   § 47. 1 Laetus, for celion. 2 Kent ; Caeliolensem ten  Brink {and similarly through the section) ; for ceroniensem.     * Puppets or dolls made of rushes, thrown into the Tiber  from the Pons Sublicius every year on May 14, as a sacrifice  of purification ; the distribution of the shrines from which  they were brought was to enable them to take up the pollu-  tion of the entire city. Possibly the dolls were a substitute  for human victims. The name Argei clearly indicates that  the ceremony was brought from Greece.   § 46. Comparison with § 47, § 50, § 52, § 54, shows that   42     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 45-47     shrines of the Argei 6 were distributed among the four  sections of the City. The Argei, they think, were  named from the chieftains who came to Rome with  Hercules the Argive, and settled down in Saturnia.  Of these sections, the first is recorded as the Suburan  region, the second the Esquiline, the third the Colline,  the fourth the Palatine.   46. In the section of the Suburan region, the first  shrine ° is located on the Caelian Hill, named from  Caeles Yibenna, a Tuscan leader of distinction, who is  said to have come with his followers to help Romulus  against King Tatius. From this hill the followers of  Caeles are said, after his death, to have been brought  down into the level ground, because they were in  possession of a location which was too strongly forti-  fied and their loyalty was somewhat under suspicion.  From them was named the Vicus Tuscus ' Tuscan  Row,' and therefore, they say, the statue of  Vertumnus stands there, because he is the chief god  of Etruria ; but those of the Caelians who were free  from suspicion were removed to that place which is  called Caeliohim ' the little Caelian.' 6   47. Joined to the Caelian is Cannae ' the Keels ' ;  and between them is the place which is called Caerio-   the sacra Argeorum (§ 50) used princeps, terticeps, etc., to  designate numerically the shrines in each pars ; and that the  place-name was set in the nominative alongside the neuter  numeral : therefore " the first is the Caelian Hill " means that  the first shrine is located on that hill. Cf. K. O. Mueller, Zur  Topographle Horns : ilber die Fragmenta der Sacra Argeorum  bei Varro, de Lingua Latlna,v. 8 (pp. 69-94 in C. A. Bottiger,  Archaohgle und Kunst, vol. i., Breslau, 1828). * The  Caeliolum, spoken of also as the Caeliculus (or -um) by  Cicero, De liar. Resp. 15. 32, and as the Caelius Minor by  Martial, xii. 18. 6, seems to have been a smaller and less im-  portant section of the Caelian Hill.   43     VARRO   quod primae regionis quartum sacrarium scriptum sic  est :   Caer(i)olensis 3 : quarticeps 4 circa Minerviuin qua in  Caeli?/(m> monte(m) B itur : in tabernola est.   Cflcrolensis s a Carinarum 7 iunctu dictus ; Carinae  pote a 8 caeri(m)onia, 9 quod hinc oritur caput Sacrae  Viae ab Streniae sacello quae pertinet in arce(m), 10  qua sacra quotquot mensibus feruntur in arcem et  per quam augures ex arce profecti solent inaugurare.  Huius Sacrae Viae pars haec sola volgo nota, quae  est a Foro eunti primore 11 clivo.   48. Eidem regioni adtributa Subura, quod sub  muro terreo Carinarum ; in eo est Argeorum sacel-  lum sextum. Subura(m) 1 Iunius scribit ab eo, quod  fuerit sub antiqua urbc ; cui testimonium potest esse,  quod subest ei 2 loco qui terreus murus vocatur. Sed  (ego a) 3 pago potius Succusano dictam puto Suc-  cusam : (quod in nota etiam) 4 nunc scribitur (SVC) 5   3 Kent, for cerolienses. 4 Aug., for quae triceps.  5 Aug., for celio monte. 6 Kent, for cerulensis. 7 For  carinaernm. 8 Jordan, for postea. 9 cerimonia Bek-  ker, for cerionia. 10 Aug., and Frag. Cass., for arce.  11 Aldus, for primoro.   § 48. 1 Wissowa, for subura. 2 Victorius, for et.  3 Added by Laetus (a Frag. Cass.). 4 Added by Mae.,  after Quintilian, Inst. Orat. i. 7. 29. 5 Added by Merck-  lin, to fill a gap capable of holding three letters, in F ; cf.  Quintilian, loc. cit.     § 47. ° That is, Caeliolensis ' pertaining to the Caeliolus.''  Through separation in meaning from the primitive, the r has  been subject to regular dissimilation as in caerulus for *catlu-  44     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 47-48     lensis, a obviously because the fourth shrine of the first  region is thus written in the records :   Coeriolensis : fourth 6 shrine, near the temple of Minerva,  in the street by which you go up the Caelian Hill ; it is in a  booth.'   Caeriolensis is so called from the joining of the Carinae  with the Caelian. Carinae is perhaps from caerimonia  ' ceremony,' because from here starts the beginning  of the Sacred Way, which extends from the Chapel  of Strenia d to the citadel, by which the offerings are  brought ever)' year to the citadel, and by which the  augurs regularly set out from the citadel for the  observation of the birds. Of this Sacred Way, this  is the only part commonly known, namely the part  which is at the beginning of the Ascent as you go  from the Forum.   48. To the same region is assigned the Subura,  which is beneath the earth-wall of the Cannae ; in it  is the sixth chapel of the Argei. Junius 6 writes that  Subura is so named because it was at the foot of the  old city (sub urbe) ; proof of which may be in the fact  that it is under that place which is called the earth-  wall. But I rather think that from the Succusan dis-  trict it was called Succusa ; for even now when abbre-  viated it is written SVC, with C and not B as third   his, Parilia for Palilia ; possibly association with Carinae  furthered the change. * Cf. § 46, note a. e The words  sinistra via or dexteriore via may have been lost before in  tabernola ; cf. ten Brink's note. d A goddess of health  and physical well-being.   § 48. " Etymology entirely uncertain. The neuters quod  and in eo, referring to Subura, mutually support each other.  6 M. Junius Gracchanus, contemporary and partisan of the  Gracchi ; page 1 1 Huschke. He wrote an antiquarian work  Be Potestatibus.   45     VARRO   tertia littera C, non B. Pagus Succusanus, quod  succurrit Carinis.   49. Sccundac rcgionis Esquiliae. 1 Alii has scrip-  serunt ab excubiis regis dictas, alii ab eo quod (aes-  culis} 2 excultae a rege Tullio essent. Huic origini  magis concinunt loca vicina, 3 quod ibi lucus dicitur  Facutalis et Larum Querquetulanum sacellum et  l?*cus 4 Mefitis et Iunonis Lucinae, quorum angusti  fines. Non mirum : iam diu enim late avaritia una  (domina) 5 est.   50. Esquiliae duo montes habiti, quod pars (Op-  pius pars) 1 Cespzus 2 mons suo antiquo nomine etiam  nunc in sacris appellatur. In Sacris Argeorum  scriptum sic est :   Oppius Mons : princeps quili(i>s 3 u/s 4 l?. 4 Sunt qui,  quod ibi vimineta 5 fuerint. Coin's 6 Quirinalis, (quod  ibi) 7 Quirini fanum. Sunt qui a Quiritibus, qui cum  Tatio Curibus venerunt ad Roma(m), 8 quod ibi  habuerint castra.   52. Quod vocabulum coniunctarum regionum  nomina obliteravit. Dictos enim collis pluris apparet  ex Argeorum Sacrificiis, in quibus scriptum sic est :   Collis Quirinalis : terticeps cis 1 aedem Quirini.  Collis Salutaris : quarticeps adversum est polinar  cis 2 aedem Salutis.   13 Mue., for sceptius. 14 Mue., for quinticepsois.  15 Laetus, for lacum. 16 Scaliger, for esquilinis.   § 51. 1 L. Sp., for colles. 2 Laetus, for uiminales.  3 Aug., with B, for uimino / cf Festus, 376 a 10 M. 4 L.  Sp., after ten Brink (arae eius), for arae. 6 O, Aug., for  uiminata. 6 Laetus, for colles. 7 Added by L. Sp.  8 Ten Brink ; Romam Laetus ; for ab Roma.   § 52. 1 Mue., for terticepsois. 2 Apollinar cis Mue.,  for pilonarois.     c Apparently to be associated with putidus ' stinking,'  because of the mention of Mefitis a few lines before ; but if  so, the oe is a false archaic spelling, out of place in putidus  and its kin. Another possibility is that it is to be connected  with the plebeian gens Poetelia ; one of this name was a  member of the Second Decemvirate, 450 b.c. d That is,  adjacent to the sacristan's dwelling.  48     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 50-52     Cespian Hill : fifth shrine, this side of the Poetelian "  Grove ; it is on the Esquiline.   Cespian Hill : sixth shrine, at the temple of Juno Lucina,  where the sacristan customarily dwells.*   51. To the third region belong five hills, named  from sanctuaries of gods ; among these hills are two  that are well-known. The .Viminal Hill got its name  from Jupiter Viminius ' of the Osiers,' because there  was his altar ; ■ but there are some a who assign its  name to the fact that there were vimineta ' willow-  copses ' there. The Quirinal Hill was so named  because there was the sanctuary of Quirinus 6 ;  others c say that it is derived from the Quirites, who  came with Tatius from Cures d to the vicinity of  Rome, because there they established their camp.   52. This name has caused the names of the  adjacent localities to be forgotten. For that there  were other hills with their own names, is clear from  the Sacrifices of the Argei, in which there is a record  to this effect ° :   Quirinal Hill : third shrine, this side of the temple of  Quirinus.   Salutary Hill * : fourth shrine, opposite the temple of  Apollo, this side of the temple of Salus.   §51. "Page 118 Funaioli. b Quirinalis, Quirinus,  Quirites belong together ; but Cures is probably to be kept  apart. c Page 116 Funaioli. d An ancient city of the  Sabines, about twenty-four miles from Rome, the city of  Tatius and the birthplace of Xnma Pompilius, successor of  Romulus; cf. Livy, i. 13, 18.   § 53. ° Page 6 Preibisch. 6 Sal u tar is, from salus  ' preservation ' ; the temple perhaps marked the place of a  victory in a critical battle, or commemorated the end of a  pestilence. We do not know whether this Salus was the  same as Iuppiter Salutaris. mentioned by Cicero, De Finibus,  iii. 20. 66 ; cf. the Greek Zevs aarrqp ' Zeus the Saviour.'   vol. l E 49     VARRO   Collis Mucialis : quinticeps apud aedem Dei Fidi 3 ; in  delubro, ubi aeditumus habere solet.   Colli's 4 Latiaris 5 : sexticeps in Vico Instef'ano 6 summo,  apud au(gu)raculum' ; aedificium solum est.   Horum deorum arae, a quibus cognomina habent, in  cius regionis partibus sunt.   53. Quartae regionis Palatium, quod Pallantes  cum Euandro venerunt, qui et Palatini ; (alii quod  Palatini), 1 aborigines ex agro Reatino, qui appeliatur  Palatium, ibi conse(de)runt 2 ; sed hoc alii a Palanto 3  uxore Latini putarunt. Eundem hunc locum a pecore  dictum putant quidam ; itaque Naevius Balatium  appellat.   5 1. Huic Cermalum et Velias 1 coniunxerunt, quod  in hac rcgione 2 scriptum est :   Germalense : quinticeps apud aedem Romuli.   Et   Veliense 3 : sexticeps in Velia apud aedem deum Penatium.   3 For de i de fidi. 4 For colles. 5 M, Laetus, for  latioris. 6 Jordan, for instelano ; cf Livy, xxiv. 10. 8,  in vico Insteio. 7 Turtiebus,for auraculum.   § 53. 1 Added by A. Sp. 2 Fray. Cass., M, Laetus,  for conserunt. 3 Mite., (Palantho L. Sp.), for palantio /  cf Fest. 220. 6 M.   § 54. 1 For uellias. 2 M, Laetus, for religione.  3 Bentlnus, for uelienses.   c 3Ivcialis, apparently from the gens Mucia ; the first known  Mucius was the one who on failing to assassinate Porsenna,  the Etruscan king who was besieging Pome, burned his right  hand over the altar-fire and thus gained the cognomen Scae-  vola ' Lefty.' Several Mucii with the cognomen Scaevola  were prominent in the political and legal life of Rome from  215 to 82 b.c. d Detts Fidivs was an aspect of Jupiter;  cf. Greek Zev? marios. e Latiaris 'pertaining to Latium';  Iuppiter Latiaris was the guardian deity of the Latin Con-  federation, cf. Cicero, Pro Milone, 31. 85.   50     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 52-54-     Mucial Hill e : fifth shrine, at the temple of the God of  Faith, 4 in the chapel where the sacristan customarily dwells.   Latiary Hill * : sixth shrine, at the top of Insteian Row, at  the augurs' place of observation ; it is the only building.   The altars of these gods, from which they have their  surnames, are in the various parts of this region.   53. To the fourth region belongs the Palatine, so  called because the Pallantes came there* with Evan-  der, and they were called also Palatines ; others think  that it was because Palatines, aboriginal inhabitants  of a Reatine district called Palatium, 6 settled there ;  but others c thought that it was from Palanto, d wife  of Latinus. This same place certain authorities  think was named from the pecus ' flocks ' ; therefore  Naevius e calls it the Balalium f ' Bleat-ine.'   54. To this they joined the Cermalus ° and the  Veliae, 6 because in the account of this region it is thus  recorded c :   Germalian : fifth shrine, at the temple of Romulus,   and   Velian : sixth shrine, on the Velia, at the temple of the  deified Penates.   § 53. ° For Palatium, there is no convincing etymology.  6 An ancient city of the Sabines, on the Via Salaria, forty-  eight miles from Rome, on the banks of the river Velinus.  ' Page 116 Funaioli. 4 According to Festus, 220. 5 M.,  Palanto was the mother of Latinus ; she is called Pallantia  by Servius in Jen. viii. 51. e Frag. Poet. Rom. 28 Baeh-  rens; R.O.L. ii. 56-57 Warmington. 'As though from  balare ' to bleat.'   § 54. "There is no etymology for Cermalus ; the word  began with C, but for etymological purposes Varro begins it  with G, relying on the fact that in older Latin C represented  two sounds, c and g. 6 Apparently used both in the  singular, Velia, and in the plural, Veliae; there is no ety-  mology. e Page 7 Preibisch.   51     VARRO     Germalum a germanis Romulo et Remo, quod ad  ficum ruminalem, et ii ibi inventi, quo aqua hiberna  Tiberis eos detulerat in alveolo expositos. Veliae  unde essent plures accepi causas, in quis quod ibi  pastores Palatini ex ovibus 4 ante tonsuram inventam  vellere lanam sint soliti, a quo vellera 5 dieuntur.   IX. 55. Ager Romanus primum divisus in partis  tris, a quo tribus appellata Tztiensium, 1 Ramnium,  Lueerum. Nominatae, ut ait Ennius, Titienses ab  Tatio, Ramnenses ab Romulo, Lueeres, ut Iunius,  ab Lueumone ; sed omnia haee voeabula Tusca, ut  Volnius, qui tragoedias 2 Tuscas seripsit, dicebat.   56. Ab hoe partes 1 quoque quattuor urbis tribus  dietae,ab loeis Suburana, Palatina, Esquilina, Collina ;  quinta, quod sub Roma, Romilia ; sic reliquae 2  tri(gin)ta 3 ab his rebus quibus in Tribu(u)m Libro 4  scripsi.   X. 57. Quod ad loca quaeque his coniuneta fuerunt,   4 Victorius, for quibus. 5 Laetvs, for uelleinera (uellaera  Frag. Cass.).   § 55. 1 Groth, for tatiensium. 2 For tragaedias.   § 56. 1 For partis. 2 For reliqna, altered from re-  liquae. 3 Turnebus, for trita. 4 Frag. Cass., L. Sp.,  for libros.     d Page 118 Funaioli.   § 55. ° Roman possessions in land, both state property  and private estates ; as opposed to ager peregrinus ' foreign  land.' 6 None of the etymologies is probable, which is  not surprising, as they were of non-Latin origin, whether or  not they were Etruscan. e Ann. i. frag. lix. Vahlen 2 ;  R.O.L. i. 38-39 Warmington. d Page 121 Funaioli ;  page 11 Huschke. e Page 126 Funaioli ; Volnius is not  mentioned elsewhere.   § 56. ° The four vrbanae tribus ' city tribes.' 6 The   52     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 5±-57     Germalus, they say, is from the germani ' brothers '  Romulus and Remus, because it is beside the Fig-tree  of the Suckling, and they were found there, where the  Tiber's winter flood had brought them when they had  been put out in a basket. For the source of the name  Veliae I have found several reasons/* among them,  that there the shepherds of the Palatine, before the  invention of shearing, used to vellere ' pluck ' the wool  from the sheep, from which the vellera ' fleeces ' were  named.   IX. 55. The Roman field-land a was at first  divided into tris ' three ' parts, from which they called  the Titienses, the Ramnes, and the Luceres each a  tribus ' tribe.' These tribes were named, 6 as Ennius  says," the Titienses from Tatius, the Ramnenses from  Romulus, the Luceres, according to Junius/* from  Lucumo ; but all these words are Etruscan, as Vol-  nius, e who wrote tragedies in Etruscan, stated.   56. From this, four parts of the City also were  used as names of tribes, the Suburan, the Palatine,  the Esquiline, the Colline, a from the places ; a fifth,  because it was sub Roma ' beneath the walls of Rome,'  M as called Romilian 6 ; so also the remaining thirty c  from those causes which ris. 1 A qua vi natis dicta vita  et illud a Lucilio :   Vis est vita, vides, vis nos facere omnia cogit.   64. Quare quod caelum principium, ab satu est  dictus Saturnus, et quod ignis, Saturnalibus cerei  superioribus mittuntur. Terra Ops, quod hie omne  opus et hac opus ad vivendum, et ideo dicitur Ops  mater, quod terra mater. Haec enim   Terris gentis omnis peperit et resumit denuo,   quae   Dat cibaria,   8 Sciop.,/or uiere est uincere. 4 Scaliger, for palmam.   § 63. 1 L. Sp. ; significantes Veneris Laetus ; for signi-  ficantes se ueris.     ' Vincire is in fact derived from an extension of the root  seen in viere. 3 25 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 404-405 Warming-  ton. h Palma and paria are etymologically separate.   § 63. A Greek legend, invented to connect the name of  Aphrodite with dpos ' foam ' ; cf. Hesiod, Theogony, 188-  198. The name Aphrodite is probably of Semitic origin.   60     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 62-64-     itself, from vinctura ' binding,' said vieri ' to be plaited,'  that is, vinciri ' to be bound ' f ; whence there is the  line in Ennius's Sota 9 :   The lustful pair were going, to plait the Love-god's  garland.   Palma ' palm ' is so named because, being naturally  bound on both sides, it has paria ' equal * leaves.^   63. The poets, in that they say that the fiery seed  fell from the Sky into the sea and Venus was born  "from the foam-masses," ° through the conjunction  of fire and moisture, are indicating that the vis ' force'  which they have is that of Venus. Those born of this  vis have what is called vita 6 ' life,' and that was meant  by Lucilius c :   Life is force, you see ; to do everything force doth  compel us.   64. Wherefore because the Sky is the beginning,  Saturn was named from satus a ' sowing ' ; and  because fire is a beginning, waxlights are presented to  patrons at the Saturnalia. 6 Ops c is the Earth, be-  cause in it is every opus ' work ' and there is opus  ' need ' of it for living, and therefore Ops is called  mother, because the Earth is the. mother. For she d   All men hath produced in all the lands, and takes  them back again,   she who   Gives the rations,   * Vis and vita are not connected etymological ly. e 1340  Marx.   § 64. ° This etymology is unlikely. * Confirmed by  Festus, 54. 16 M. e Ops and opus are connected ety-  mologically. d Ennius, Varia, 48 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 412-  413 Warmington.   61     VARRO   ut ait Ennius, quae   Quod gerit fruges, Ceres ;   antiquis enim quod nunc G C. 1   65. Idem hi dei Caelum et Terra Iupiter et Iuno,  quod ut ait Ennius :   Istic est is Iupiter quem dico, quern Grneci vocant  Aerem, qui ventus est et nubes, imber postea,  Atque ex imbre frigus, verities 1 post fit, aer denuo.  Hacc(e) 2 propter Iupiter sunt ista quae dico tibi,  Qui 3 mortalis, (arva) 4 atque urbes beluasque omnis  iuvat.   Quod hi(n)c 5 omnes et sub hoc, eundem appellans  dicit :   Divumque hominumque pater rex.   Pater, quod patefacit semen : nam turn esse 8 con-  ceptual (pat)et, 7 inde cum exit quod oritur.   66. Hoc idem magis ostendit antiquius Iovis  nomen : nam olim Diovis et Di(e)spiter 1 dictus, id  est dies pater ; a quo dei dicti qui inde, et diws 2 et   § 64. 1 Lachmann ; C quod nunc G Mite. ; for quod  nunc et.   § 65. 1 Laetus, for uentis. 2 Mor. Jlaupt ; haecce  Mae. ; for haec. 3 Aug., with B, for qua. 4 Added  by Schoell. 5 L. Sp., for hie. 6 Mue., for est.  7 Mue., for et.   § 66. 1 Laetus, for dispiter. 2 Bentinus, for dies.     'Varia, 49-50 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 412-413 Warmington ;  gerit and Ceres are not connected. / There was a time  when C had its original value g (as in Greek, where the  third letter is gamma) and had taken over also the value of  K. The use of the symbol G for the sound g was later. C  in the value g survived in C. = Gaius, Cn. = Gnaeus.   § 65. Varia, 54-58 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 414-415 Warm-  ington. * Iupiter and iuvare are not related. c An-   62     OX THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 64-66   as Ennius says, e who   Is Ceres, since she brings (gerit) the fruits.  For with the ancients, what is now G, was written C/   65. These same gods Sky and Earth are Jupiter  and Juno, because, as Ennius says,°   That one is the Jupiter of whom I speak, whom  Grecians call   Air ; who is the windy blast and cloud, and after-  wards the rain ;   After rain, the cold ; he then becomes again the  wind and air.   This is why those things of which I speak to you  are Jupiter :   Help he gives * to men, to fields and cities, and  to beasties all.   Because all come from him and are under him, he  addresses him with the words c :   O father and king of the gods and the mortals.   Pater ' father ' because he patefacit d ' makes evident '  the seed ; for then it patet ' is evident ' that concep-  tion has taken place, when that which is born comes  out from it.   66. This same thing the more ancient name of  J upiter a shows even better : for of old he was called  Diovis and Diespiter, that is, dies pater ' Father Day " b ;  from which they who come from him are called dei  ' deities,' and dius ' god ' and divum ' sky,' whence  sub divo ' under the sky,' and Dius Fidius ' god of   nates, 5S0 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 168-169 Warmington.  d Pater and patere are not related.   § 66. ° Iu- in Iupiter, Diovis, Dies, deus, Dius, divum  belong together by etymology. b K. O. Mueller thought  that Yarro meant dies as the old genitive, ' father of the day,'  instead of as a nominative in apposition ; but this is hardly  likely.   63     VARRO     divum, unde sub divo, Dius Fidius. Itaque inde eius  perforatum tectum, ut ea videatur divum, id est  caelum. Quidam negant sub tecto per hunc deierare  oportere. Aelius Dium Fid(i)um dicebat Diovis  filium, ut Grceci Aiocr/vopoi' Castorem, et putabat 3  hunc esse Sancum 4 ab Safeina lingua et Herculem a  Graeca. Idem hie Dis 5 pater dicitur infimus, qui est  coniunctus terrae, ubi omnia (ut) 6 oriuntur ita? abori-  untur ; quorum quod finis ortu(u)m, Orcus 8 dictus.   67. Quod Iovis Iuno coniunx et is Caelum, haec  Terra, quae eadem Tellus, et ca dicta, quod una iuvat  cum love, Iuno, et Regina, quod huius omnia ter-  restria.   68. Sol 1 vel quod ita Sa&ini, vel (quod) 2 solus 3 ita  lucet, ut ex eo dco dies sit. Luna, vel quod sola lucet  noctu. Itaque ea dicta Noctiluca in Palatio : nam  i.bi noctu lucet templum. Hanc ut Solem Apollinem  quidam Dianam vocant (Apollinis vocabulum Grae-  cum alterum, altcrum Latinum), et hinc quod luna in  altitudinem et latitudinem simul it, 4 Diviana appel-  lata. Hinc Epicharmus Ennii Proserpinam quoque   3 Puccius, for putabant. 4 Scaliger, for sanctum.  6 Mm., for dies. 6 Added by Miie. 7 Mue., for ui.  8 Tnrnebus, for ortus.   § 68. 1 Laetus, with M, for sola. 2 Added by Aug.,  with B. 3 Sclop., for solum. 4 L. Sp., for et.     c Page 60 Funaioli. d Sabine Sancus and the Umbrian  divine epithet Sangio- are connected with Latin sanclre ' to  make sacred,' sacer 'sacred.' ' Dis is the short form of  dives ' rich,' cf. the genitive divitis or ditis, and is not con-  nected with dies ; it is a translation of the Greek ITAoutoji'  ' Pluto,' as 'the rich one,' from -ttXoCtos 'wealth.' f The  Italic god of death, not connected with ortus, but perhaps  with arcere ' to hem in,' as ' the one who restrains the dead.'  § 67. a Not connected either with Iupiter or with iitvare.   64     OX THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 6&-68     faith.' Thus from this reason the roof of his temple  is pierced with holes, that in this way the divum,  which is the caelum ' sky,' may be seen. Some say  that it is improper to take an oath by his name, when  you are under a roof. Aelius c said that Dins Fidius  was a son of Diovis, just as the Greeks call Castor the  son of Zeus, and he thought that he was Sancus in the  Sabine tongue, d and Hercules in Greek. He is like-  wise called Dispater e in his lowest capacity, when he  is joined to the earth, where all things vanish away  even as they originate ; and because he is the end of  these ortus ' creations,' he is called OrcusJ   67. Because Juno is Jupiter's wife, and he is Sky,  she Terra ' Earth,' the same as Tellus ' Earth,' she  also, because she iuvat ' helps ' una ' along ' with  Jupiter, is called Juno,° and Regina ' Queen,' because  all earthly things are hers.   68. Sol a ' Sun ' is so named either because the  Sabines called him thus, or because he solus ' alone '  shines in such a way that from this god there is the  daylight. Luna ' Moon ' is so named certainly be-  cause she alone ' lucet ' shines at night. Therefore  she is called Noctiluca ' Night-Shiner ' on the Pala-  tine ; for there her temple noctu lucet ' shines by  night.' 6 Certain persons call her Diana, just as they  call the Sun Apollo (the one name, that of Apollo, is  Greek, the other Latin) ; and from the fact that the  Moon goes both high and widely , she is called Diviana. c  From the fact that the Moon is wont to be under the   § 6S. " Not connected with solus. * Either because  the white marble gleams in the moonlight, or because a light  was kept burning there all night. 'An artificially pro-  longed form of Diana ; Varro seems to have had in mind  deviare ' to go aside ' as its basis.   vol. if 65     VARRO     appellat, quod solet esse sub terris. Dicta Proserpina,  quod haec ut serpens modo in dexteram modo in  sinisteram partem late movetur. Serpere et proser-  pere idem dicebant, ut Plautus quod scribit :   Quasi proserpens bestia.   69. Quae ideo quoque videtur ab Latinis Iuno  Lucina dicta vel quod est e(t) 1 Terra, ut physici  dicunt, et lucet ; vel quod 2 ab luce eius qua quis  conceptus est usque ad earn, qua partus quis in lucem,  (l)una 3 iuvat, donee mensibus actis produxit in lucem,  ficta ab iuvando et luce Iuno Lucina. A quo parientes  earn invocant : luna enim nascentium dux quod  menses huius. Hoc vidisse antiquas apparet, quod  mulieres potissimum supercilia sua attribuerunt ei  deae. Hie enim debuit maxime collocari Iuno Lucina,  ubi ab diis lux datur oculis.   70. Ignis a (g)nascendo, 1 quod hinc nascitur et  omne quod nascitur ignis s(uc)cendit 2 ; ideo calet, ut  qui denascitur eum amittit ac frigescit. Ab ignis iam  maiore vi ac violentia Volcanus dictus. Ab eo quod   § 69. 1 L. Sp., for e . 2 For quod uel. 3 Sciop.,  for una.   § 70. 1 Mue., for nascendo. 2 OS., for scindit.   d Ennius, Varia, 59 Vahlen 2 . Proserpina is really borrowed  from Greek Hepoe6vri, but transformed in popular speech  into a word seemingly of Latin antecedents. e Poenulus  1034, Stichus 724 ; in both passages meaning a snake.   § 69. ° Lucina, from lux ' light,' indicates Juno as goddess  of child-birth. 6 Equal to ' full moon,' or ' month.'  66     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 68-70     lands as -well as over them, Ennius's Epicharmus calls  her Proserpina.* Proserpina received her name  because she, like a serpens ' creeper,' moves widely  now to the right, now to the left. Serpere ' to creep '  and proserpere ' to creep forward ' meant the same  thing, as Plautus means in what he writes e :   Like a forward-creeping beast.   69. She appears therefore to be called by the  Latins also Juno Lucina, either because she is also  the Earth, as the natural scientists say, and lucet  ' shines ' ; or because from that light of hers 6 in  which a conception takes place until that one in which  there is a birth into the light, the Moon continues to  help, until she has brought it forth into the light when  the months are past, the name Juno Lucina was made  from iuvare ' to help ' and lux ' light.' From this fact  women in child-birth invoke her ; for the Moon is the  guide of those that are born, since the months belong  to her. It is clear that the women of olden times  observed this, because women have given this goddess  credit notably for their eyebrows." For Juno Lucina  ought especially to be established in places where the  gods give light to our eyes.   70. Ignis ' fire ' is named from gnasci a 'to be  born,' because from it there is birth, and everything  which is born the fire enkindles ; therefore it is hot,  just as he who dies loses the fire and becomes cold.  From the fire's vis ac violentia ' force and violence,'  now in greater measure, Vulcan was named." From  the fact that fire on account of its brightness fulget   e Because the eyebrows protect the eyes by which we enjoy  the light (Festus, 305 b 10 M.).  § 70. a False etymologies.   67     VARRO   ignis propter splendoreni fulget, fulgwr 3 et fulmen, et  fulgur(itum) 4 quod fulmine ictum.   71. (In) 1 contrariis diis, ab aquae lapsu lubrico  lt/mpha. Lympha Iuturna quae iuvaret : itaque  multi aegroti propter id nomen hinc aquam petere  solent. A fontibus et fluminibus ac ceteris aqm's 2 dei,  ut Tiberinus ab Tiberi, et ab lacu Velini Velinia, et  Lymphae Com(m)otiZ(e)s 3 ad lacum Cutiliensem a  commotu, quod ibi insula in aqua commovetur.   72. Neptunus, quod mare terras obnubit ut nubes  caelum, ab nuptu, id est opertione, ut antiqui, a quo  nuptiae, nuptus dictus. Salacia Neptuni ab salo.  Vem'lia 1 a veniendo ac vento illo, quern Plautus dicit :   Quod ille 2 dixit qui secundo vento vectus est  Tranquillo mari, 3 ventum gaudeo.   73. Bellona ab bello nunc, quae Duellona a duello.   3 Canal, for fulgor. 4 Turnebus, for fulgur.   § 71. 1 Added by Madvig, who began the sentence here  instead of after diis. 2 V, p,for ceteras aquas. 3 GS„  for comitiis.   § 72. 1 Aug., for uenelia. 2 mss. of Plautus, for  ibi F. 3 mss. of Plautus have mare.     6 The three words are from fulgere ' to flash ' ; but the -Hum  of fulguritum is suflixal only, and is not connected with  ictum.   § 71. ° Properly from the Greek vu^ij, with dissimilative  change of the first consonant. 6 The first part may be the  same element seen in Iupiter, but is certainly not connected  with iuvare. e A lake in the Sabine country, formed by  the spreading out of the Avens River a few miles southeast of  Interamna. d A lake in the Sabine country, a few miles  east of Reate, in which there was a floating island which  drifted with the wind.   § 72. ° Neptunus is not connected with the other words,  though nubes may perhaps be related to nubere and its   68     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 70-73     ' flashes,' come fulgur ' lightning-flash ' and fulmen  ' thunderbolt,' and what has been fulmine ictum ' hit  by a thunderbolt ' is catted fulguritum. b   71. Among deities of an opposite kind, Lympha a  ' water-nymph ' is derived from the water's lapsus  lubricits ' slippery gliding.' Juturna 6 was a nymph  whose function was ittvare ' to give help ' ; therefore  many sick persons, on account of this name, are wont  to seek water from her spring. From springs and  rivers and the other waters gods are named, as  Tiberinus from the river Tiber, and Yelinia from the  lake of the Velinus, c and the Commotiles ' Restless '  Nymphs at the Cutilian Lake, d from the commotus  ' motion,' because there an island commovetar ' moves  about ' in the water.   72. Neptune, because the sea veils the lands as  the clouds veil the sky, gets his name from nuptus  ' veiling,' that is, opertio ' covering,' as the ancients  said ; from which nupiiae ' wedding,' nuptus ' wed-  lock ' are derived. Salacia, 6 wife of Neptune, got  her name from salum ' the surging sea.' Venilia c was  named from venire ' to come ' and that ventus ' wind '  which Plautus mentions d :   As that one said who with a favouring wind was borne  Over a placid sea : I'm glad I went.*   73. Bellona ' Goddess of War ' is said now, from  helium a ' war,' which formerly was Duellona, from   derivatives. 6 Almost certainly an abstract substantive to  salax ' fond of leaping, lustful, provoking lust * ; though  popularly associated with salum. c There is a Venilia in  the Aeneid, x. 76, a sea-nymph who is the mother of Turnns.  d Cistellaria, 14-15. * Punning on ventum. : the last  phrase may mean also " I'm glad there was a wind."  § 73. ' Correct.   69     VARRO     Mars ab eo quod maribus in bello praeest, aut quod  Sabinis acceptus ibi est Mamers. Quirinus a Quiri-  tibus. Virtus ut viri^us 1 a virilitate. Honos ab 2  onere : itaque honestum dicitur quod oneratum, et  dictum :   Onus est honos qui sustinet rem publicam.   Castoris nomen Graecum, Pollucis a Graecis ; in  Latinis litteris veteribus nomen quod est, inscribitur  ut IloXvSevK-qs 3 Polluces, non ut nunc 4 Pollux. Con-  cordia a corde congruente.   74. Feronia, Minerva, Novensides a Sa&inis. Paulo  aliter ab eisdem dicimus haec : Palem, 1 Vestam,  Salutem, Fortunam, Fontem, Fidem. E(t> arae 2  Sabinum linguam olent, quae Tati regis voto sunt  Romae dedicatae : nam, ut annales dicunt, vovit Opi,  Florae, Vediovi 3 Saturnoque, Soli, Lunae, Volcano  ct Summano, itemque Larundae, Termino, Quirino,  Vortumno, Laribus, Dianae Lucinaeque ; e quis non-  nulla nomina in utraque lingua habent radices, ut  arbores quae in confinio natae in utroque agro ser-   § 73. 1 Scaliger, for uiri ius. 2 After ab, Woelfflin  deleted honesto. 3 For pollideuces. 4 For nuns.   § 74. 1 Scaliger, for hecralem. 2 Mue., for ea re.  3 Mue., for floreue dioioui.     6 Mars and Mamers go together, but mares ' males ' is  quite distinct. c Virtus is in fact from vir. d Honos  and onus are quite distinct. * Com. Rom. Frag., page 147  Ribbeck 3 . 'As in inscriptions, where such spellings are  found. 9 Essentially correct.   § 74. ° An old Italian goddess, later identified with Juno.  6 Apparently ' new settlers,' from novus and insidere, used of  the gods brought from elsewhere as distinct from the indigetes  or native gods. c It is unlikely that all the deities of the   70     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 73-74     duellum. Mars is named from the fact that he com-  mands the mares ' males ' in war, or that he is called  Mamers 6 among the Sabines, with whom he is a  favourite. Quirinus is from Quirites. Virtus ' valour,'  as viritus, is from virilitas ' manhood.' e Honos ' honour,  office ' is said from onus d ' burden ' ; therefore hones-  turn ' honourable ' is said of that which is oneratum  ' loaded with burdens,' and it has been said :   Full onerous is the honour which maintains the state/   The name of Castor is Greek, that of Pollux likewise  from the Greeks ; the form of the name which is  found in old Latin literature 1 is Polluces, like Greek  lloXvSevKijs, not Pollux as it is now. Concordia ' Con-  cord ' is from the cor congruens ' harmonious heart.' 9  74. Feronia, a Minerva, the Novensides 6 are from  the Sabines. With slight changes, we say the follow-  ing, also from the same people c : Pales, d Vesta, Salus,  Fortune, Fons, e Fides ' Faith.' There is scent of the  speech of the Sabines about the altars also, which by  the vow of King Tatius were dedicated at Rome :  for, as the Annals tell, he vowed altars to Ops, Flora,  Vediovis and Saturn, Sun, Moon, Vulcan and Summa-  nus, f &nd likewise to Larunda, 9 Terminus, Quirinus, V er-  tumnus, the Lares, Diana and Lucina ; some of these  names have roots in both languages,* like trees which  have sprung up on the boundary line and creep about   next two lists were brought in from elsewhere ; many of the  names are perfectly Roman. d Goddess of the shepherds,  who protected them and their flocks. ' God of Springs ;  cf. vi. 22. 1 A mysterious deity who was considered  responsible for lightning at night. * Called also Lara, a  tale-bearing nymph whom Jupiter deprived of the power of  speech. * Quite possible, but very unlikely in the cases  of Saturn and Diana.   71     VARRO     pwnt* : potest enim Saturnus hie de alia causa esse  dictus atque in Sabinis, et sic Diana, 5 de quibus supra  dictum est.   XL 75. Quod ad immortalis attinet, haec ; de-  inceps quod ad mortalis attinet videamus. De his  animalia in tribus locis quod sunt, in aere, in aqua,  in terra, a summa parte (ad) 1 infimam descendam.  Primum nomm(a) omm'wm 2 : alites (ab) alis, 3 volucres  a volatu. Deinde generatim : de his pleraeque ab  suis vocibus ut haec : upupa, cuculus, corvus, Airundo,  ulula,bubo ; item haec : pavo, anser,gallina,columba.   76. Sunt quae aliis de causis appellatae, ut noctua,  quod noctu canit et vigilat, lusci(ni)ola, 1 quod luctuose  canere existimatur atque esse ex Attica Progne in  luctu facta avis. Sic galeritfus 2 et motacilla, altera  quod in capite habet plumam elatam, altera quod  semper movet caudam. Merula, quod mera, id est  sola, volitat ; contra ab eo graguli, quod gregatim,   * For serpent. 5 Aldus, for dianae.   §75. 1 Added by O, II. 2 Fay ; nomen omnium  Mite. ; for nomen nominem. 3 Aug., for alii.   §76. 1 Victorius, for lusciola. 2 Aug., with B, for  galericus.     * Saturn in § 64, Diana in § 68.   §75. "The first six, except hirvndo (of unknown ety-  mology), are onomatopoeic. Of the last four, pavo is  borrowed from an Oriental language ; anser is an old Indo-  European word ; gallina is ' the Gallic bird ' ; cohimba is  named from its colour.   §76. "Perhaps correct, if from luges-cania 'sorrow-  singer.' * Procne, daughter of Pandion king of Athens  and wife of Tereus king of Thrace, killed her son Itys and  served him to his father for food, in revenge for his ill-treat-  ment and infidelity ; see Ovid, Metamorphoses, vi. 424-674.  c Literally ' hooded,' wearing a galerum or hood-like helmet.  d If not correct, then a very reasonable popular etymology.   72     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 7^-76     in both fields : for Saturn might be used as the god's  name from one source here, and from another among  the Sabines, and so also Diana ; these names I have  discussed above.*   XL 75. This is what has to do with the immortals ;  next let us look at that which has to do with mortal  creatures. Amongst these are the animals, and  because they abide in three places — in the air, in the  water, and on the land — I shall start from the highest  place and come down to the lowest. First the names  of them all, collectively : alites ' winged birds ' from  their alae ' wings,' volucres ' fliers ' from volaius ' flight.'  Next by kinds : of these, very many are named from  their cries, as are these : upupa ' hoopoe,' cuculus  ' cuckoo,' corvus ' raven,' hirundo ' swallow,' ulula  ' screech-owl,' bubo ' horned owl ' ; likewise these :  pavo ' peacock,' anser ' goose,' gallina ' hen,' columba  ' dove.' °   76. Some got their names from other reasons,  such as the noctua ' night-owl,' because it stays awake  and hoots noctu ' by night,' and the lusciniola ' night-  ingale,' because it is thought to canere ' sing ' luctuose  ' sorrowfully ' ° and to have been transformed from  the Athenian Procne 6 in her luctus ' sorrow,' into a  bird. Likewise the galeritus c ' crested lark ' and the  motacilla ' wagtail,' the one because it has a feather  standing up on its head, the other because it is always  moving its tail."* The merula ' blackbird ' is so named  because it flies mera ' unmixed,' that is, alone e ; on  the other hand, the graguli f 'jackdaws ' got their  names because they fly gregatim ' in flocks,' as certain   e That is, without other birds, like wine without water : an  absurd etymology. f Properly graculi ; not connected with  greges.   73     VARRO     ut quidam Graeci greges yepyepa. Ficedula(e) 3 et  miliariae a cibo, quod alterae fico, alterae milio fiunt  pingues.   XII. 77. Aquatilium vocabula animalium partim  sunt vernacula, partim peregrina. Foris muraena,  quod p.vpa.iva Gracce, cybium 1 et thynnus, cuius item  partes Graecis vocabulis omnes, ut melander atque  uraeon. Vocabula piscium pleraque translata a ter-  restribus ex aliqua parte similibus rebus, ut anguilla,  lingulaca, sudis 2 ; alia a coloribus, ut haec : asellus,  umbra, turdus ; alia a vi quadam, ut haec : lupus,  canicula, torpedo. Item in conchyliis aliqua ex  Graecis, ut peloris, ostrea, echinus. Vernacula ad  similitudinem, ut surenae, 3 pectunculi, ungues.   XIII. 78. Sunt etiam animalia in aqua, quae in  terram interdum exeant : alia Graecis vocabulis, ut  pohypus, hzppo(s) potamios, 1 crocodilos, 3 alia Latinis,   3 Ed. Veneta, for ficedula.   §77. 1 Aldus, for cytybium. 2 Aldus, for lingula  casudis. 3 For syrenae.   § 78. 1 L. Sp., for yppo potamios. 2 For crocodillos.     9 Correct ; Varro, De Re Rustica, iii. 5. 2, speaks of miliariae  as prized delicacies, raised and fattened for the table.   § 77. The identification of many animals and fishes is  quite uncertain, and the translation is therefore tentative. But  the etymological views in § 77 and § 78 are approximately  correct. 6 More precisely, the flesh of the young tunny  salted in cubes. " Seemingly a variant form for melan-  dryon, Greek fie\dv8pvoi> ' slice of the large tunny called  He\dv8pvs or black-oak.' d From Greek ovpatos 'pertain-  ing to the tail (oi)pa).' 'Diminutive of anguis 'snake.'  / Because flat like a lingua ' tongue ' ; lingulaca means also   74     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 76-78     Greeks call greges ' flocks ' yepytpa. Ficedulae ' fig-  peckers ' and miliariae ' ortolans ' are named from  their food, 9 because the ones become fat on the Jicus  ' fig,' the others on milium ' millet.'   XII. 77. The names of water animals are some  native, some foreign." From abroad come muraena  ' moray,' because it is pvpaiva in Greek, cybium ' young  tunny ' 6 and thunnus ' tunny,' all whose parts likewise  go by Greek names, as melander ' black-oak-piece ' and  uraeon d ' tail-piece.' Very many names of fishes are  transferred from land objects which are like them in  some respect, as anguilla e ' eel,' lingulaca f ' sole,'  sudis 9 ' pike.' Others come from their colours, like  these : asellus ' cod,' umbra ' grayling,' turdus ' sea-  carp.' h Others come from some physical power, like  these : lupus ' wolf-fish,' canicula ' dogfish,' torpedo  1 electric ray.' * Likewise among the shellfish there  are some from Greek, as peloris ' mussel,' ostrea  ' oyster,' echinus ' sea-urchin ' ; and also native words  that point out a likeness, as surenaej pectunculi k  ' scallops,' ungues 1 ' razor-clams.'   XIII. 78. There are also animals in the water,  which at times come out on the land : some with  Greek names, like the octopus, the hippopotamus, the  crocodile ; others with Latin names, like rana ' frog,'   ' chatter-box, talkative woman.* ' On land, a ' stake.'  * On land, respectively ' little ass,' ' shadow,' * thrush.'  ' On land, respectively ' wolf,' ' little dog,' ' numbness.'  1 Of unknown meaning, and perhaps a corrupt reading ;  Groth, De Codice Florentino, 27 (105), suggests pernae from  Pliny, Nat. Hist, xxxii. 11. 54. 154, who mentions the  perna as a sea-mussel standing on a high foot or stalk, like a  haunch of ham with the leg. * On land, ' little combs,'  diminutive of pecten. 1 ' Finger-nails ' ; perhaps not the  razor-clam, but a small clam shaped like the finger-nail.   75     VARRO   ut rana, (anas), 3 mergus ; a quo Graeci ea quae in  aqua et terra possunt vivere vocant dfufiifiia. E quis  rana ab sua dicta voce, anas a nando, mergus quod  mergendo in aquam captat escam.   79. Item alia 1 in hoc genere a Graecis, ut quer-  quedula, (quod) 2 K€pK?yS?;s, 3 alcedo, 4 quod ea (xAkcwv;  Latina, ut testudo, quod testa tectum hoc animal,  lolligo, quod subvolat, littera commutata, primo vol-  ligo. Ut ^4egypti in flumine quadrupes sic in Latio,  nominati lw(t)ra 5 et fiber. Lw(t)ra, 5 quod succidere  dicitur arborum radices in ripa atque eas dissolvere :  ab (luere) ktra. 6 Fiber, ab extrema ora fluminis  dextra et sinistra maxime quod solet videri, et antiqui  februm dicebant extremum, a quo in sagis fimbr(i)ae  ct in iecore extremum fibra, fiber dictus.   XIV. 80. De animalibus in locis terrestribus quae  sunt hominum propria primum, deinde de pecore,  tertio de feris scribam. Incipiam ab honore publico.   3 Added by Aug.   § 79. 1 L. Sp., with B, for aliae. 2 Added by Kent.  3 OS., for cerceris. 4 Groth ; halcedo Laettis ; for  algedo. 5 GS. ; lytra Turnebus ; for lira. 6 Stroux ;  ab luere Scaliger ; for ab litra.   § 78. Of. § 77, note a.   § 79. Conjectural purely. * An absurd etymology.  c Originally udra ' water-animal,' with I from association with  lutum ' mud ' or lutor ' washer.' Varro attributes to the  otter the tree-felling habit of the beaver. d Properly ' the  brown animal.' e Fiber, fimbriae, fibra have no etymologi-  cal connexion.   76     ON THE L ATI NT LANGUAGE, V. 78-80     anas ' duck,' mergus ' diver.' Whence the Greeks  give the name amphibia to those which can live both  in the water and on the land. Of these, the rana is  named from its voice, the anas from nare ' to swim,'  the mergus because it catches its food by mergendo  ' diving ' into the water.   79. Likewise there are other names in this class,  that are from the Greeks, as querquedula ' teal,' because  it is Ke/DK/}S?;?,° and alcedo ' kingfisher,' because this is  olXkvcjv : and Latin names, such as testudo ' tortoise,'  because this animal is covered with a testa ' shell,' and  lolligo ' cuttle-fish,' because it volat ' flies ' up from  under, 6 originally volligo, but now with one letter  changed. Just as in Egypt there is a quadruped  living in the river, so there are river quadrupeds in  Latium, named Intra ' otter ' and fiber ' beaver.' The  lutra c is so named because it is said to cut off the roots  of trees on the bank and set the trees loose : from  luere ' to loose,' lutra. The beaver d was called fiber  because it is usually seen very far off on the bank of  the river to right or to left, and the ancients called a  thing that was very far off afebrum ; from which in  blankets the last part is called fimbriae ' fringe ' and  the last part in the liver is the fibra ' fibre.' 6   XIV. 80. Among the living beings on the land, I  shall speak first of terms which apply to human beings,  then of domestic animals, third of wild beasts. I shall  start from the offices of the state. The Consul was   § 80. Properly, consulere is derived from consul. Of  consul, at least four reasonable etymologies are proposed, the  simplest being that it is from com+sed ' those who sit to-  gether,' as there were two consuls from the beginning ; the  I for d being a peculiarity taken from the dialect of the Sabines  (cf. lingua for older dingua).   77     VARRO     Consu Jnominatus qui consuleret populum et senatum,  nisi illinc potius uiide Accius 1 ait in Bruto :   Qui recte consulat, consul /iat. 2  Praetor dictus qui praeiret iure et exercitu ; a quo id  Lucilius :   Ergo praetorum est ante et praeire.   81. Censor ad cuius censionem, id est arbitrium,  censeretur populus. Aedilis qui aedis sacras et  privatas procuraret. Quaestores a quaerendo, qui  conquirerent publicas pecunias et maleficia, quae  triumviri capitales nunc conquirunt ; ab his postea  qui quaestionum iudicia exercent quaes^tores 1  dicti. Tribuni militum, quod terni tribus tribubus  Ramnium, Lucerum, Titium olim ad exercitum mitte-  bantur. Tribuni plebei, quod ex tribunis militum  primum tribuni plebei facti, qui plebem defenderent,  in secessione Crustumerina.   82. Dictator, quod a consule dicebatur, cui dicto  audientes omnes essent. Magister equitum, quod   § 80. 1 Later codices, for tatius F 1 , p*, taccius F 2 , V, a.  2 Laetus, for consulciat.   § 81. 1 Mommsen, for quaestores.     * Trag. Rom. Frag. 39 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 561-565 War-  mington. c lure is dative. d 1160 Marx.   § 81. ° The tribunus was by etymology merely the ' man  of the tribus or tribe,' and therefore did not derive his name  from the word for ' three,' except indirectly ; cf. § 55.  6 That is, elected by the plebeians from among their military  tribunes whom they had chosen to lead them in their Seces-  sion to the Sacred Mount (which may have lain in the terri-  tory of Crustumerium), in 494 B.C. Their persons were   78     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 80-82     so named as the one who should consulere ' ask the  advice of ' people and senate, unless rather from this  fact whence Accius takes it when he says in the  Brutus b :   Let him who counsels right, become the Consul.   The Praetor was so named as the one who should  praeire ' go before ' the law c and the army ; whence  Lucilius said this d :   Then to go out in front and before is the duty of  praetors.   81. The Censor was so named as the one at whose  censio ' rating,' that is, arbitrium ' judgement,' the  people should be rated. The Aedile, as the one who  was to look after aedes ' buildings ' sacred and private.  The Quaestors, from quaerere' to seek,' who conquirerent  ' should seek into ' the public moneys and illegal  doings, which the triumviri capitales ' the prison board '  now investigate ; from these, afterwards, those who  pronounce judgement on the matters of investigation  were named quaesitores ' inquisitors.' The Tribuni a  Militum ' tribunes of the soldiers,' because of old there  were sent to the army three each on behalf of the three  tribes of Ramnes, Luceres, and Tities. The Tribuni  Plebei ' tribunes of the plebs,' because from among the  tribunes of the soldiers tribunes of the plebs were first  created, 6 in the Secession to Crustumerium, for the  purpose of defending the plebs ' populace.'   82. The Dictator, because he was named by the  consul as the one to whose dictum ' order * all should  be obedient. The Magister Equitum ' master of the   sacrosanct, enabling them to carry out their duty of protect-  ing the plebeians against the injustice of the patrician officials.  § 82. ° Rather, because he dictat ' gives orders.'   79     VARRO     summa potestas huius in equites et acccnsos, ut est  summa populi dictator, a quo is quoque magister  populi appellatus. Reliqui, quod minorcs quam hi  magistri, dicti magistratus, ut ab albo albatus.   XV. 83. Sacerdotes universi a sacris dicti. Pontu-  fices, ut 1 Scaevola Quintus pontufex maximus dicebat,  a posse et facere, ut po(te)ntifices. 2 Ego a ponte  arbitror : nam ab his Sublicius est factus primum ut  restitutus saepe, cum ideo sacra et uls 3 et cis Tiberim  non mediocri ritu fiant. Curiones dicti a curiis, qui  fiunt ut in his sacra faciant.   84. Flamines, quod in Latio capite velato erant  semper ac caput cinctum habebant filo, flamines 1  dicti. Horum singuli cognomina habent ab eo deo  cui sacra faciunt ; sed partim sunt aperta, partim  obscura : aperta ut Martialis, Volcanalis ; obscura  Dialis et Furinalis, cum Dialis ab love sit (Diovis  enim), Furi(n)alis a Furriwa, 2 cuius etiam in fastis   §83. 1 After ut, Ed. Veneta deleted a. 2 OS., for  pontifices, cf. v. 4. 3 For uis.   § 84. 1 Canal, for flamines, cf. Festus, 87. 15 M. 2 L.  Sp. ; Furina Aldus ; for furrida.     6 Not quite ; for magistratus is a fourth declension sub-  stantive, ' office of magister,' then ' holder of such an office,'  while albatus is a second declension adjective.   § 83. ° Q. Mucius Scaevola, consul 95 b.c, and subse-  quently Pontifex Maximus ; proscribed and killed by the  Marian party in 82. He was a man of the highest character  and abilities, and made the first systematic compilation of the  ius civile ; see i. 1 9 Huschke. 6 Varro may be right, though  perhaps it was the ' bridges ' between this world and the next  which originally the pontifices were to keep in repair ; cf.  Class. Philol. viii. 317-326 (1913). "The wooden bridge  on piles, traditionally built by Ancns Marcius. d The curia   80     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 82-84     cavalry,' because he has supreme power over the  cavalry and the replacement troops, just as the dictator  is the highest authority over the people, from which  he also is called magister, but of the people and not of  the cavalry. The remaining officials, because they  are inferior to these magistri ' masters,' are called  magistratus ' magistrates,' derived just as albatus  ' whitened, white-clad ' is derived from albus ' white.' 6   XV. 83. The sacerdotes ' priests ' collectively were  named from the sacra ' sacred rites.' The pontifices  ' high-priests,' Quintus Scaevola a the Pontifex Maxi-  mus said, were 'named from posse ' to be able ' and  facet e ' to do,' as though potentifices. For my part I  think that the name comes from pons ' bridge ' 6 ; for  by them the Bridge-on-Piles c was made in the first  place, and it was likewise repeatedly repaired by them,  since in that connexion rites are performed on both  sides of the Tiber with no small ceremony. The  curiones were named from the curiae ; they are created  for conducting sacred rites in the curiae.*   84. The jiamines a ' flamens,' because in Latium  they always kept their heads covered and had their  hair girt with a woollen filum ' band,' were originally  called Jilamines. Individually they have distinguish-  ing epithets from that god whose rites they perform ;  but some are obvious, others obscure : obvious, like  Martialis and Volcanalis ; obscure are Dialis and  Furinalis, since Dialis is from Jove, for he is called also  Diovis, and Furinalis from Furrina, 6 who even has a   was the fundamental political unit in the early Roman state ;  it was an organization of yentes, originally ten to the curia,  and ten curiae to each of the three tribes.   § 84. ° Of uncertain etymology, but not from filamen.  b A goddess, practically unknown ; cf. vi. 19.   VOL. I G 81     VARRO     feriae Furinales sunt. Sic flamen Falacer a divo  patre Falacre.   85. Salii ab salitando, quod facere in comitiis in  sacris quotannis et solent et debent. Luperci, quod  Lupercalibus in Lupercali sacra faciunt. Fratres  Arvales dicti qui sacra publica faciunt propterea ut  fruges ferant arva : a ferendo et arvis Fratres Arvales  dicti. Sunt qui a fratria dixerunt : fratria est Groe-  cum vocabulum partis 1 hominum, ut (Ne)apoli 2 etiam  nunc. Sodales Titii pdrrjp ' clan  brother ' ; any reference to it is here out of place. f Ac-  cording to Tacitus, Ann. i. 54, they were established by Titus  Tatius for the preservation of certain Sabine religious  practices.   § 86. Perhaps from an old word meaning ' law,' from  the root seen in feci ' I made, established ' ; but without  connexion with the words in the text. Foedus, fides, fidus  are closely connected with one another. 6 In the early   82     OX THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 84-86     Furinal Festival in the calendar. So also the Flamen  Falacer from the divine father Falacer. 6   85. The Salii were named ° from salitare ' to  dance,' because they had the custom and the duty of  dancing yearly in the assembly-places, in their cere-  monies. The Luperci 6 were so named because they  make offerings in the Lupercal at the festival of the  Lupercalia. Fratres Arvales 1 Arval Brothers ' was  the name given to those who perform public rites to  the end that the ploughlands may bearfruits : from  ferre ' to bear ' and arva ' ploughlands ' they are called  Fratres Arvales'. But some have said d that they  were named from fratria ' brotherhood ' : fratria is  the Greek name of a part of the people, e as at Naples  even now. The Sodales Titii ' Titian Comrades ' are  so named from the titiantes ' twittering ' birds which  they are accustomed to watch in some of their augural  observations/   86. The Fetiales a ' herald-priests,' because they  were in charge of the state's word of honour in  matters between peoples ; for by them it was brought  about that a war that was declared should be a just  war, and by them the war was stopped, that by a  foedus ' treaty ' thejides ' honesty ' of the peace might  be established. Some of them were sent before war  should be declared, to demand restitution of the  stolen property, 6 and by them even now is made the  foedus ' treaty,' which Ennius writes c was pronounced  Jidus.   days wars started chiefly as the result of raids in which  property, cattle, and persons had been carried off. e Page  23S Vahlen* ; R.O.L. i. 5&4 Warmington ; Ennius probably  wished by a pun to indicate a relation between foedus and the  adjective Jidus which, in his opinion, did not really exist  (though it did).   83     VARRO     XVI. 87. In re militari praetor dictus qui praeiret  exercitui. Imperator, ab imperio populi qui eos, qui  id attemptasse(n)t, oppressi(t) 1 hostis. Legati qui  lecti publice, quorum opera consilioque uteretur  peregre magistratus, quive nuntii senatus aut populi  essent. Exercitus, quod exercitando fit melior.  Legio, quod leguntur milites in delectu.   88. Cohors, quod ut in villa ex pluribus tectis  coniungitur ac quiddam fit unum, sic hie 1 ex manipulis  pluribus copulatur 2 : cohors quae in villa, quod circa  eum locum pecus cooreretur, tametsi cohortem in  villa /fypsicrates 3 dicit esse Graece X!°P T0V * apud  poetas dictam. Manipuhuo 4 canit, ut turn cum  classes comitiis ad comit(i)atum 5 vocant.   XVII. 92. Quae a fortuna vocabula, in his quae-  dam minus aperta ut pauper, dives, miser, beatus, sic  alia. Pauper a paulo lare. Mendicus a minus, cui  cum opus est minus nullo est. Dives a divo qui ut  deus nihil 1 indigere videtur. Opulentus ab ope, cui  eae opimae ; ab eadem inops qui eius indiget, et ab  eodem fonte copis 2 ac copiosus. Pecuniosus a pecunia  magna, pecunia a pecu : a pastoribus enim horum  vocabulorum origo.   XVIII. 93. Artificibus maxima causa ars, id est,  ab arte medicina ut sit medicus dictus, a sutrina sutor,  non a medendo ac suendo, quae omnino ultima huic  rei : (hae enim) 1 earum rerum radices, ut in proxumo   §91. 1 For caepti. 2 IihoL, for litigines. 3 A.  Sp., for classicos. 4 A. Sp., for cornu no. 5 Ver-  tranius, for comitatum.   § 92. 1 For nichil. 2 Turnebiis, for copiis.   § 93. 1 Added by Reitzenstein.   6 That is, from lituus ' cornet ' and canere.   § 92. " Pau-per has the same first element as pau-lus.  b Derivative of mend um ' error, defect.' c Quite possibly,  since the gods were thought of as conferring wealth ; dives is  derived from divus as caeles is from caelum. d From co-  opts. * The earliest unit of value was a domestic animal ;  cf. English fee and German Viek ' cattle,' both cognate to  Latin pecu.   § 93. " Properly medicina from medicus, which is from  mederi, etc.   88     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 91-93     assistants, were at the start called optiones ' choices ' ;  but now the tribunes, to increase their influence, do  the appointing of them. Tubicines ' trumpeters,' from  tuba ' trumpet ' and canere ' to sing or play ' ; in like  fashion liticines b ' cornetists.' The classicus ' class-  musician ' is named from the classis ' class of citi-  zens ' ; he likewise plays on the horn or the cornet,  for example when they call the classes to gather for  an assembly.   XVII. 92. Among the words which have to do  with personal fortune, some are not very clear, such as  pauper ' poor,' dives ' rich,' miser ' wretched,' beatus  ' blest,' and others as well. Pauper a is from paulus  lar ' scantily equipped home.' Mendicus b ' beggar '  is from minus ' less,' said of one who, when there is a  need, has minus ' less ' than nothing. Dives ' rich ' is  from divus 6 ' godlike person,' who, as being a deus  ' god,' seems to lack nothing. Opulentus ' wealthy '  is from ops ' property,' said of one who has it in abun-  dance ; from the same, mops ' destitute ' is said of  him who lacks ops, and from the same source copis d  ' well supplied ' and copiosus ' abundantly furnished.'  Pecuniosus ' moneyed ' is from a large amount of  pecunia ' money ' ; pecunia is from peca ' flock ' : for  it was among keepers of flocks that these words  originated.'   XVIII. 93. For artisans the chief cause of the  names is the art itself, that is, that from the ars viedi-  cina ' medical art ' the medicus ' physician ' should be  named, and from the ars sutrina ' shoemaker's art '  the sutor ' shoemaker,' and not directly from mederi  ' to cure ' and suere ' to sew,' though these are the  absolutely final sources for such names. For these  are the roots of these things, as will be shown in the   89     VARRO     libro aperietur. Quare quod ab arte artifex dicitur  nec multa in eo obscura, relinquam.   94. Similis causa quae ab scientia voca 3  coactum in publicum, si erat aversum.   96. Ex quo 1 fructus maior, hie 2 est qui Graecis  usus : (sus), quod vs, bos, quod j3ovs, taurus, quod  (Tavpos), item ovis, quod ots : ita enim antiqui  dicebant, non ut nunc -n-pofSarov. Possunt in Latio  quoque ut in Graecia ab suis vocibus haec eadem ficta.  Armenta, quod boves ideo maxime parabant, ut inde  eligerent ad arandum ; inde arimenta dicta, postea   1 tertia littera extrita. Vitulus, quod Greece anti-  quitus iVaAos, aut quod plerique vegeti, vegitulus. 3  Iuvencus, iuvare qui iam ad agrum colendum posset.   97. Capra carpa, a quo scriptum   Omnicarpae caprae.   //ircus, 1 quod Sa&ini fircus ; quod illic fedus, 2 in Latio  rure hedus, qui in urbc ut in multis A addito Aaedus. 3  Porcus, quod Saoini dicww^ 4 aprun«(m) porra(m) 5 ;  proi(n)de 6 porcus, nisi si a Graecis, quod Athenis in  libris sacrorum scripta est iropK-q e(t> 7to/3ko(s). 7   2 Fay, for ut. 3 Aug., for esse.   § 96. 1 Mue., for qua. 2 Mue., for hinc. 3 Laetus,  for uigitulus.   § 97. 1 Aug., for ircus. 2 For faedus. 3 Aug., for  aedus. 4 Laetus, for dicto. 5 Kent ; aprinum porcum  L. Sp. ; aprum porcum Scaliger ; for apruno porco.  6 Turnebus, for poride. 7 Kent, for porcae porco.     § 96. Correct equations ; but the Latin words are not  derived from the Greek : the four pairs are from the ancestral  language, and only sus is likely to be onomatopoeic.  6 The Greek word is not the source of the Latin word, but  is borrowed from it ; there is no satisfactory etymology of  vitulus. c Really ' youthful,' a derivative of invents  ' young man,' and not from iuvare.   §97. "Wrong. 6 An old inherited word. c Iden-   92     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 95-97   a fine was imposed in pecus ' cattle ' and there was a  collection into the state treasury, of what had been  diverted.   96. Regarding cattle from which there is larger  profit, there is the same use of names here as among  the Greeks : sus ' swine,' the same as vs ; bos ' cow,'  the same as (3ov$ ; taurus ' bull,' the same as ravpos ;  likewise ovis ' sheep,' the same as 6is a : for thus the  ancients used to say, not irpoparov as they do now.  This identity of the names in Latium and in Greece  may be the result of invention after the natural utter-  ances of the animals. Armenta ' plough-oxen,' because  they raised oxen especially that they might select  some of them for arandum ' ploughing ' ; thence they  were called arimenta, from which the third letter I was  afterwards squeezed out. Vitulus ' calf,' because in  Greek it was anciently Itu\6 3 an's 4 ;  veteres nostri ariuga, hinc ariug?. 5   104. Vernacula : lact(u)c 1 a lacte, quod Aolus  id habet lact ; brassica 2 ut p(r)aesica, 3 quod ex eius  scapo minutatim praesicatur ; asparagi, quod ex  asperis virgultis leguntur et ipsi scapi asperi sunt, non  leves ; nisi Graecum : illic quoque enim dicitur  dcnrdpayos.* Cucumeres dicuntur a curvore, ut curvi-  meres dicti. Fructus a ferundo, res eae quas 5 fundus  et eae (quas) quae 6 in fundo ferunt ut fruamur.   §103. 1 For raphanum. 2 For malachen. 3 For  lirio. 4 For malache. 6 A. Sp.,/or sysimbrio.   § 104. 1 M, Laetus, for lacte. 2 Laetus, for blassica.  3 Turnebus ; praeseca Aldus ; for passica. 4 For aspara-  gus. 5 A. Sp., for ea cquas. 6 Mue., for ea eque.     * Optima et maxima suggests Jupiter Optimus Maximus.  e The juice of the walnut-hull does make a very dark stain.   § 103. "All the examples in this section have come into  Latin from Greek, except radix, rosa, malva. Radix is  native Latin, and its Greek equivalent had a different mean-  ing. Rosa and malva, and their Greek equivalents, were  separately derived from an earlier language native in the   98     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 102-104     being best and biggest, 6 is called ia-glans from 7«-piter  and glans ' acorn.' The same word nux ' nut ' is so  called because its juice makes a person's skin black,  just as nox ' night ' makes the air black.   103. ° Of those which are grown in gardens, some  are called by foreign names, as, by Greek names,  ocimuvi ' basil,' menta ' mint,' rata ' rue,' which they  now call -rffavov ; likewise caulis ' cabbage,' lapathium  ' sorrel,' radix ' radish ' : for thus the ancient Greeks  called what they now call pdfavos ; likewise these  from Greek names : serpyllum 6 ' thyme,' rosa ' rose,'  each with one letter changed ; likewise Latin names  from these Greek names : KoXiavhpov c ' coriander,'  fj.aXdxrj, nvfiivov ' cummin ' ; likewise lilium ' lily ' from  Xeipiov and malva ' mallow ' from p.a\d%i] and sisym-  brium ' thyme ' from cricrvpfipiov.   104. ° Native words : lactuca ' lettuce ' from lact  ' milk,' because this herb contains milk ; brassica  ' cabbage ' as though praesica, because from its stalk  praesicatur ' leaves are cut off ' one by one ; asparagi  ' asparagus shoots,' because they are gathered from  aspera ' rough ' bushes and the stems themselves are  rough, not smooth : unless it is a Greek name, for in  Greece also they say da-Trdpayos. Cucumeres ' cucum-  bers ' are named from their curvor ' curvature,' as  though curvimeres. Fructus ' fruits ' are named from  ferre b ' to bear,' namely those things which the farm  and those things which are on the farm bear, that   Mediterranean region. * With initial * rather than h,  by assimilation to Latin serpere. c Usually KopiavSpov,  but here with dissimilative change of the prior r to I.   § 104. " Correct on lactuca, fructus, mola ; wrong on  brassica, cucumeres, itva ; asparagus Is from Greek. * Cf.  v. 37, and note e.     99     VARRO     I line declinatae fruges et frumentuni, sed ea c terra ;  etiam frumentum, quod rum  (m)acerare 3 cruda Solera. E quis ad coquendum  quod e terra eru(itu)r, 4 ruapa, unde rapa. Olea ab  eAcua 5 ; olea grandis orchitis, quod earn Attid 6 opxw  /xopa.'   109. Hinc ad pecudis carnem perventum est.  \bv  Zvrepov appellasse. Ab eadem fartura farcimina  (in) 6 extis appellata, a quo (farticulum) 8 : in eo quod  tenuissimum intestinum fartum, hila ab hilo dicta  i(l)lo 7 quod ait Ennius :   Neque dispendi 8 facit hilum.   Quod in hoc farcimine summo quiddam eminet, ab eo  quod ut in capite apex, apexabo dicta. Tertium  fartum est longavo, quod longius quam duo ilia.   3 Added by GS. ; cf. Festus, 225. 15 M. 4 Laetus,for eo.  5 A. Sp.,for ad.   §111. 1 Added by Mve. 2 Laetus, for lucanam.  3 Added by Aldus. 4 Fay, for partes. 5 Added by  Aug., with B. 6 Added by GS. 7 Lackmann, for hilo.  8 For dispendii.     e Perna has no connexion with pes ; but the remaining  etymologies of this section seem to be correct. d The  precise meaning of this word is unknown ; perhaps ' pork-  chop,' cf. W. Heraeus, Archiv f. ImL Lex. 14. 124-125.  e Meaning assured by offulam cum duobus costis, Varro,  De Re Rustica, ii. 4." 11. 1 Page 345 Maurenbrecher ;  page 3 Morel.   §111. °The preceding etymologies in this section are  correct, but hila is properly hilla, diminutive of hira ' empty   106     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 110-111     Perna c ' ham,' from pes ' foot.' Sueris, d from the  animal's name. Offula ' rib-roast,' e from offa, a very  small sueris. Insicia ' minced meat ' from this, that  the meat is insecta ' cut up,' just as in the Song of the  Salii f the word prosicium ' slice ' is used, for which,  in the offering of the vitals, the word prosectum is  now used. Murtatum ' myrtle-pudding,' from murta  ' myrtle-berry,' because this berry is added plentifully  to its stuffings.   111. An intestine of the thick sort that was stuffed,  they call a Lucanica ' Lucanian,' because the soldiers  got acquainted with it from the Lucanians, just as  what they found at Falerii they call a Faliscan haggis ;  and they say fundolus ' bag-sausage ' from fundus  ' bottom,' because this is not like the other intestines,  but is open at only one end : from this, I think, the  Greeks called it the blind intestine. From the same  fartura ' stuffing ' were called the farcimina ' stuffies '  in the case of the vital organs for the sacrifice, whence  also farticulum ' stufflet ' ; in this case, because it is  the most slender intestine that is stuffed, it is called  hila a from that hilum ' whit ' which Ennius 6 uses :   And of loss not a whit does she suffer.   Because at the top of this stuffy there is a little projec-  tion, it is called an apexabo, c because the projection is  like the apex ' pointed cap ' on a human head. The  third kind of sausage is the longavo, e because it is  longer than those two others.   intestine ' ; cf. Festus, 101. 6 M. 6 Annales, 14 Yahlen 2 ;  li.O.L. i. 6-7 Warmington ; quoted also v. 60 and ix. 54.  Apexabo and longavo doubtless have the same suffix, differ-  ing only through the late Latin confusion of 6 and v; unless  indeed both words are further corrupt.   107     VARRO   112. Augmentum, quod ex immolata hostia dc-  sectum in iecore (imponitur) 1 in por(ric)iendo 2  a(u)gendi 3 causa. Magraentum 4 a magis, quod ad  religionem magis pertinet : itaque propter hoc  (mag)mentana 5 fana constituta locis certis quo id  imponeretur. Mattea 6 ab eo quod ea Graece /larrm].  Item (a) 7 Graecis . . . singillatim haec 8 : . . . 9  ovum, bulbum.   XXIII. 113. Lana Graecum, ut Polt/bius et Calli-  machus scribunt. Purpura a purpurae maritumae  colore, wt 1 P(o)enicum, quod a Poenis primum dicitur  allata. Stamen a stando, quod eo stat omne in tela  velamentum. Subtemen, quod subit stamini. Trama,  quod tram(e)at 2 frigus id genus vestimenti. Densum  a dentibus pectinis quibus feritur. Filum, quod  minimum est hilum : id enim minimum est in vesti-  mento.   § 112. 1 Added by A. Sp. 2 L. Sp., for im poriendo.  3 Turnebus, for agendi. 4 B, M, Aug., for magnentum.   6 Tumebus, for mentarea. 6 Popma, for mattae.   7 Added by L. Sp. 8 For heae. 9 The lacuna was noted  by Scaliger ; the exact arrangement is by Kent, after Mue.'s  indication of the probable contents.   §113. 1 Lachmann ; colore G, Laetus ; for colerent.  2 Aug. {quoting a friend), for tramat.   § 112. ° Correct, unless the purpose was to increase, that  is, glorify the god. 6 Properly connected with mactare  ' to sacrifice,' though popular association with magis affected  its meaning. e A highly seasoned dish of hashed meat,  poultry, and herbs, served cold as a dessert.  108     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 112-113     112. The augme/itum a ' increase-cake ' is so called  because a piece of it is cut out and put on the liver of  the sacrificed victim at the presentation to the deity,  for the sake of augendi ' increasing ' it. Magmentum b  ' added offering,' from viagis ' more,' because it  attaches viagis ' more ' closely to the worshipper's  piety : for this reason magmentaria fana ' sanctuaries  for the offering of magmenta ' have been established  in certain places, that the added offering may there  be laid on the original and offered with it. Mattea c  ' cold meat-pie ' is so named because in Greek it is  /larrvij. Likewise from the Greeks is another meat-  dish called . . . , which contains item by item the  following : . . . , an egg, a truffle.   XXIII. 113. Lana a 'wool' is a Greek word,  as Polybius 6 and Callimachus c write. Purpura d  ' purple,' from the colour of the purpura ' purple-fish '  of the sea : a Punic word, because it is said to have  been first brought to Italy by the Phoenicians.  Stamen 1 warp,' from stare ' to stand,' because by this  the whole fabric on the loom stat ' stands ' up. Sub-  temen e ' woof,' because it subit ' goes under ' the  stamen ' warp.' Trama * ' wide-meshed cloth,' be-  cause the cold trameat ' goes through ' this kind of  garment. Densum B ' close-woven cloth,' from the  denies ' dents ' of the sley with which it is beaten.  Filum 9 ' thread,' because it is the smallest hilum  ' shred ' ; for this is the smallest thing in a garment.   § 1 13. ° An old Italic word cognate to English wool ; cf.  v. 130. b Frag. inc. 99 (101) Hultsch. e Fray. 408  Schneider. 4 Quite possibly a Phoenician w ord, but  transmitted to Italj' by the Greeks (irop^vpa). « From  subtexere ' to weave underneath.' ' From trahere ' to  pull.' " Wrong.   109     VARRO     114. Pannus Graecuw, 1 ubi E A 2 fecit. Panu-  vellium dictum a pano et volvendo filo. Tunica ab  tuendo corpore, tunica ut (tu)endica. 3 Toga a  tegendo. Cinctus et cingillum a cingendo, alterum  viris, alterum mulieribus attributum.   XXIV. 115. Anna ab arcendo, quod his arcemus  hostem. Parma, quod e medio in omnis partis par.  Conum, quod cogitur in cacumen versus. Hasta,  quod astans solet 1 ferri. Iaculum, quod ut iaciatur  fit. Tragula a traiciendo. Scutum (a) 2 sectura ut  secutum, quod a minute consectts 3 fit tabellis. Urn-  bones 4 a Graeco, quod a/x/Swves. 5   116. Gladiu/M 1 C in G 2 commutato a clade, quod  fit ad hostium cladem gladium ; similiter ab omine 3  pilum, qui host«s periret, 4 ut perilum. Lorica, quod  e loris de corio crudo pectoralia faciebant ; postea  subcidit galli(ca) 5 e ferro sub id vocabulum, ex anulis   § 1 14. 1 Aug., with B, for greens. 2 Fay, for ea.  3 GS., for indica.   §115. 1 For sollet. 2 Added by Laetus. 3 Aug.,  for consectum. 4 For umbonis. 5 Turnebus, for  ambonis.   § 1 16. 1 L. Sp., for gladius. 2 For G in C. 3 Aug.,  for homine. 4 Aug. (hostis B), for hostem feriret.  6 Mue.,for galli.     § 1 14. ° Not pannus ' cloth,' but pannus ' bobbin,' in  view of what follows ; there is a Greek -nfjvos ' web,' and its  diminutive irqvlov ' bobbin,' which in the Doric form would  have A and not E. 6 Possibly right, if, as A. Spengel  thinks, the word is really panuvollium. e From Semitic,  either directly or through Etruscan.   §115. ° Arma, parma, conum, hasta, tragula, scutum,  umbones : all wrong etymologies. 6 Not from traicere,  but from trahere ' to pull, drag ' ; perhaps because the thong  wound round it for throwing (like the string used in starting  a peg-top) ' pulls ' the javelin.  110     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 114-116     114. Pannus ° ' bobbin,' is a Greek word, where  E has become A. Panuvelliuin 6 ' bobbin with thread '  was said from panus 4 bobbin ' and volvere 4 to wind '  the thread. Tunica c ' shirt,' from tuendo 4 protect-  ing ' the body : tunica as though it were tuendica.  Toga 4 toga ' from tegere 4 to cover.' Cincius ' belt '  and cingillum 4 girdle,' from cingere 4 to gird,' the one  assigned to men and the other to women.   XXIV. 115. Arma ° ' arms,' from arcere 4 to ward  off,' because with them we arcemus 4 ward off' the  enemy. Parma ' cavalry shield,' because from the  centre it is par * even ' in every direction. Conum  4 pointed helmet,' because it cogitur 4 is narrowed '  toward the top. Hasta 4 spear,' because it is usually  carried astajis' standing up.' Iaculum' javelin,' because  it is made that it may iaci ' be thrown.' Tragula 6  ' thong-javelin,' from traicere 4 to pierce.' Scutum  4 shield,' from sectura 4 cutting,' as though secutum,  because it is made of wood cut into small pieces.  Umbones 4 bosses ' from a Greek word, namely   116.° Gladium 4 sword,' from clades 4 slaughter,'  with change of C to G, because the gladium 6 is made  for a slaughter of the enemy ; likewise from its omen  was said pilum, by which the enemy periret ' might  perish,' as though perilum. Lorica ' corselet,' because  they made chest-protectors from lora 4 thongs ' of  rawhide ; afterwards the Gallic corselet of iron was   § 1 16. ° All etymologies wrong except those of lorica and  (with reserves) of galea. b Varro prefers {cf. viii. 45, ix. 81,  Be Re Rust. i. 48. 3) the unfamiliar neuter form, which may  be due to the influence of the associated words scutum, pilum,  telum. The word is of Celtic origin, but may have an ulti-  mate connexion with the root of clades.     Ill     VARRO     ferrea tunica. 6 Balteum, quod cingulum e corio  habebant bullatum, balteum dictum. Ocrea, quod  opponebatur ob crus. Galea ab galero, quod multi  usi antiqui.   117. Tubae ab tubis, quos etiam nunc ita appellant  tubicines sacrorum. Cornua, quod ea quae nunc sunt  ex aere, tunc fiebant bubulo e cornu. Vallum vel  quod ea varicare nemo posset vel quod singula ibi  extrema 6acilla furcillata habent figuram litterae V.  Cervi ab similitudine cornuum cervi ; item reliqua  fere ab similitudine ut vineae, testudo, aries.   XXV. 118. Mensam escariam cillibam appella-  bant ; ea erat 1 quadrata ut etiam nunc in castris est ;  a cibo cilliba dicta ; postea rutunda facta, et quod a  nobis media et a Graecis fxecra, mensa dic^(a) 2 potest ;  nisi etiam quod ponebant pleraque in cibo mensa.  Trulla a similitudine truae, quae quod magna et haec   6 Turnebus, for ferream tunicam.   § 1 18. 1 For erant. 2 Mue.,for dici.   e Rather galerum from galea, which looks like a borrowing  from Greek yaAe'r; ' weasel ' ; the objection is that caps of  weasel-skin are nowhere attested.   §117. ° Wrong etymology. 6 Thrust into the embank-  ment, to increase its defensive strength ; can they be the  stakes, pali or valli, forming a fence along its top ? But  these are not elsewhere spoken of as forked. e Used by  Caesar, who inserted such forked branches into the face of  his wall at Alesia, Bell. Gall. vii. 72. 4, 73. 2. d Otherwise  ' grape-arbours ' ; in military use, sheds under the protection  of which soldiers could advance up to the enemy's fortifica-  tions. " A close formation of overlapping shields.   §118. "Borrowed from Greek KiXAlfias 'three-legged  table,' a derivative of kIXXos ' ass.' 6 Or perhaps mesa,  since n was weak before s ; Priscian, i. 58. 17 Keil, states  that Varro used both spellings. Mensa seems to be the  112     OX THE LATIN LANGUAGE. V. 116-118     included under this name, an iron shirt made of links.  Balteum ' sword-belt,' because they used to wear a  leather belt bullatum ' with an amulet attached,' was  called balteum. Ocrea ' shin-guard' was so called  because it was set in the way ob crus ' before  the shin.' Galea c ' leather helmet,' from galerum  ' leather bonnet,' because many of the ancients used  them.   117. Tubae ' trumpets,' from tubi ' tubes,' a name  by which even now the trumpeters of the sacrifices call  them. Cornua ' horns,' because these, which are now  of bronze, were then made from the cornu ' horn ' of  an ox. Vallum a ' camp wall,' either because no one  could varicare ' straddle ' over it, or because the ends  of the forked sticks 6 used there had individually the  shape of the letter V. Cervi c ' chevaux-de-frise,'  from the likeness to the horns of a cervus ' stag ' ; so  the rest of the terms in general, from a likeness, as  vineae ' mantlets,' d testudo ' tortoise,' e aries ' ram.'   XXV. 118. The eating-table they used to call a  cilliba ° ; it was square, as even now it is in the camp ;  the name cilliba came from cibus ' victuals.' After-  wards it M'as made round, and the fact that it was  media ' central ' with us and p-ka-a ' central ' with the  Greeks, is the probable reason for its being called a  mensa 6 ' table ' ; unless indeed they used to put on,  amongst the victuals, many that were mensa ' measured  out.' Trulla e ' ladle,' from its likeness to a trua  ' gutter,' but because this is big and the other is small,  they named it as if it were truella ' small triia ' ; this   feminine of mensus ' measured ' ; perhaps from tabula  mensa ' measured board.' e Trulta is of uncertain origin,  and yielded trua by back-formation ; Greek rpinJAij seems  to have been borrowed from Latin, as Varro states.     VOL. I     [     113     VARRO   pusilla, ut tr«e 3 enim et navovv* d(i)c(untur) 5  Graece. 6 Reliqua quod aperta sunt unde sint  relinquo.   XXVI. 121. Mensa vinaria rotunda nominabatur  ci(l)liba (a)nte, 1 ut etiam nunc in castris. Id videtur  declinatum a Graeco kvAikcuo, 2 (id) 3 a poculo cylice  qui (in) 3 ilia. Capk?(es) 4 et minores capulae a  capiendo, quod ansatae ut prehendi possent, id est  capi. Harum figuras in vasis sacris ligneas ac fictiles  antiquas etiam nunc videmus.   122. Praeterea in poculis erant paterae, ab eo  quod late (pate)nZ 1 ita 2 dictae. Hisce etiam nunc in  publico convivio antiquitatis retinendae causa, cum  magistri fiunt, potio circumfertur, et in sacrificando  deis hoc poculo magistratus dat deo vinum. Pocula a  potione, unde potatio et etiam posca. 3 Haec possunt  a 7roTa», 4 quod ttotos potio Graece.   2 Aug., with B, for triplia. 3 Aug., with B, for triplion.  4 L. Sp.,for canunun Fv. 5 GS.,forde. 6 Canal, for  greca.   § 121. 1 GS., for cilibantiim. 2 Turnebus, for culiceo.   3 Added by Mue. 4 L. Sp. ; capis Turnebus ; for capit.   § 122. 1 GS. ; patent L. Sp. ; pateant latine Aldus ; for  latini. 2 After ita, Aldus deleted dicunt. 3 Turnebus,  for postea. 4 Mue., for poto.   6 From Greek fiayLs ' a round pan.' " Better lancula,  diminutive of lanx ' platter.' d Correct, except that canis-  trum is from Greek Kaviorpov 4 bread-basket,' made of K&wai  'reeds ' ; page 117 Funaioli.   § 121. ° Of. § 118, where a different etymology is given.   § 122. Not from Greek, but from an Indo-European  root inherited by Latin as well as by Greek. 6 The Greek-  word means properly not a ' draught,' but a ' drinking-bout.'  116     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 120-122     The magida 6 and the languid, both meaning ' platter,'  they named from the magnitudo ' size ' of the one and  the latitudo ' width ' of the other. Patenae ' plates '  they called from patulum ' spreading,' and the little  plates, with which they offered the gods a preliminary  sample of the dinner, they called patellae ' saucers.'  Tryblia ' bowls ' and canistra ' bread-baskets,' though  people think that they are Latin, are really Greek A :  for rpvBkiov and Kavovv are said in Greek. The  remaining terms I pass by, since their sources are  obvious.   XXVI. 121.' A round table for wine was formerly  called a cilliba, a as even now it is in the camp. This  seems to be derived from the Greek kvXikcIov  ' buffet,' from the cup cylix which stands on it. The  capides ' bowls ' and smaller capulae ' cups ' were  named from capere ' to seize,' because they have  handles to make it possible for them prehendi ' to be  grasped,' that is, capi ' to be seized.' Their shapes we  even now see among the sacred vessels, old-fashioned  shapes in wood and earthenware.   122. In addition there were among the drinking-  cups the paterae ' libation-saucers,' named from this,  that they patent ' are open ' wide. For the sake of  preserving the ancient practice, they use cups of this  kind even now for passing around the potio ' draught '  at the public banquet, when the magistrates enter  into their office ; and it is this kind of cup that the  magistrate uses in sacrificing to the gods, when he  gives the wine to the god. Pocula ' drinking-cups,'  from potio ' draught,' whence potatio ' drinking bout '  and also posca ' sour wine.' ° These may however  come from ttotos, because ttotos is the Greek for  potio. b   117     VARRO   123. Origo potionis aqua, quod oequa summa.  Fons unde funditur e terra aqua viva, ut fistula a qua  fusus aquae. Vas vinarium grandius sinum ab sinu,  quod sinum maiorem cavtur 2 urnarium,  quod urnas cum aqua positas ibi potissimum habebant  in culina. Ab eo etiam nunc ante balineum locus ubi  poni solebat urnarium vocatur. Urnae dictae, quod  urinant in aqua Aaurienda ut smnator. C/rinare 3 est  mergi in aquam.   127. .^m&un^m} 1 fictum ab uruo, 2 quod ita  flexum ut redeat sursum versus tit 3 in aratro quod est  wrvum. 4 Calix a caldo, quod in eo calda puis 5 appone-  batur et caldum eo bibebant. Vas ubi coquebant  cibum, ab eo caccabum appellarunt. Vera 6 a ver-  sando.   XXVIII. 128. Ab sedendo appellatae sedes,  sedile, so/ium, 1 sellae, siliquastrum ; deinde ab his  subsellium : ut subsipere quod non plane sapit, sic  quod non plane erat sella, subsellium. Ubi in eius-  modi duo, bisellium dictum. Area, quod arcebantur   § 126. 1 GS., for et. 2 uocabatur, tcith ba expunged,  V ; nocatur other mss. 3 Bent huts, for orinator orinare.   §127. 1 Kent ; imburvom Mue. ; imburum Aldus, with  B; for impurro. 2 Mue., for urbo. 3 Aldus, for est.  4 B, for aruum. 6 Laetus, for plus. 6 Aldus, for uera.   § 128. 1 Aug., for souum.     § 126. ° Wrong etymology. 6 Derivative of vrina at  an early date when itrina still meant merely 4 water,' and not  specifically ' urine.'   § 127. ° ' Bent about,' a vessel shaped like a gravy-boat ;  if my conjecture as to the spelling of the word is right, there  is basis for Varro's etymology. 6 Of uncertain etymology,  but popularly derived by the Romans from Greek icvXii;  ' cup,' the normal meaning also of Latin calix, but not the  meaning in this passage. c From Greek KaKKaftos, a pot  with three legs, to stand over the fire. d Wrong.   120     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 126-128     XXVII. 126. Besides there was a third kind of  table for vessels, rectangular like the second kind ; it  was called an urnarium, because it was the piece of  furniture in the kitchen on which by preference they  set and kept the urnae ' urns ' filled with water. From  this even now the place in front of the bath where  the urn-table is wont to be placed, is called an  urnarium. Urnae ' urns ' got their name a from the  fact that they urinant b ' dive ' in the drawing of  water, like an urinator ' diver.' Urinate means to be  plunged into water.   127. Amburvum, a a pot whose name is made from  urvum ' curved,' because it is so bent that it turns up  again like the part of the plough which is named the  urvum ' beam.' Calix b ' cooking-pot,' from caldum  ' hot,' because hot porridge was served up in it, and  they drank hot liquid from it. The vessel in which  they coquebant ' cooked ' their food, from that they  called a caccabus. Feru ' spit,' from versare ' to  turn.' d   XXVIII. 128. From sedere ' to sit ' were named  sedes ' seat,' sedile ' chair,' solium ' throne,' sellae a  ' stools,' siliquastrum 6 ' wicker chair ' ; then from  these subsellium ' bench ' : as subsipere is said a thing  does not sapit ' taste ' clearly, so subsellium because  it was not clearly c a sella ' stool.' Where two had  room on a seat of this sort, it was called a bisellium  ' double seat.' An area ' strong-chest,' because  thieves arcebantur ' were kept away ' from it when it   § 128. ° With M from dl. b Probably seliquastrum (or  selli-), as in Festus, 340 b 10, 341. 5 ; Fay suggests ' seat-  basket ' (sella + qualum + suffix), citing certain types of Mexi-  can chairs. e Rather ' under-seat,' that is, a seat under  the sitter.     121     VARRO   fures ab ea clausa. Armarium et armamentarium ab  cadem origine, sed declinata aliter.   XXIX. 129. Mundus (ornatus) 1 muliebris dictus  a munditia. Ornatus quasi ab ore natus : hinc enim  maxime sumitur quod earn deceat, itaque id paratur  speculo. 2 Calamistrum, quod his calfactis in cinere  capfillus ornatur. Qui ea ministrabat, a cinere cinera-  rius est appellatus. Discerniculum, quo discernitur  capillus. Pecten, quod per euro explicatur capillus.  Speculum a speciendo, 3 quod ibi (s)e spectant.*   130. Vestis a vellis vel 1 ab eo quod vellus lana  tonsa universa ovis : id dictum, quod vellebant.2  Lan(e)a, 3 ex lana facta. Quod capillum contineret,  dictum a rete reticulum ; rete ab raritudine ; item  texta fasciola,qua capillum in capitealligarent, dictum  capital a capite, quod sacerdotulae in capite etiam  nunc solent habere. Sic rica ab ritu, quod Romano  ritu sacrificium feminae cum faciunt, capita velant.   § 129. 1 Added by GS. ; cf. Festus, 143. 1 M, 2 A.  Sp., for speculum. 3 Laetus, for spiciendo. 4 a, b,  Turnebus, for espeetant.   § 130. 1 Ixietus, for uela. 2 B, Laetus, for uellabant.  3 Turnebus, for lana.     d Both area and arcere are derived from arx ' stronghold.'  * Not connected with area ; but belonging together.   § 129. Munditia is derived from mundus. 6 Wrong  etymologies.   § 130. Both etymological suggestions for vestis arc  wrong ; for the meaning, see A. Spengel, Bemerkungen, 264.   122     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 128-130     was locked.** Armarium ' closet ' and armamentarium  ' warehouse,' from the same source,' but with different  suffixes.   XXIX. 129. Mundus is a woman's toilet set,  named a from munditia ' neatness.' Ornatus ' toilet  set,' as if natus ' born ' from the os ' face ' 6 : for  from this especially is taken that which is to  beautify a woman, and therefore this is handled  with the help of a mirror. Calamistrum ' curling-  iron,' because the hair is arranged with irons when  they have been calfacta ' heated ' in the embers. 6  The one who attended to them was called a cinerarius  ' ember-man,' from cinis ' embers.' Discerniculum  ' bodkin,' with which the hair discernitur ' is parted.'  Pecten ' comb,' because by it the hair explicatur ' is  spread out.' b Speculum ' mirror,' from specere ' to  look at,' because in it they spectant ' look at ' them-  selves.   130. Festis ' garment ' " from velli 6 ' shaggy hair,'  or from the fact that the shorn wool of a sheep, taken  as a whole, is a vellus ' fleece ' : this was said because  they formerly vellebant ' plucked ' it. Lanea ' woollen  headband,' c because made from lana ' wool.' That  which was to hold the hair, was called a reticulum ' net-  cap,' from rete ' net ' ; rete, from raritudo ' looseness  of mesh.' d Likewise the woven band with which  they were to fasten the hair on the head, was called  a capital ' headband,' from caput ' head ' ; and this  the sub-priestesses are accustomed to wear on their  heads even now. So rica ' veil,' from ritus ' fashion,' d  because according to the Roman ritus, when women  make a sacrifice, they veil their heads. The mitra   6 Yellis, dialectal for villis. e For meaning, see A. Spen-  gel, Bemerkungen, 264. d Wrong etymologies.   123     VARRO   Mitra et reliqua fere in capite postea addita cum  vocabulis Graecis.   XXX. 131. Prius deinde (ind)utui, 1 turn amictui  quae sunt tangam. Capitium ab eo quod capit pec-  tus, id est, ut antiqui dicebant, comprehendit. In-  dutui alterum quod subtus, a quo subucula ; alterum  quod supra, a quo supparus, nisi id quod item dicunt  Osce. Alterius generis item duo, unum quod foris  ac palam, palla ; alterum quod intus, a quo (indusium,  ut) 2 intusium, id quod Plautus dicit :   Indusiatam 3 patagiatam caltulam* ac crocotulam.   Multa post luxuria attulit, quorum vocabula apparet  esse Graeca, ut asbest(in)on. 5   132. Amictui dictum quod abiectum 1 est, id  est circumiectum, 2 a quo etiam quo 3 vestitas se invol-  vunt, circumiectui appellant, et quod amictui habet  purpuram circum, vocant circumtextum. Antiquis-  simi amictui ricinium ; id quod eo utebantur duplici,   § 131. 1 B, Turnebus, for deinde utui Fv, f. 2 Added  by GS. 3 GS., for intusiatam ; after the text of Plautus.  * Laetus, for caltulum/ after the text of Plautus. 6 GS.,  for asbeston ; cf. Pliny, jVat. Hist. xix. 4. 20.   §132. 1 Mue., for abiectum. 2 ^w#.,/o?-circumlectum.  3 G, Aug., for quod.     § 131 . The datives indutui, amictui, and circumiectui, are  used in § 131 and § 132 as indeclinables, like frugi ' thrifty,'  cordi ' pleasant,' original datives of purpose that have become  stereotyped. 6 From caput ' head,' because it was put on  over the head like a sweater. c From sub and the verb in  ind-tiere, ' to put on,' ex-uere ' to take off.' d Probably  Oscan. * Of unknown etymology. ' From induere  'to put on.' 9 Epidicus, 231. h The Latin words are  adjectives modifying tunicam in the preceding line. ' Made  of a mineral substance called aofieoTos.  124.     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 130-132     ' turban ' and in general the other things that go on  the head, -were later importations, along -with their  Greek names.   XXX. 131. Next I shall first touch upon those  things which are for putting on,° then those which are  for wrapping about the person. Capitium 6 ' vest,'  from the fact that it capii ' holds ' the chest, that is, as  the ancients said, it comprehendit ' includes ' it. One  kind of put-on goes subtus ' below,' from which it is  called subucula c ' underskirt ' ; a second kind goes  supra 1 above,' from which it is called supparus d  ' dress,' unless, this is so called because they say it in  the same way in Oscan. Of the second sort there are  likewise two varieties, one called palla e ' outer dress,'  because it is outside and palam ' openly ' visible ; the  other is intus ' inside,' from which it is called indusium *  ' under-dress,' as though intusium, of which Plautus  speaks 9 :   Under-dress, a bordered dress, of marigold and saffron  hue.*   There are many garments which extravagance  brought at later times, whose names are clearly  Greek, such as asbestinon i ' fire-proof.'   132. Atnictui ' wrap ' is thus named because it is  ambiectum ' thrown about,' that is, circumiectum ' thrown  around,' from which moreover they gave the name of  circumiectui ' throw-around ' to that with which women  envelop themselves after they are dressed ; and any  wrap that has a purple edge around it, they call  circumtextum ' edge-weave.' Those of very long ago  called a wrap a ricinium ' mantilla ' ; it was called  ricinium from reicere ' to throw back,' ° because they   § 133. ° Properly from rica (§ 130) ; it was a square piece  of cloth worn folded over the head in sign of mourning.   125     VARRO   ab eo quod dimidiam partem retrorsum zaciebant, 4 ab  reiciendo ricinium dictum.   133. (Pallia) 1 hinc, quod facta duo simplicia paria,  parilia primo dicta, R exclusum 2 propter levitatem.  Parapechia, 3 cAlarmydes, 4 sic multa, Graeca. Loena, 5  quod de lana multa, duarum etiam togarum instar ;  ut antiquissimum mulierum ricinium, sic hoc duplex  virorum.   XXXI. 134. Instrumenta rustica quae serendi aut  colendi fructus causa facta. Sarculum ab serendo ae  sanendo. 1 Ligo, quod eo propter latitudinem quod  sub terra facilius legitur. Pala a pangendo,  2  GL quod fuit. Rutrum ruitrum a ruendo.   135. Aratrum, quod aruit 1 terram. Eius fer-  rum vomer, quod vomit eo plus terram. Dens, quod  eo mordetur terra ; super id regula quae stat, stiva  ab stando, et in ea transversa regula manicula, quod  manu bubulci tenetur. Qui quasi temo est inter   4 Ixietus, for faciebant.   § 133. 1 Added by Canal. 2 Mue. ; R esclusum  Turnebus ; for resclusum /, resculum Fv. 3 For para-  pecchia Fv. 4 Ed. Veneta, for clamides. 5 Aldus, for  lena.   § 134. 1 Aldus, for sarcendo. 2 Added by Ellis.  § 135. 1 Turnebus, for aruit ; cf. Varro, De Re Rustica, i.  35, terra adruenda.   § 133. ° Probably of Greek origin. 6 Greek irapam)xvs  ' beside the elbow,' also ' woman's garment with purple  border on each side.' The Latin word seems to come from  the diminutive irapaTrrjxtov ' radius, small bone below the  elbow,' which however may also have denoted the woman's  garment, though this is not attested. c Probably from  Greek ^Acum, perhaps with an Etruscan intermediary.   126     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 132-135     wore it doubled, throwing back one half of it over  the other.   133. Pallia ° ' cloaks ' from this, that they con-  sisted of two single paria ' equal ' pieces of cloth,  called parilia at first, from which R was eliminated for  smoothness of sound. Parapechia b ' elbow-stripes,'  chlamydes ' mantles,' and many others, are Greek.  Laena 6 ' overcoat,' because they contained much lana  ' wool,' even like two togas : as the ricinium was the  most ancient garment of the women, so this double  garment is the most ancient garment of the men.   XXXI. 134. Farming tools which were made for  planting or cultivating the crops. Sarculum ° ' hoe,'  from serere ' to plant ' and sarire ' to weed.' Ligo 6  ' mattock,' because with this, on account of its width,  what is under the ground legitur ' is gathered ' more  easily. Pala c ' spade ' from pangere ' to fix in the  earth ' ; the L was originally GL. Rutrum ' shovel,'  previously ruitrum, from mere ' to fall in a heap.'   135.° Aratrum ' plough,' because it arruit b ' piles  up ' the earth. Its iron part is called vomer ' plough-  share,' because with its help it the more vomit ' spews  up ' the earth. The dens ' colter,' because by this the  earth is bit ; the straight piece of wood which stands  above this is called the stiva ' handle,' from stare ' to  stand,' and the wooden cross-piece on it is the mani-  cula ' hand-grip,' because it is held by the manns  ' hand ' of the ploughman. That which is so to speak  a wagon-tongue between the oxen, is called a bura   § 134. From sarire. b Of uncertain origin. c Cor-  rect ; but from pag+ sla, with loss of the extra consonants in  the group.   § 135. ° Wrong on aratrum, vomer, stiva, bura, urvum.  b Really from arat ' it ploughs.'   127     VARRO     boves, bura a bubus ; alii hoc a curvo urvum 2 appel-  lant. Sub iugo medio cavum, quod bura extrema  addita oppilatur, vocatur coum 3 a cavo. 4 Iugum et  iumentum ab iunctu.   136. Irpices regula compluribus dentibus, quam  item ut plaustrum boves trahunt, ut eruant quae in  terra ser(p>unt 1 ; sirpices, postea (irpices) 2 S detrito..  a quibusdam dicti. Rastelli ut irpices serrae leves ;  itaque 3 homo in pratis per fenisecza 4 eo festucas  corradit, quo ab rasu rastelli dicti. Rastri, quibus  dentaiis 5 penitus eradunt terram atque cruunt, a quo  rutu n*a(s)tri 6 dicti.   137. Falces a farre littera 1 commutata ; hae in  Campania seculae a secando ; a quadam similitudine  harum aliae, ut quod apertum unde, falces fenariae  et arbor(ar)iae 2 et, quod non apertum unde, falces  lumaria(e) 3 et sirpiculae. Lumariae sunt quibus  secant lumecta, id est cum in agris serpunt spinae ;  quas quod ab terra agricolae solvunt, id est luunt,  lumecta. Falces sirpiculae vocatae ab sirpando, id   2 Turnebus, for curuum. 3 Aug., with B, for cous Fv.  4 Rhol., for couo.   § 136. 1 Turnebus, for serunt. 2 Added by Mue.   3 Aug., with B, for ita qua. 4 Aug., for fenisecta.  6 Turnebus, for dentalis. 6 Kent ; rutu rastri Scaliger :  erutu rastri Turnebus ; for ruturbatri Fv.   § 137. 1 For litera in Fv, as often. 2 Georges, for  arboriae ; cf. Varro, Be Re Rust. i. 22. 5, and Cato, De Agric.  10. 3. 3 For lumaria.     " The earlier form of cavus ' hollow ' was in fact covos.   § 136. ° Properly hirpices, from hirpus, the Samnite word  for ' wolf.' b Roots of weeds and grasses. " Diminu-  tive of rostrum ; therefore ultimately from radere. d Mas-  culine plural of neuter singular rastrum, from radere ' to  scrape.'  128     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 135-137     ' beam,' from botes ' oxen ' ; others call this an urvum,  from the curvuvi ' curve.' The hole under the middle  of the yoke, which is stopped up by inserting the  end of the beam, is called coum, from cavum ' hole.'  Iugum ' yoke ' and iumentum ' yoke-animal/ from  iunctus ' joining or yoking.'   136. Irpices a 'harrows' are a straight piece of  wood with many teeth, which oxen draw just like  a wagon, that they may pull up the things 6 that  serpunt ' creep ' in the earth ; they were called sir-  pices and afterwards, by some persons, irpices, with  the S worn off. Rastelli c ' hay-rakes,' like harrows,  are saw-toothed instruments, but light in weight ;  therefore a man in the meadows at haying time  corradit ' scrapes together ' with this the stalks,  from which rasns ' scraping ' they are called rastelli.  Rastri d ' rakes ' are sharp-toothed instruments by  which they scratch the earth deep, and eruunt ' dig  it up,' from which rutus ' digging ' they are called  ruastri.   137. Falces ' sickles,' from far ' spelt,' a with the  change of a letter ; in Campania, these are called  seculae, from secare ' to cut ' ; from a certain likeness  to these are named others, the falces fenariae ' hay  scythes ' and arborariae ' tree pruning-hooks,' of  obvious origin, and falces lumariae and sirpiculae,  whose source is obscure. Lumariae 6 are those with  which lumecta are cut, that is when thorns grow up in  the fields ; because the farmers solvunt ' loosen,' that  is, luunt ' loose,' them from the earth, they are called  lumecta ' thorn-thickets.' Falces sirpiculae c are named   §137. "Wrong. 6 Possibly for dumariae and dumecta,  with Sabine I for d ; cf. Festiis, 67. 10 M. 'Apparently  from sirpus ' rush,' collateral form of scirpus.   VOL. I K 129     VARRO     est ab alligando ; sic sirpata 4 dolia quassa, cum  alligata his, dicta. Utuntur in vinea alligando fasces,  incisos fustes, faculas. Has xranclas 5 Cherso(ne)sice. 6   138. Pilum, quod eo far pisunt, a quo ubi id fit  dictum pistrinum (L 1 et S inter se saepe locum corn-  mutant), inde post in Urbe Lucili pistrina et pistrix.  Trapetes 2 molae oleariae ; vocant trapetes a terendo,  nisi Graecum est ; ac molae a mol(l)iendo 3 : harum  enim motu eo coniecta mol(l)iuntur. 4 Vallum a  volatu, quod cum id iactant volant inde levia. Ven-  tilabrum, quod ventilatur in aere frumentum.   139- Quibus conportatur fructus ac necessariae  res : de his fiscina a ferendo dicta. Corbes ab eo  quod eo spicas aliudve quid corruebant ; hinc minores  corbulae dictae. De his quae iumenta ducunt,  tragula, quod ab eo trahitur per terram ; sirpea, quae  virgis sirpatur, id est colligando implicatur, in qua  stercus aliudve quid vehitur.   4 Aug., with B, for sirpita. 5 Mue., for phanclas /,  G, fanclas H, V, p. 6 Aug., with B, for chermosie /,  chermosioe G, a.   § 138. 1 Aug., for R. 2 For trapetas Fv. 3 Scaliger,  for moliendo. 4 Scaliger, for moliuntnr.     d Cf. the fiaschi vestiti or ' clothed wine-flasks ' of modern  Italy. * Messana in Sicily was before the Greek coloniza-  tion named Zancle ' sickle,' from the shape of the cape on  which it stood. There is no other evidence that this cape was  called a Chersonesus, but as over twenty peninsulas are  referred to by this name, it is possible that the name was  applied here also.   § 138. a Varro's basis for this statement is not apparent.  6 Cf. 521 and 1250 Marx ; one must assume that one of the  Satires of Lucilius was entitled Urbs. c From Greek.  d From molere ' to grind.' e Diminutive of vannvs ' fan.'   §139. "Wrong on fiscina and corbes. b Cf. § 137,  note c.  130     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 137-139     from sirpare ' to plait of rushes,' that is, alligare ' to  fasten ' ; thus broken jars are said to have been  sirpata ' rush-covered,' when they are fastened to-  gether with rushes.* 1 They use rushes in the vine-  yard for tying up bundles of fuel, cut stakes, and  kindling. These sickles they call zanclae in the  peninsular dialect."   138. The pi lum ' pestle ' is so named because with  it they pisunt ' pound ' the spelt, from which the place  where this is done is called a pistrinum ' mill ' — L  and S often change places with each other" — and from  that afterwards pistrina ' bakery ' and pistrix ' woman  baker,' words used in Lucilius's Cityfi Trapetes c are  the mill-stones of the olive-mill : they call them  trapetes from terere ' to rub to pieces,' unless the word  is Greek ; and molae d from mollire ' to soften,' for  what is thrown in there is softened by their motion.  Vallum * ' small win no wing-fan,' from volatus ' flight,'  because when they swing this to and fro the light  particles volant ' fly ' away from there. Ventilabrum  ' winnowing-fork,' because with this the grain venti-  latur ' is tossed ' in the air.   139. Those means with which field produce and  necessary things are transported. Of these, fiscina a   rush-basket ' was named from ferre ' to carry ' ; corbes  ' baskets,' from the fact that into them they corrue-  bant ' piled up ' corn-ears or something else ; from  this the smaller ones were called corbulae. Of  those which animals draw, the tragula ' sledge,'  because it trahitur ' is dragged ' along the ground by  the animal ; sirpea 6 ' wicker wagon,' which sirpatur  ' is plaited ' of osiers, that is, is woven by binding  them together, in which dung or something else is  conveyed.     131     VARRO     140. Vehiculum, in quo faba aliudve quid vehitur,  quod e 1 viminibus vietur 2 aut eo vehitur. Breviws 3  vehiculum dictum est aliis ut* arcera, quae etiam  in Duodecim Tabulis appellatur ; quod ex tabulis  vehiculum erat factum ut area, 5 arcera dictum. Plaus-  trum ab eo quod non ut in his quae supra dixi (ex  quadam parte), 6 sed ex omni parte palam est, quae  in eo vehuntur quod perluce(n)t, 7 ut lapides, asseres,  tignum.   XXXII. 141. Aedificia nominata a parte ut  multa : ab aedibus et faciendo maxime aedificium.  Et oppidum ab opi dictum, quod munitur opis causa  ubi sint et quod opus est ad vitam gerendam ubi  habeant tuto. Oppida quod opere 1 muniebant,  moenia ; quo moenitius esset quod exaggerabant,  aggeres dicti, et qui aggerem contineret, moerus. 2  Quod muniendi causa portabatur, mwnus 3 ; quod  sepiebant oppidum co moenere, 4 momis. 5   142. Eius summa pinnae ab his quas insigniti   §140. 1 GS. ; ex Laetus ; for est. 2 Tvrnebus, for  utetur. 3 A. Sp., for breui est. 4 A. Sp., for uel.  5 Laetus, for arcar Fv. 6 Added by L. Sp. 7 Aug., for  perlucet.   §141. 1 Aug., for operi. 2 Sciop., for moerum Fv.  3 Laetus, for manus. 4 Turnebus, for eae omoenere Fv.  5 Sciop., for murus.     § 140. ° From vehere ' to carry.' 6 Page 116 Schoell.  c From plaudere ' to creak.'   § 141. ° Whence ' temple ' in the singular, ' house ' in the  plural. * From prefix ob + pedom ' place ' ; cf. irihov, San-  skrit padam. c Munire, moenia, murus, munus all belong  together ; oe is the older spelling, preserved in moenia in  classical Latin. It is a question how far we ought to  restore moe- for mu- in this passage ; possibly in all the   132     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 140-142     140. Vehiculum ° ' wagon,' in which beans or some-  thing else is conveyed, because it vietur ' is plaited ' or  because vehitur ' carrying is done ' by it. A shorter  kind of wagon is called by others, as it were, an arcera  ' covered wagon,' which is named even in the Twelve  Tables b ; because the wagon was made of boards like  an area ' strong box,' it was called an arcera. Plaus-  trum e ' cart,' from the fact that unlike those which I  have mentioned above it is palam ' open ' not to a  certain degree but everywhere, for the objects which  are conveyed in it perlucent ' shine forth to view,' such  as stone slabs, wooden beams, and building material.   XXXII. 141. Aedificia ' buildings ' are, like many  things, named from a part : from aedes a ' hearths '  andjacere ' to make ' comes certainly aedificium. Op-  pidum 6 ' town ' also is named from ops ' strength,'  because it is fortified for ops ' strength,' as a place  where the people may be, and because for spending  their lives there is opus ' need ' of place where they  may be in safety. Moenia c ' walls ' were so named  because they muniebant ' fortified ' the towns with  opus ' work.' What they exaggerabant ' heaped up '  that it might be moenitius ' better fortified,' was called  aggeres d ' dikes,' and that which was to support the  dike was called a moerus ' wall.' Because carrying  was done for the sake of muniendi ' fortifying,' the  work was a munus ' duty ' ; because they enclosed  the town by this moenus, it was a moerus ' wall.'   142. Its top was called pinnae a ' pinnacles,' from  those feathers which distinguished soldiers are accus-   words, since Varro had a fondness for archaic spellings.  d Exaggerare is from agger, which is from ad ' to ' and  gerere ' to carry.'   § 142. ° Literally, ' feathers.'   133     VARRO     milites in galeis habere solent et in gladiatoribus  Samnites. Turres a torvis, quod eae proiciunt ante  alios. Qua viam relinquebant in muro, qua in op-  pidum portarent, portas.   143. Oppida condebant in Latio Etrusco ritu  multi, id est iunctis bobus, tauro ct vacca interiore,  aratro circumagebant sulcum (hoc faciebant religionis  causa die auspicato), ut fossa et muro essent muniti.  Terram unde exculpserant, fossam vocabant et intror-  sum i'actam 1 murum. Post ea 2 qui fiebat orbis, urbis  principium ; qui quod erat post murum, postmoerium  dictum, eo usque 3 auspicia urbana finiuntur. Cippi  pomeri stant et circum Arcciam et 4 circum 5 Romam.  Quare et oppida quae prius erant circumducta aratro  ab orbe 6 et urvo urb 2 postilionem postulare, id est civem  fortissimum eo demitti. 3 Turn quendam Curtium  virum fortem armatum ascendisse in equum et a Con-  cordia versum cum equo eo 4 praecipitatum ; eo facto   2 macella Scaliger, for macelli. 3 Jordan, for iunium.  4 Added by 08., from Plautus, Cure. 474. 5 Added by  GS. 6 Laetus, for quern. 7 For cuppedinis.   § 147. 1 Stowasser, for fuerit; cf. Festus, 125. 7 M.   § 148. 1 After Cornelius, Mue. deleted Stilo. 2 Laetus,  for manio. 3 Turnebus, for eodem mitti. 4 A. Sp.,  with II, for eum.   6 Curculio, 474. c Page 115 Funaioli.   § 147. "Page 116 Funaioli. 6 Seemingly only an   aetiological story ; the cognomen is not otherwise known.  Could it here be a corruption of Marcellus ?   § 148. a A writer on historical topics, possibly the Pro-  cilius who was tribune of the plebs in 56 u.c. 6 L. Cal-  purnius Piso Frugi, consul 133 B.C., adversary of the Gracchi ;   138     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 146-148     small fortified villages. Along the Tiber, at the  sanctuary of Portunus, they call it the Forum Pis-  carium ' Fish Market ' ; therefore Plautus says 6 :   Down at the Market that sells the fish.   Where things of various kinds are sold, at the Cornel-  Cherry . Groves, is the Forum Cuppedinis ' Luxury  Market,' from cuppedium ' delicacy,' that is, from  fastidium ' fastidiousness ' ; many c call it the Forum  Cupidinis ' Greed Market,' from cupiditas ' greed.'   147. After all these things which pertain to human  sustenance had been brought into one place, and the  place had been built upon, it was called a Macellum,  as certain writers say, a because there was a garden  there ; others say that it was because there had been  there a house of a thief with the cognomen Macellus, 6  which had been demolished by the state, and from  which this building has been constructed which is  called from him a Macellum.   148. In the Forum is the Lacus Curtius ' Pool of  Curtius ' ; it is quite certain that it is named from  Curtius, but the story about it has three versions : for  Procilius a does not tell the same story as Piso, 6 nor  did Cornelius c follow the story given by Procilius.  Procilius states d that in this place the earth yawned  open, and the matter was by decree of the senate  referred to the haruspices ; they gave the answer that  the God of the Dead demanded the fulfilment of a  forgotten vow, namely that the bravest citizen be sent  down to him. Then a certain Curtius, a brave man,  put on his war-gear, mounted his horse, and turning  away from the Temple of Concord, plunged into the   author of a work on Roman history. e Identity quite  uncertain. 6 Hist. Rom. Frag., page 198 Peter.   139     VARRO     locum coisse atque eius corpus divinitus humasse ac  reliquisse genti suae monumentum.   149- Piso in Annalibus scribit Sabino bello, quod  fuit Romulo et Tatio, virum fortissimum Met(t)ium  Curiium 1 Sabinum, cum Romulus cum suis ex su-  periore parte impressionem fecisset, 2 in locum 3 palus-  trem, qui turn fuit in Foro antequam cloacae sunt  factae, secessisse atque ad suos in Capitolium re-  cepisse ; ab eo lacum (Curtium) 4 invenisse nomen.   150. Cornelius et Lutatius 1 scribunt eum locum  esse fulguritum et ex S. C. septum esse : id quod  factum es(se)t 2 a Curtio consule, cui M. Genucius 3  fuit collega, Curtium appellatum.   151. Arx ab arcendo, quod is locus munitissimus  Urbis, a quo facillime possit hostis prohiberi. Career  a coercendo, quod exire prohibentur. In hoc pars  quae sub terra Tullianum, ideo quod additum a  Tullio rege. Quod Syracusis, ubi de(licti) 1 causa  custodiuntur, vocantur latomiae, (in)de 2 lautumia   § 149. 1 For curcium Fv. 2 After fecisset, Popma de-  leted curtium. 3 Laetus, for lacum. 4 Added by GS.   § 150. 1 Aug., with B, for luctatius. 2 Mue., for est.  3 For genutius.   § 151. 1 Bergmann, for de. 2 Mue. ; exinde Turnebus ;  for et de.     § 149. Hist. Rom. Frag., page 79 Peter. 6 Tradition-  ally built by the first Tarquin ; cf. Livv, i. 38. 6. c Cf.  Livy, i. 10-13, especially i. 12. 9-10 and! 13. 5.   § 150. Q. Lutatius Catulus, 152-87 b.c, consul 102 as  colleague of Marius in the victory over the Cimbri at Ver-  cellae ; a writer on etymology and antiquities. b Hist.  Rom. Frag., page 126 Peter ; Gram. Rom. Frag., page 105  Funaioli. c C. Curtius Chilo and M. Genucius Augurinus  were colleagues in the consulship in 445 b.c.  140     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 148-151     gap, horse and all ; upon which the place closed up  and gave his body a burial divinely approved, and  left to his clan a lasting memorial.   149. Piso in his Annals writes that in the Sabine  War between Romulus and Tatius, a Sabine hero  named Mettius Curtius, when Romulus with his men  had charged down from higher ground and driven in  the Sabines, got away into a swampy spot which at  that time was in the Forum, before the sewers b had  been made, and escaped from there to his own men  on the Capitoline c ; and from this the pool found its  name.   150. Cornelius and Lutatius a write b that this  place was struck by lightning, and by decree of the  senate was fenced in : because this was done by the  consul Curtius, 6 who had M. Genucius as his colleague,  it was called the Lacus Curtius.   151. The arx ' citadel,' from arcere ' to keep off,'  because this is the most strongly fortified place in the  City, from which the enemy can most easily be kept  away. The career 6 ' prison,' from coercere ' to con-  fine,' because those who are in it are prevented from  going out. In this prison, the part which is under the  ground is called the Tullianum, because it was added  by King Tullius. Because at Syracuse the place  where men are kept under guard on account of  transgressions is called the Latomiae c ' quarries,' from   § 151. "The northern summit of the Capitoline, on which  stood the temple of Juno Moneta. * Beneath the Arx, at  the corner of the Forum ; etymology wrong. e Greek  XoLTOfuai, contracted from XaoTOfuai, which gave the Latin  word ; there were old tufa-quarries on the slopes of the  Capitoline, and the excavation which formed the dungeon was  probably a part of the quarry.     141     VARRO     translatum, quod hie quoque in eo loco lapidicinae  fuerunt.   152. In (Aventi)no 1 Lauretum ab eo quod ibi  sepultus est Tatius rex, qui ab Laurentibus inter-  fectus est, (aut) 2 ab silva laurea, quod ea ibi excisa et  aedificatus vicus : ut inter Sacram Viam et Macellum  editum Corneta (a cornis), 3 quae abscisae loco re-  liquerunt nomen, ut ^esculetum ab aesculo 4 dictum  et Fagutal a fago, unde etiam Iovis Fagutalis, quod  ibi saeellum.   153. Armilustr(i)um 1 ab ambitu lustri : locus  idem Circus Maximus 2 dictus, quod circum spectaculis  aedificatus wbi 3 ludi fiunt, et quod ibi circum metas  fertur pompa et equi currunt. Itaque dictum in  Cornicula(ria) 4 militi's 5 adventu, quern circumeunt  ludentes :   Quid cessamus ludos facere ? Circus noster ecce  adest.   §152. 1 Groth, for in eo. 2 Added by Sciop.  3 Added by Aug., with B. 4 Laetus, for escula.   § 153. 1 For armilustrum. 2 Laetus, for mecinus.  3 Aug., with B, for ibi. 4 Vertranius, for cornicula.  6 Tumebas, for milites.     § 152. There is here a lacuna, or else the in eo of the  manuscripts stands for in Aventino ; for the Lauretum was  on the Aventine.   § 153. The word denotes both the ceremony, held on  October 19, and the place where it was performed, which  seems originally to have been on the Aventine ; according to  Varro, it was later held in the Circus, in the valley between  the Aventine and the Palatine. According to Servius, in  Aen. i. 283, the name was ambilustrum, so called because the  ceremony was not legal unless performed by both (ambo)  censors jointly ; it is possible that the word should be so  emended here and at vi. 22. " Circum is merely the ac-     142     OX THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 151-153     that the word was taken over as lautumia, because  here also in this place there were formerly stone-  quarries.   1 52. On the Aventine a is the Lauretum ' Laurel-  Grove,' called from the fact that King Tatius was  buried there, who was killed by the Laurentes ' Lauren-  tines,' or else from the laurea ' laurel ' wood, because  there was one there which was cut down and a street  run through with houses on both sides : just as  between the Sacred Way and I lie higher part of the  Macellum are the Corneta ' Cornel-Cherry Groves,'  from corni 'cornel-cherry trees,' which though cut  away left their name to the place ; just as the Aescu-  letum ' Oak-Grove' is named from aesculus ' oak-tree,'  and the Fagutal ' Beech-tree Shrine ' from fagus  ' beech-tree,' whence also Jupiter Fagutalis ' of the  Beech-tree,' because his shrine is there.   153. Armilustrium a ' purification of the arms,' from  the going around of the lustrum ' purificatory offering';  and the same place is called the Circus Maximus,  because, being the place where the games arc  performed, it is built up circum 6 ' round about ' for  the shows, and because there the procession goes  and the horses race circum ' around ' the turning-posts.  Thus in The Story of the Helmet-Horn c the following  is said at the coming of the soldier, whom they en-  circle and make fun of :   Why do we refrain from making sport ? See, here's  our circus-ring.   cusative of circus. e Frag. I of Plautus's Cornicularia,  which may be taken as the Story of the Corniculum, a horn-  shaped ornament on the helmet, bestowed for bravery ; here  apparently assumed by a braggart soldier, the miles of the  text.     143     VARRO     In circo primum unde mittuntur equi, nunc dicuntur  carceres, Naevius oppidum appellat. Carceres dicti,  quod coercentur 6 equi, ne inde exeant antequam  magistratus signum misit. Quod a(d) muri spm'em'  pmnis 8 turribusque 9 carceres olim fuerunt, scripsit  poeta :   Dictator ubi currum insidit, pervehitur usque ad  oppidum.   154. Intumus circus ad Murcice 1 vocatur, 4 ut  Procilius aiebat, ab urceis, quod is locus esset inter  figulos ; alii dicunt a murteto declinatum, quod ibi id  fuerit ; cuius vestigium manet, quod ibi est sacellum  etiam nunc Murteae Veneris. Item simili de causa  Circus Flaminius dicitur, qui circum aedificatus est  Flaminium Campum, et quod ibi quoque Ludis  Tauriis equi circum metas currunt.   155. Comitium ab eo quod coibant eo comitiis  curiatis et litium causa. 1 Curiae duorum generum :  nam et ubi curarent sacerdotes res divinas, ut 2 curiae   6 p, Ed. Veneta (cohercentur Laetus), for coercuntur.   7 Mue., for a muris partem. 8 Laetus, for pennis.  9 Aug., for turribus qui.   § 154. 1 L. Sp.,for murcim Fv. 2 Sciop.,/or uocatum.  § 155. 1 Mue. ; caussa Aug., with B ; causae Fv. 2 For   et.     d Merely the plural of career ' prison ' ; not related to  coercere. e Naevius, Comic. Rom. Frag., inc. fab. II Rib-  beck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 148-149 Warmington.   § 154. ° Hist. Rom. Frag., page 3 Peter. " Page 116  Funaioli. c In the level ground of the Campus Martius,  through which C. Flaminius Nepos as censor in 220 b.c.  built the Via Flaminia, the great highway from Rome to the  north, and near it the Circus Flaminius ; he was consul in  217 and was killed in the battle with Hannibal at Lake     144     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 15S-155     In the Circus, the place from which the horses are let  go at the start, is now called the Carceres ' Prison-  stalls,' but Naevius called it the Town. Carceres d  was said, because the horses coercentur ' are held in  check,' that they may not go out from there before  the official has given the sign. Because the Stalls  were formerly adorned with pinnacles and towers  like a wall, the poet wrote e :   When the Dictator mounts his car, he rides the whole  way to the Town.   1 54. The very centre of the Circus is called ad  Murciae ' at Murcia's,' as Procilius ° said, from the  urcei ' pitchers,' because this spot was in the potters'  quarter ; others 6 say that it is derived from murtetum  ' myrtle-grove,' because that was there : of which a  trace remains in that the chapel of Venus Muriea 4 of  the Myrtle ' is there even to this day. Likewise for a  similar reason the Circus Flaminius ' Flaminian Circus '  got its name, for it is built c circum ' around ' the  Flaminian Plain, and there also the horses race  circum ' around ' the turning-posts at the Taurian  Games. d   155. The Comitium ' Assembly-Place ' was named  from this, that to it they coibant ' came together ' for  the comitia curiata a ' curiate meetings ' and for law-  suits. The curiae 6 ' meeting-houses ' are of two  kinds : for there are those where the priests were to  attend to affairs of the gods, like the old meeting-   Trasumennus. d Games in honour of the deities of the  netherworld.   § 155. ° Long before Varro's time, practically replaced by  the comitia centuriata. * Curia denoted first a group of  gentes ; then a meeting-place for such groups ; then any  meeting-place.   vol. i L 145     VARRO     veteres, et ubi senatus humanas, ut Curia Hostilia,  quod primus aedificavit Hostilius rex. Ante hanc  Rostra ; cuius id vocabulum, ex hostibus capta fixa  sunt rostra ; sub dextra huius a Comitio locus sub-  structus, ubi nationum subsisterent legati qui ad  senatum essent missi ; is Graecostasis appellatus a  parte, ut multa.   156. Senaculum supra Graecostasim, ubi Aedis  Concordiae et Basilica Opimia ; Senaculum vocatum,  ubi senatus aut ubi seniores consisterent, dictum ut  yepoverta 1 apud Graecos. Lautolae ab lavando, quod  ibi ad Ianum Geminum aquae caldae fuerunt. Ab  his palus fuit in Minore Velabro, a quo, quod ibi  vehebantur lintribus, 2 velabrum, ut illud de quo supra  dictum est.   157. Aequimaelium,quod a€p€Tpoi>.   167. Posteaquam transierunt ad culcitas, quod in  eas acus 1 aut tomentum aliudve quid calcabant, ab  inculcando culcita dicta. Hoc quicquid insternebant  ab sternendo stragulum appellabant. Pulvinar vel a  plumbs vel a pellulis 2 declinarunt. Quibus operiban-  tur, operimenta, et pallia opercula dixerunt. In his  multa peregrina, ut sagum, reno Gallica, ut 3 gaunaca 4  et amphimallum Graeca ; contra Latinum toral, 5  ante torum, et torus a torto, 6 quod is in promptu.   2 Aug., for terras. 3 Ed. Veneta, for quam. 4 L. Sp.,  for ubi. 5 Added by L. Sp.   §167. 1 Turnebus, for ea sagus. 2 Aldus, for a  pluribus uel a pollulis. 3 GS. ; gallica Turnebus ; for  galli quid. 4 GS. ; gaunacum Scaliger, for gaunacuma.  5 A. Sp. ; toral quod Aug.; torale quod Aldus ; for tore  uel. 6 Meursius, for toruo.     6 That is, on additional straw and grass (if the text be  correct). e From the Greek, with dissimilative loss of the  prior t. d The standing grain ; then, the stems of the  grain-plants, not merely of wheat. * From the Greek  word, which is from epa> ' I bear.'   §167. "Wrong. 6 Hoc = hue 'into this.' c From  156     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 166-167     ' gathered ' the straw-coverings and the grass with  which to make them, as even now is done in camp ;  these couches, that they might not be on the earth,  they raised up on these materials 6 ; — unless rather  from the fact that the ancient Greeks called a bed a  \tK-pov. Those who covered up a couch, called the  coverings segestria, c because the coverings in general  were made from the seges d ' wheat-stalks,' as even  now is done in the camp ; unless the word is from the  Greeks, for there it is o-rkyao-rpov. Because the bed  of a dead man fertur ' is carried,' our ancestors called  it a feretrum e ' bier,' and the Greeks called it a   3 quod olim v(i)num 4  dicebant multa?« 5 : itaque cum (in) 8 dolium aut  culleum vinum addunt rustici, prima urna addita  dicunt etiam nunc. Poena a poeniendo aut quod post  peccatum sequitur. Pretium, quod emptionis aesti-  mationisve causa constituitur, dictum a peritis, quod  hi soli facere possunt recte id.   § 175. 1 Bergk,for issedonion.   § 176. 1 L. Sp., for ceptum. 2 A. Sp., for ab eadem   mente. 3 Bentinus, for intrigo (intrigo dicta et intertrigo  B and Aug.).   § 177. 1 Groth, for a. 2 Aug., for multas. 3 Added   by Mue. 4 B, Laetus, for unum. 5 Goeschen, for   multae. 6 Added by Aug., with B.   §176. "Wrong.   § 177. ° Multa 'fine,' possibly taken from Sabine, but  probably from the root in mulcare ' to beat.' Varro seems  to identify it with multae ' many,' supply perhaps pecuniae :  the magistrate imposed one multa after another, just as the  countrymen poured one multa of wine after another into   164     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 175-177     is Sdi'ciov with the Aeolians, and 86p.a as others say it,  and ooo-is of the Athenians. Arrabo ' earnest-money,'  when money is given on this stipulation, that a  balance is to be paid : this word likewise is from  the Greek, where it is dppafiwv. Reliquum ' balance,'  because it is the reliquum ' remainder ' of what is owed.   176. Damnum ' loss,' from demptio ' taking away,' a  when less is brought in by the sale of the object than  it cost. Lucrum ' profit ' from luere ' to set free,' if  more is taken in than will exsolvere ' release ' the price  at which it was acquired. Detrimenium ' damage,'  from detritus ' rubbing off,' because those things which  are trita ' rubbed ' are of less value. From the same  trimentum comes intertrimentum ' loss by attrition,'  because two things which have been trita ' rubbed '  inter se ' against each other ' are also diminished ;  from which moreover intertrigo ' chafing of the skin '  is said.   177. A multa ' fine ' is that money named by a  magistrate, that it might be exacted on account of  a transgression ; because the fines are named one at  a time, they are called midtae as though ' many,' and  because of old they called wine multa : thus when the  countrymen put wine into a large jar or wine-skin,  they even now call it a multa after the first pitcherful  has been put in. a Poena ' penalty,' from poenire 6 ' to  punish ' or because it follows post ' after ' a transgres-  sion. Pretium ' price ' is that which is fixed for the  purpose of purchase or of evaluation ; it is named  from the periti d ' experts,' because these alone can  set a price correctly.   the storage jars or skins. 6 Poena from Greek : poenire  (classical punire) from poena. * As though from pone  ' behind,' =post. d Wrong etymology.   165     VARRO     178. Si quid datum pro opera aut opere, merces,  a merendo. Quod manu factum erat et datum pro  eo, manupretium, a manibus et pretio. Corollarium,  si additum praeter quam quod debitum ; eius voca-  bulum fictum a corollis, quod eae, cum placuerant  actores, in scaena dari solitae. Praeda est ab hosti-  bus capta, quod manu parta, ut parida praeda. Prae-  mium a praeda, quod ob recte quid factum concessum.   179- Si datum quod reddatur, mutuum, quod  Siculi [xoItov : itaque scribit Sophron   Moitov arri/xo. 1   Et munus quod mutuo animo qui sunt dant officii  causa ; alterum munus, quod muniendi causa impera-  tum, a quo etiam municipes, qui una munus fungi  debent, dicti.   180. Si es{ty ea pecunia quae in h/dicium 2 venit  in litibus, sacramentum a sacro ; qui 3 petebat et qui  infiiiabatur, 4 de aliis rebus ut(e)rque 5 quingenos aeris  ad ponte Re liustica, iii. 5. 3, who says that  the entrance to a bird-cote is called a coclia ' snail-shell,'  being intended to admit air and some light, but not to permit  direct vision from the interior to the outside. ' Varro had  a friend Q. Lucienn% a Roman senator, well versed in Greek;  he appears as a speaker in Varro's De Re Rustica, ii. (5. 1,   174     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 2-i     in turdarium ' thrush-cote ' and turdelix e ' spiral en-  trance for thrushes.' Thus the Greeks, in adapting  our names, make Aeivuqi'ds of Lucienns * and Koii'-ios  of Quinctius, and we make Aristarcfius of their'Aptcr-ap-  Xos and Z)/o of their Attov. In just this way, I say, our  practice has altered many from the old form, as solum 9  ' soil ' from solu, hiberum h ' God of Wine ' from hoe-  besom, hares i ' Hearth-Gods ' from hases : these  words, covered up as they are by lapse of time, I  shall try to dig out as best I can.   II. 3. First we shall speak of the time-names, then  of those things which take place through them, but in  such a way that first Ave shall speak of their essential  nature : for nature was man's guide to the imposition  of names. Time, they say, is an interval in the  motion of the world. This is divided into a number  of parts, especially from the course of the sun and the  moon. Therefore from their temperatus ' moderated '  career, tempus ' time ' is named," and from this comes  tempestiva ' timely things ' ; and from their motus  ' motion,' the mundus b ' world,' which is joined with  the sky as a whole.   4. There are two motions of the sun : one with the  sky, in that the moving is impelled by Jupiter as ruler,  who in Greek is called ii'a, when it comes from east to  west ° ; wherefore this time is from this god called a   etc). ' With change from the fourth declension to the  second (if the text is correct). * With change of the vowel  as well as rhotacism ; the accusative form must be kept in  the translation, to show this clearly. * With rhotacism  (change of intervocalic s to r).   § 3. * The converse is true : temperare is from tempus.  b Wrong.   § 4. ° This insertion in the text gives the needed sense :  the second motus is in § 8.   175     VARRO     ab hoc deo dies appellatur. Meridies ab eo quod  mcdius dies. D antiqui, non R in hoc dicebant, ut  Praeneste incisum in solario vidi. Solarium dictum  id, in quo horae in sole inspiciebantur, (vel horologium  ex aqua), 2 quod Cornelius in Basilica Aemilia et  Fulvia inumbravit. Diei principium mane, quod  turn 3 manat dies ab oriente, nisi potius quod bonum  antiqui dicebant manum, ad cuiusmodi religionem  Graeci quoque cum lumen affcrtur, solent dicere  dyudov.   5. Suprema summum diei, id ab superrimo. Hoc  tempus XII Tabulae dicunt occasum esse solis ; sed  postea lex P/aetoria 1 id quoque tempus esse iubet  supremum quo praetor in Comitio supremam pronun-  tiavit populo. Secundum hoc dicitur crepusculum a  crepero : id vocabulum sumpserunt a Safiinis, unde  veniunt Crepusci nominati Amiterno, qui eo tempore  erant nati, ut Luci(i) 2 prima luce in Reatino 3 ; cre-  pusculum significat dubium ; ab eo res dictae dubiae  creperae, quod crepusculum dies etiam nunc sit an  iam nox multis dubium.   2 Added by GS. 3 For cum.   §5. 1 Aug., for praetoria. 2 Laehis,for luci. 3 Mue.,  for reatione or creatione.     * Dies is cognate with Greek Ala, but not derived from it.  " P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica Corculum, when censor in  159 b.c. with M. Popilius Laenas, setup the first water-clock  in Rome in this Basilica, which was erected in 179 on the  north side of the Forum by the censors M. Aemilius Lepidus  and M. Fulvius Nobilior, from whom it was named.  d Both etymologies wrong.   §5. "Approximately correct. * Page 119 Schoell.   176     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 4-5     dies ' day.' 6 Meridies ' noon,' from the fact that it is  the medius ' middle ' of the dies ' day.' The ancients  said D in this word, and not R, as I have seen at Prae-  neste, cut on a sun-dial. Solarium ' sun-dial ' was the  name used for that on which the hours were seen in  the sol ' sunlight ' ; or also there is the water-clock,  which Cornelius* set up in the shade in the Basilica of  Aemilius and Fulvius. The beginning of the day is  mane ' early morning,' because then the day manat  ' trickles ' from the east, unless rather because the  ancients called the good manum d : from a supersti-  tious belief of the same kind as influences the Greeks,  who, when a light is brought, make a practice of  saying, " Goodly light ! "   5. Suprema means the last part of the day ; it is  from superrimum. a This time, the Twelve Tables say, 6  is sunset ; but afterwards the Plaetorian Law c de-  clares that this time also should be ' last ' at which the  praetor in the Comitium has announced to the people  the suprema ' end of the session.' In line with this,  crepusculum ' dusk ' is said from creperum ' obscure ' ;  this word they took from the Sabines, from whom  come those who were named Crepusci, from Amiter-  num, who had been born at that time of day, just like  the Lucii, who were those born at dawn (prima luce) in  the Reatine country. Crepusculum means doubtful :  from this doubtful matters are called creperae ' ob-  scure,' d because dusk is a time when to many it is  doubtful whether it is even yet day or is already  night.   e A law for the protection of minors, named from Plaetorius,  a tribune of the people. d All etymologically sound, but  a meaning 4 doubtful ' must have proceeded from a word  crepus ' dusk.'   VOL. I X 177     VARRO   6. Nox, quod, ut Pacm'us 1 ait,   Omnia nisi interveniat sol pruina obriguerint,   quod nocet, nox, nisi quod Graecc vv^ nox. Cum  Stella prima exorta (eum Graeci vocant ea-irepov,  nostri Vesperuginem ut Plautus :   Neqne Vesperugo neque Vergiliae occidunt),   id tempus dictum a Graecis kcnrkpa, Latine vesper ;  ut ante solem ortum quod eadem Stella vocatur iubar,  quod iubata, Pacui dicit pastor :   Exorto iubare, noctis decurso itinere ;  Enni* Aiax :   Lumen — iubarne ? — in caelo cerno.   7. Inter vesperuginem et iubar dicta nox intem-  pesta, ut in Bruto Cassii quod dicit Lucretia :   Nocte intempesta nostram devenit domum.   Intempestam Aelius dicebat cum tempus agendi est  nullum, quod alii concubium 1 appellarunt, quod  omnes fere tunc cubarent ; alii ab eo quod sileretur   § 6. 1 Ribbeck ; Pacuvius Scaliger ; for catulus. 2 GS. ;  Ennii Laetus ; for ennius.   § 7. 1 Laetus, for inconcubium.   §6. ° Antiopa, Trag. Rom. Frag. 14 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L.  ii. 170-171 Warmington; cf. Funaioli, page 123. Ribbeck 's  nocti ni for nisi is probably Pacuvius's wording; Varro, as  often, paraphrases the quotation. * Nox and vv£ come  from the same source; connexion with nocere is dubious.  e Amphitruo,275. d Correct etymologies. " Iubar and  tuba ' mane ' are not related, despite vii. 76. f Trag. Rom.  Frag. 347 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 320-321 Warmington.  » Trag. Rom. Frag. 336 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. i. 226-227  Warmington; cf. vi. 81 and vii. 76.   § 7 ° A writer of praetextae, otherwise unknown : the  name recurs at vii. 72 ; possibly Victorius's emendation to   178     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 6-7   6. Nox ' night ' is called nox, because, as Pacuvius  says,"   All will be stiff with frost unless the sun break in,   because it nocet ' harms ' ; unless it is because in  Greek night is vv£. b When the first star has come  out (the Greeks call it Hesperus, and our people call  it Vesperugo, as Plautus does c :   The evening star sets not, nor yet the Pleiades),   this time is by the Greeks called lter (ac> caeli, 1 quod  movetur a bruma ad solstitium. Dicta bruma, quod  brevissimus tunc dies est ; solstitium, quod sol eo die  sistere videbatur, quo 2 ad nos versum proximus est.  Sol 3 cum venit in medium spatium inter brumam et  solstitium, quod dies aequus fit ac nox, aequinoctium  dictum. Tempus a bruma ad brumam dum sol redit,  vocatur annus, quod ut parvi circuli anuli, sic magni  dicebantur circites ani, unde annus.   9- Huius temporis pars prima hiems, quod turn  multi imbres ; hinc hibernacula, hibernum ; vel, quod  turn anima quae flatur omnium apparet, ab hiatu  hiems. Tempus secundum ver, quod turn virere 1  incipiunt virgulta ac vertere se tempus anni ; nisi  quod Iones dicunt r;p 2 ver. Tertium ab aestu aestas ;  hinc aestivum ; nisi forte a Graeco aWecr9ai. Quar-  tum autumnus, (ab augendis hominum opibus dictus  frugibusque coactis, quasi auctumnus). 3   2 For conticinnium /. 3 uidebitur Plautus. 4 redito  hue Plautus. 6 For conticinnio /.   § 8. 1 Mue.,for alter caeli. 2 quo A. Sp. ; quod Mue. ;  for aut quod. 3 A. Sp. ; proximus est sol, solstitium  L. Sp. ; for proximum est solstitium.   § 9. 1 Aldus, for uiuere. 2 L. Sp. ; eap Victorius ; for  et. 3 Added by GS., after Krieg shammer, and Fest.  23. 11 If.   d Asinaria, 685.   § 8. For the first motion, see § 4. 6 The winter and  the summer solstices. e Annus is not connected with anus  or anulus ' ring.'   § 9. Wrong. * Cognate with the Greek, not derived  from it.   180     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 7-9     the time which Plautus likewise calls the conticinium  ' general silence ' : for he writes d :   We'll see, I want it done. At general-silence time  come back.   8. There is a second motion of the suri, a differing  from that of the sky, in that the motion is from bruma  ' winter's day ' to sohtitium ' solstice.' 6 Bruma is so  named, because then the day is brevissimus ' shortest ' :  the sohtitium, because on that day the sol ' sun ' seems  sister e ' to halt,' on which it is nearest to us. When  the sun has arrived midway between the bruma and  the sohtitium, it is called the aequinoctium ' equinox,'  because the day becomes aequus ' equal ' to the nox  ' night.' The time from the bruma until the sun re-  turns to the bruma, is called an annus ' year,' because  just as little circles are anuli ' rings,' so big circuits  were called ani, whence comes annus ' year.' c   9. The first part of this time is the hiems ' winter,'  so called because then there are many imbres  ' showers ' a ; hence hibernacula ' winter encamp-  ment,' hibernum ' winter time ' ; or because then  everybody's breath which is breathed out is visible,  hiems is from hiatus ' open mouth.' a The second  season is the ver b * spring,' so called because then the  virgulta ' bushes ' begin virere ' to become green ' and  the time of year begins vertere ' to turn or change '  itself" ; unless it is because the Ionians say rjp for  spring. The third season is the aestas ' summer,'  from aestus ' heat ' ; from this, aestivum ' summer pas-  ture ' ; unless perhaps it is from the Greek aWetrdai  ' to blaze.' 6 The fourth is the autumnus ' autumn,'  named from augere ' to increase ' the possessions of  men and the gathered fruits, as if auctumnus. a   181     VARRO     10. endo 5 sub/iga&ulum. 6  Vo/turnalia 7 a deo Vo/turno, 8 cuius feriae turn. Octo-  bri mense Meditrinalia dies dictus a medendo, quod  Flaccus flamen Martialis dicebat hoc die solitum  vinum (novum) 1 et vetus libari et degustari medica-  menti causa ; quod facere solent etiam nunc multi  cum dicttnt 10 :   Novum vetus vinum bibo : novo veteri 11 morbo medeor.   22. Fontanalia a Fonte, quod is dies feriae eius ;  ab eo turn et in fontes coronas iaciunt et puteos  coronant. Armilustrium ab eo quod in Armilustrio  armati sacra faciunt, nisi locus potius dictus ab his ;  sed quod de his prius, id ab luendo 1 aut lustro,  id est quod circumibant ludentes ancilibus armati.   3 L. Sp., for aut. 4 Aldus, for diciturne. 6 Skutsch,  for suffiendo. * Kent, for subligaculum. 7 For uor-  turnalia ; cf. volturn. in the Fasti. 8 For uorturno / cf.  preceding note. 9 Added by Laetus. 10 L. Sp., for  dicant. 11 After veteri, G, V,f, Aldus deleted uino; cf.  Festus, 123. 16 M.   § 22. 1 Vertranius, for luendo.     c An oblong piece of white cloth with a coloured border,  which the Vestal Virgins fastened over their heads with a  fibula ' clasp ' when they offered sacrifice ; cf. Festus, 348 a 25  and 3*9. 8 M. d On August 27; the god Volturnus  cannot be identified unless he is identical with Vortumnus  (Vertumnus), since he can hardly be the deity of the river  Volturnus in Campania or of the mountain Voltur, in Apulia,  near Horace's birthplace. « On October 3 ; Meditrina,   194     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 21-22     may enter it except the Vestal Virgins and the state  priest. " When he goes there, let him wear a white  veil," is the direction ; this suffibuluni e ' white veil '  is named as if sub-Jigabulum from sujfigere ' to fasten  down.' The Volturnalia ' Festival of Volturnus,'  from the god Volturnus, 41 whose feast takes place then.  In the month of October, the MeditrinaUa e ' Festival  of Meditrina ' was named from mederi ' to be healed,'  because Flaccus the special priest of Mars used to say  that on this day it was the practice to pour an offering  of new and old wine to the god, and to taste of the  same/ for the purpose of being healed ; which many  are accustomed to do even now, when they say :   Wine new and old I drink, of illness new and old  I'm cured.*   22. The Fontanalia ' Festival of the Springs,' from  Fons ' God of Springs,' because that day ° is his holi-  day ; on his account they then throw garlands into  the springs and place them on the well- tops. The  Armilustrium 6 ' Purification of the Arms,' from the  fact that armed men perform the ceremony in the  Armilustrium, unless the place c is rather named from  the men ; but as I said of them previously, this word  comes from ludere ' to play ' or from lustrum ' puri-  fication,' that is, because armed men went around  ludentes ' making sport ' with the sacred shields. d   Goddess of Healing. 'The ceremonial first drinking of  the new wine. ' Frag. Poet. Lat., page 31 Morel.   § 22. » October 13. » October 13. e The place was  named from the ceremony ; cf. v. 153. d The first ancile  is said to have fallen from heaven in the reign of Numa, who  had eleven others made exactly like it, to prevent its loss  or to prevent knowledge of its loss ; for the safety of the  City depended on the preservation of that shield which fell  from heaven.   195     VARRO     Saturnalia dicta ab Saturno, quod eo die feriae eius,  ut post diem tertium Opalia Opis.   23. Angeronalia ab Angerona, cui sacrificium fit  in Curia Acculeia et cuius feriae publicae is dies.  Larentinae, quem diem quidam in scribendo Laren-  talia appellant, ab Acca Larentia nominatus, cui  sacerdotes nostri publice parentant e sexto die, 1 qui  a& ea* dicitur die* 3 Parent(ali)um 4 Accas Larentinas. 5   24. Hoc sacrificium fit in Velabro, qua 1 in Novam  Viam exitur, ut aiunt quidam ad sepulcrum Accae, ut  quod ibi prope faciunt diis Manibus servilibus sacer-  dotes ; qui uterque locus extra urbem antiquam fuit  non longe a Porta Romanula, de qua in priore libro  dixi. Dies Septimontium nominatus ab his septem  montibus, in quis sita Urbs est ; feriae non populi, sed  montanorum modo, ut Paganalibus, qui sunt alicuius  pagi.   25. De statutis diebus dixi ; de anrialibus nec   § 23. 1 parentant Aug., e sexto die Fay, for parent ante  sexto die. 2 Mue., for atra. 3 L. Sp., for diem.  4 Mommsen, for tarentum. 6 L. Sp., for tarentinas.   § 24. 1 Laetus, for quia.   ' December 17, and the following days. ' December 19.   § 23. ° On December 21. * Goddess of Suffering and  Silence. c On December 23 ; supply feriae with Laren-  tinae. d Wife of Faustulus ; she nursed and brought up  the twins Romulus and Remus. e " Sixth " is wrong if  the Saturnalia began on December 17, unless in this instance  both ends are counted, or the allusion is to an earlier practice  by which the Saturnalia began one day later. On the phrase  e sexto die, cf. Fay, Amer. Jmtrn. Phil. xxxv. 246.  f Archaic genitive singular ending in -as.   190     OX THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 22-25     The Saturnalia ' Festival of Saturn ' was named from  Saturn, because on this day * was his festival, as on the  second dav thereafter the Opalia/ the festival of  Ops.   23. The Angeronalia," from Angerona, 6 to whom a  sacrifice is made in the Acculeian Curia and of whom  this day is a state festival. The Larentine Festival, 6  which certain writers call the Larentalia, was named  from Acca Larentia, d to whom our priests officially  perform ancestor-worship on the sixth day after the  Saturnalia,' which day is from her called the Day of  the Parentalia of Larentine Acca/   24. This sacrifice is made in the Velabrum, where  it ends in New Street, as certain authorities say, at the  tomb of Acca, because near there the priests make  offering to the departed spirits of the slaves ° : both  these places b were outside the ancient city, not far  from the Little Roman Gate, of which I spoke in the  preceding book." Septimontium Day d was named  from these septem viontes ' seven hills,' ' on which the  City is set ; it is a holiday not of the people generally,  but only of those who live on the hills, as only those  who are of some pagus ' country district ' have a holi-  day 1 at the Paganalia 3 ' Festival of the Country  Districts.'   25. The fixed days are those of which I have  spoken ; now I shall speak of the annual festivals   § 24. ° Faustulus and Acca were, of course, slaves of  the king. * The tomb of Acca and the place of sacrifice  to the Manes serciles. e v. 164. d On December 11.  * Not the usual later seven; Festus, 348 M., lists Capitoline  with Velia and Cermalus, three spurs of the Esquiline —  Oppius, Fagutal, Cispius — and the Subura valley between.  ' Supply feriantur. ' Early in January, but not on a  fixed date.     197     VARRO     de 1 statutis dicam. Compitalia dies attributus  Laribus viaUhus 2 : ideo ubi viae competunt turn in  competis sacrificatur. Quotannis is dies concipitur.  Similiter Latinae Feriae dies conceptivus 3 dictus a  Latinis populis, quibus ex Albano Monte ex sacris  carnem 4 petere fuit ius cum Romanis, a quibus Latinis  Latinae dictae.   26. Sementivae 1 Feriae dies is, qui a pontificibus  dictus, appellatus a semente, quod sationis causa sus-  cepta(e). 2 Paganicae eiusdem agriculturae causa  susceptae, ut haberent in agris omn/s 3 pagus, unde  Paganicae dictae. Sunt praeterea feriae conceptivae  quae non sunt annales, ut hae quae dicuntur sine  proprio vocabulo aut cum perspic?/o, 4 ut Novendiales 5  sunt.   IV. 27. De his diebus (satis) 1 ; nunc iam, qui  hominum causa constituti, videamus. Primi dies  mensium nominati ivalendae, 2 quod his diebus calan-   § 25. 1 Mommsen, for de. 2 Bongars, for ut alibi.  3 Laetus, for conseptivus. 4 Victorius, for carmen.   § 26. Vertranius, for sementinae. 2 Aldus, for   suscepta. 3 Aldus, for omnes. 4 Aug., for perspicio.  6 For novendialis.   § 27. 1 Added by Sciop. 2 Aug., with B, for caK     § 25. ° That is, set by special proclamation, and not  always falling on the same date. b By the praetor, not far  from January 1. e Written competa in the text, to make  the association with competunt. d The festival of the  league of the Latin cities; its date was set by the Roman  consuls (or by a consul) as soon as convenient after entry  into office.   § 26. ° In January, on two days separated by a space  of seven days ; as they were days of sowing, the choice  depended upon the weather. * Collective singular with   198     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 25-27     which are not fixed on a special day.° The Compitalia  is a day assigned 6 to the Lares of the highways ;  therefore where the highways competunt ' meet,'  sacrifice is then made at the compita c ' crossroads.'  This day is appointed every year. Likewise the  Latinae Feriae ' Latin Holiday ' d is an appointed day,  named from the peoples of Latium, who had equal  right with the Romans to get a share of the meat at  the sacrifices on the Alban Mount : from these Latin  peoples it was called the Latin Holiday.   26. The Sementivae Feriae ' Seed-time Holiday '  is that day which is set by the pontiffs ; it was named  from the sementis ' seeding,' because it is entered  upon for the sake of the sowing. The Paganicae  ' Country-District Holiday ' was entered upon for the  sake of this same agriculture, that the whole pagus 6  ' country-district ' might hold it in the fields, whence  it was called Paganicae. There are also appointive  holidays which are not annual, such as those which are  set without a special name of their own, c or with an  obvious one, such as is the Novendialis ' Ceremony of  the Ninth Day.' d   IV. 27. About these days this is enough ° ; now  let us see to the days which are instituted for the  interests of men. The first days of the months  are named the Kalendae, b because on these days the   plural verb. e Such as the supplicat tones voted for Caesar's  victories in Gaul ; cf. Bell. Gall. ii. 35. 4, iv. 38. 5, vii. 90. 8.  d The offerings and feasts for the dead on the ninth day after  the funeral ; also, a festival of nine days proclaimed for the  purpose of averting misfortunes whose approach was indicated  by omens and prodigies.   § 27. ° The insertion of satis makes the chapter beginning  conform to those at v. 57, 75, 95, 184, vi. 35, etc. * The K  in Kalendae and halo, before A, is well attested.   199     VARRO     tur eius menszs 3 Nonae a pontificibus, quintanae an  septimanae sint futurae, in Capitolio in Curia Calabra  sic : " Die te quin/z 4 ka\o 5 Iuno Covella " (aut) 8 " Sep-  tim(i) die te 7 ka\o 5 Iuno Covella."   28. Nonae appellatae aut quod ante diem nonum  Idus semper, aut quod, ut novus annus Kalendae 1  Ianuariae ab novo sole appellatae, novus mensis (ab) a  nova luna Nonce 3 ; eodem die 4 in Urbe(m) 5 (qui) 6 in  agris ad regem conveniebat populus. Harum rerum  vestigia apparent in sacris Nonalibus in Arce, quod  tunc ferias primas menstruas, quae futurae sint eo  mense, rex edicit populo. Idus ab eo quod Tusci  Itus, vel potius quod Sabini Idus dicunt.   29. Dies postridie Kalendas, Nonas, Idus appellati  atri, quod per eos dies (nihil) 1 novi inciperent. Dies  fasti, per quos praetoribus omnia verba sine piaculo  licet fari ; comitiales dicti, quod turn ut (in Comitio) 2   3 Aug., with B, for menses. 4 Mommsen ; die te V  Christ ; for dictae quinque. 5 See note 2, § 27. 6 Added  by Zander. 7 Mommsen ; VII die te Christ ; for septem  dictae.   § 28. 1 Aug., with B,for calendae. 2 a added by Sciop.  3 Sciop., for nonis. 4 After die, Mue. deleted enim.  8 Laetus,for urbe. 6 Added by L. Sp.   §29. 1 Added by Turnebus. 2 Added by Bergk.     e See v. 13. d The statement of Macrobius, Sat. i. 15. 10,  that kalo Iuno Covella was repeated five or seven times re-  spectively, may rest merely on a corrupted form of this passage  which was in the copy used by Macrobius. ' ' Juno of the  New Moon ' ; Covella, diminutive from covus ' hollow,'  earlier form of cavus (cf. v. 19) — unless it be corrupt for  Novella, as Scaliger thought. For the New Moon has a  concave shape.   § 28. The north-eastern summit of the Capitoline.  6 Origin uncertain ; perhaps from Etruscan, as Varro says.   200     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 27-29   Nones of this month calantur ' are announced ' by the  pontiffs on the Capitoline in Announcement Hall, c  whether they will be on the fifth or on the seventh, in  this way d : " Juno Covella, e I announce thee on the  fifth day " or " Juno Covella, I announce thee on the  seventh day."   28. The Nones are so called either because they  are always the nonus ' ninth ' day before the Ides, or  because the Nones are called the novus ' new ' month  from the new moon, just as the Kalends of January  are called the new year from the new sun ; on the  same day the people who were in the fields used to  flock into the City to the King. Traces of this status  are seen in the ceremonies held on the Nones, on  the Citadel," because at that time the high-priest  announces to the people the first monthly holidays  which are to take place in that month. The Idus b  ' Ides,' from the fact that the Etruscans called them  the Itus, or rather because the Sabines call them the  Idus.   29. The days next after the Kalends, the Nones,  and the Ides, were called atri ' black,' because on  these days they might not start anything new. Dies  fasti b ' righteous days, court days,' on which the  praetors c are permitted fart ' to say ' any and all  words without sin. Comitiales ' assembly days ' are so  called because then it is the established law that the   § 29. a Gf. Macrobius, Sat. i. 15. 22 ; the use of ater was  appropriate after the Ides, when the moon was not visible in  the day nor in the early evening, nor was it visible immedi-  ately after the Kalends. 6 That is, when it was fas to hold  court and make legal decisions; Varro connects with fari  ' to say,' with which the Romans associated fas etymologi-  cally, but the connexion has recently been questioned.  e Who functioned as judges.   201     VARRO   esset populus constitutum est ad suffragium ferun-  dum, nisi si quae feriae conceptae essent, propter quas  non liceret, (ut) 3 Compitalia et Latinae.   30. Contrarii horum vocantur dies nefasti, per  quos dies nefas fari praetorem " do," " dico," " ad-  dico " ; itaque non potest agi : necesse est aliquo  (eorum) 1 uti verbo, cum lege qui(d) 2 peragitur. Quod  si turn imprudens id verbum emisit ac quem manu-  misit, ille nihilo minus est liber, sed vitio, ut magi-  stratus vitio creatus nihilo setf us 3 magistratus. Praetor  qui turn fatus 4 est, si imprudens fecit, piaculari hostia  facta piatur ; si prudens dixit, Quintus Mucius aiebat 5  eum expiari ut impium non posse.   31. Interctsi 1 dies sunt per quos mane et vesperi  est nefas, medio tempore inter hostiam caesam e t exta  porrecta 2 fas ; a quo quod fas turn intercedit aut eo 3  intercisum nefas, intercis?. 4 Dies qui vocatur sic  " Quando 5 rex comitiavit fas," is 6 dictus ab eo quod   3 Added by Laetus.   § 30. 1 Added by Laetus, with B. 2 Laetus, for qui.  3 A. Sp. ; secius Victorius ; for sed ius. 4 Turnebus, for  factus. 8 L. Sp., for abigebat.   § 31. 1 Laetus, for intercensi. 2 Aug., with B, for  proiecta. 3 L. Sp. ; eo est Mue. ; for eos. 4 A. Sp.,  for intercisum. 5 Before quando, B inserts Q R C F, the  abbreviation found in the Fasti. 6 fas is Victorius, for  fassis.     § 30. ° For the meaning of vitio, see Dorothy M.  Paschall, " The Origin and Semantic Development of Latin  Vitium," Trans. Amer. Philol. Assn. lxvii. 219-231.  * i. 19 Huschke.   § 31. ° March 24 and May 24. * The caedere ' to cut '  in intercidere and the cedere ' to go on ' in intercedere are not  etymologically connected.  202     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 29-31     people should be in the Comitium to cast their votes —  unless some holidays should have been proclaimed on  account of which this is not permissible, such as the  Compitalia and the Latin Holiday.   30. The opposite of these are called dies nefasti  ' unrighteous days,' on which it is nefas ' unrighteous-  ness ' for the praetor to say do ' I give,' dico ' I pro-  nounce,' addico ' I assign ' ; therefore no action  can be taken, for it is necessary to use some one  of these words, when anything is settled in due  legal form. But if at that time he has inadvert-  ently uttered such a word and set somebody free,  the person is none the less free, but with a bad  omen" in the proceeding, just as a magistrate  elected in spite of an unfavourable omen is a  magistrate just the same. The praetor who has  made a legal decision at such a time, is freed of  his sin by the sacrifice of an atonement victim, if  he did it unintentionally ; but if he made the pro-  nouncement with a realization of what he was doing,  Quintus Mucius 6 said that he could not in any way  atone for his sin, as one who had failed in his duty  to God and country.   31. The intercisi dies ' divided days ' are those a on  which legal business is wrong in the morning and in  the evening, but right in the time between the slaying  of the sacrificial victim and the offering of the vital  organs ; whence they are intercisi because the fas  ' right ' intercedit 6 ' comes in between ' at that time,  or because the nefas ' wrong ' is intercisum ' cut into *  by the fas. The day which is called thus : " When  the high-priest has officiated in the Comitium, Right,"  is named from the fact that on this day the high-priest  pronounces the proper formulas for the sacrifice in the   203     VARRO     eo die rex sacrificio ius' dicat ad Comitium, ad quod  tempus est nefas, ab eo fas : itaque post id tempus  lege actum saepe.   32. Dies qui vocatur " Quando stercum delatum  fas," 1 ab eo appellatus, quod eo die ex Aede Vestae  stercus everritur et per Capitolinum Clivum in locum  defertur certum. Dies Alliensis ab Allia 2 fluvio  dictus : nam ibi exercitu nostro fugato Galli obse-  derunt Romam.   33. Quod ad singulorum dicrum vocabula pertinet  dixi. Mensium nomina fere sunt aperta, si a Martio,  ut antiqui constituerunt, numeres : nam primus a  Marte. Secundus, ut Fulvius scribit et Iunius, a  Venere, quod ea sit ApArodite 1 ; cuius nomen ego  antiquis litteris quod nusquam inveni, magis puto  dictum, quod ver omnia aperit, Aprilem. Tertius a  maioribus Maius, quartus a iunioribus dictus Iunius.   34. Dehinc quintus Quintilis et sic deinceps usque  ad Decembrem a numero. Ad hos qui additi, prior a  principe deo Ianuarius appellatus ; posterior, ut idem  dicunt scriptores, ab diis inferis Februarius appellatus,   7 Other codices, for sacrificiolus Fv.   § 32. 1 Before quando, B inserts Q S D F, the abbrevia-  tion found in the Fasti. 2 B, Laetus,for allio (auio/).   § 33. 1 For afrodite.   § 32. a June 15. 6 July 18 ; anniversary of the battle  of 390 b.c, at the place where the Allia flows into the Tiber,  eleven miles above Rome.   § 33. ° Probably from an adjective apero- ' second,' not  otherwise found in Latin. 6 Servius Fulvius Flaccus,  consul 135 b.c, skilled in law, literature, and ancient history.  "Page 121 Funaioli ; page 11 Huschke. d From Maia,  mother of Mercury. * From the goddess Juno ; page 121  Funaioli.   § 34. a Varro wrote before Quintilis was renamed Iulius  204     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 31-34     presence of the assembly, up to which time legal  business is wrong, and from that time on it is right :  therefore after this time of day actions are often taken  under the law.   32. The day a which is called " When the dung has  been carried out, Right," is named from this, that on  this day the dung is swept out of the Temple of Vesta  and is carried away along the Capitoline Incline to a  certain spot. The Dies Alliensis b ' Day of the Allia '  is called from the Allia River ; for there our army was  put to flight by the Gauls just before they besieged  Rome.   33. With this I have finished my account of what  pertains to the names of individual days. The names  of the months are in general obvious, if you count  from March, as the ancients arranged them ; for the  first month, Martius, is from Mars. The second,  Aprilis, a as Fulvius 6 writes and Junius also, 6 is from  Venus, because she is Aphrodite ; but I have nowhere  found her name in the old writings about the month,  and so think that it was called April rather because  spring aperit ' opens ' everything. The third was  called Maius d ' May ' from the maiores ' elders,' the  fourth Iunius e ' June ' from the iuniores ' younger  men.'   34. Thence the fifth is Quintilis a ' July ' and so in  succession to December, named from the numeral.  Of those which were added to these, the prior was  called Ianuarius ' January ' from the god b who is first  in order ; the latter, as the same writers say, 6 was  called Februarius* ' February ' from the di inferi ' gods   and Sextilis was renamed Augustus. * Janus. 'Page  16 Funaioli ; page 11 Huschke. d From a lost word feber  ' sorrow.'   205     VARRO     quod turn his paren(te)tur x ; ego magis arbitror  Februarium a die februato, quod turn februatur  populus, id est Lupercis nudis lustratur antiquum  oppidum Palatinum gregibus humanis cinctum.   V. 35. Quod ad temporum vocabula Latina  attinet, hactenus sit satis dictum ; nunc quod ad eas  res attinet quae in tempore aliquo fieri animadver-  terentur, dicam, ut haec sunt : legisti, cumis, 1 ludens ;  de quis duo praedicere volo, quanta sit multitudo  eorum et quae sint obscuriora quam alia.   36. Cum verborum declinatuum 1 genera sint quat-  tuor, unum quod tempora adsignificat neque habet  casus, ut ab lego leges, lege 2 ; alterum quod casus  habet neque tempora adsignificat, ut ab lego lectio  et lector ; tertium quod habet utrunque et tempora  et casus, ut ab lego legens, lecturus ; quartum quod  neutrum habet, ut ab lego lecte ac lectissime : horum  verborum si primigenia sunt ad mi/fe, 3 ut Cosconius  scribit, ex eorum declinationibus verborum discrimina  quingenta milia esse possunt ideo, quod a* singulis  verbis primigenii(s) 5 circiter quingentae species de-  clinationibus fiunt.   § 34. 1 Aug. ; parentent Laetus ; for parent.  § 35. 1 Mue., with G, II, for currus.   § 36. 1 B, Laetus, for declinatiuum. 2 V, b, for lego  Fv. 3 Victorius, for admitte. 4 L. Sp., for quia.  5 Aug., for primigenii.     • Three different ceremonies are confounded here : one of  purification, one of expiation to the gods of the Lower World,  one of fertility ; cf. vi. 13, note a.   § 35. That is, all verbal forms, and the derivatives from  the verbal roots.   § 36. The verb has both meanings ; some of the deriva-  tives have only one or the other. 6 Q. Cosconius, orator   206     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 34-36     of the Lower World,' because at that time expiatory  sacrifices are made to them ; but I think that it was  called February rather from the dies februalus ' Puri-  fication Day,' because then the people februatur ' is  purified,' that is, the old Palatine town girt with flocks  of people is passed around by the naked Luperci.'   V. 35. As to what pertains to Latin names of time  ideas, let that which has been said up to this point be  enough. Now I shall speak of what concerns those  things which might be observed as taking place at  some special time a — such as the following : legisti  ' thou didst read,' cursus ' act of running,' ludens  ' playing.' With regard to these there are two things  which I wish to say in advance : how great then-  number is, and what features are less perspicuous  than others.   36. The inflections of words are of four kinds : one  which indicates the time and does not have case, as  leges ' thou wilt gather or read,' a lege ' read thou,'  from lego 1 I gather or read ' ; a second, which has  case and does not indicate time, as from lego lectio  ' collection, act of reading,' lector ' reader'; the third,  which has both, time and case, as from lego legens  ' reading,' ledums ' being about to read ' ; the third,  which has neither, as from lego lecte 'choicely,' lectis-  sime ' most choicely.' Therefore if the primitives of  these words amount to one thousand, as Cosconius 6  writes, then from the inflections of these words the  different forms can be five hundred thousand in  number for the reason that from each and every  primitive word about five hundred forms are made  by derivation and inflection.   and authority on grammar and literature, who flourished  about 100 b.c. ; page 109 Funaioli.   207     VARRO     37. Primigenia dicuntur verba ut lego, scribo, sto,  sedeo et cetera, quae non sunt ab ali(o) quo 1 verbo,  sed suas habent radices. Contra verba declinata sunt,  quae ab ali(o) quo 2 oriuntur, ut ab lego legis, legit,  legam et sic 3 indidem hinc permulta. Quare si quis  primigeniorum verborum origines ostenderit, si ea  mille sunt, quingentum milium simplicium verborum  causas aperuerit una ; sin 4 nullius, tamen qui ab his  reliqua orta ostenderit, satis dixerit de originibus  verborum, cum unde nata sint, principia erunt pauca,  quae inde nata sint, innumerabilia.   38. A quibus iisdem principiis antepositis prae-  verbiis paucis immanis verborum accedit numerus,  quod praeverbiis (in)mutatis 1 additis atque commu-  tatis aliud atque aliud fit : ut enim (pro)cessit 2 et  recessit, sic accessit et abscessit ; item incessit et ex-  cessit,sic successit et decessit, (discessit) 3 et concessit.  Quod si haec decern sola praeverbia essent, quoniam  ab uno verbo declinationum quingenta discrimina  fierent, his decemplicatis coniuncto praeverbio ex  uno quinque milia numero efficerent(ur), 4 ex mille ad  quinquagies centum milia discrimina fieri possunt.   §37. 1 Mue. ; alio Aug., G ; for aliquo. 2 Mue., for  aliquo. 3 After sic, Laetus deleted in. 4 Turnebus, for  unas in.   § 38. 1 GS., for mutatis. 2 Fritzsche, for cessit.  3 Added by GS (et discessit added by Vertranius). 4 Aldus,  for efficerent.     § 37. " That is, cannot be referred to a simpler radical  element.  208     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 37-38     37. Primitive is the name applied to words like  lego ' I gather,' scribo ' I write,' sto ' I stand,' sedeo ' I  sit,' and the rest which are not from some other word, a  but have their own roots. On the other hand deriva-  tive words are those which do develop from some other  word, as from lego come legis ' thou gatherest,' legit  ' he gathers,' legam ' I shall gather,' and in this fashion  from this same word come a great number of words.  Therefore, if one has shown the origins of the primi-  tive words, and if these are one thousand in number,  he will have revealed at the same time the sources of  five hundred thousand separate words ; but if without  showing the origin of a single primitive word he has  shown how the rest have developed from the primi-  tives, he will have said quite enough about the origins  of words, since the original elements from which the  words are sprung are few and the words which have  sprung from them are countless.   38. There are besides an enormous number of  words derived from these same original elements by  the addition of a few prefixes, because by the addition  of prefixes with or without change a word is repeatedly  transformed ; for as there is processit ' he marched  forward ' and recessit-' drew back,' so there is accessit  ' approached ' and abscessit ' went off,' likewise incessit  ' advanced ' and excessit ' withdrew,' so also successit  ' went up ' and decessit ' went away,' discessit ' de-  parted ' and concessit ' gave way.' But if there were  only these ten prefixes, from the thousand primitives  five million different forms can be made inasmuch as  from one word there are five hundred derivational  forms and when these are multiplied by ten through  union with a prefix five thousand different forms are  produced out of one primitive.   vol. i p 209     VARRO     39. Democritus, Ecurus, 1 item alii qui infinita  principia dixerunt, quae unde sint non dicunt, sed  cuiusmodi sint, tamen faciunt magnum : quae ex his  constant in mundo, ostendunt. Quare si etymologws 2  principia verborum postulet mille, de quibus ratio ab  se non poscatur, et reliqua ostendat, quod non pos-  tulat, tamen immanem verborum expediat numerum.   40. De multitudine quoniam quod satis esset  admonui, 1 de obscuritate pauca dicam. Verborum  quae tempora adsignificant ideo locus 2 difficillimus  (TVfj.a, 3 quod neque his fere societas cum Graeca  lingua, neque vernacula ea quorum in partum memoria  adfuerit nostra ; e 4 quibus, ut dixi, 5 quae poterimus.   VI. 41. Incipiam hinc primura 1 quod dicitur ago.  Actio ab agitatu facta. Hinc dicimus " agit gestum  tragoedus," 2 et " agitantur quadrigae " ; hinc " agi-  tur pecus pastum." Qua 3 vix agi potest, hinc angi-  portum ; qua nil potest agi, hinc angulus, (vel) 4 quod  in eo locus angustissimus, cuius loci is angulus.   42. Actionum trium primus agitatus mentis, quod   § 39. 1 Turnebus, for secutus Fv, securus G, II. 2 ety-  mologos B, Rhol., for ethimologos Fv, ethimologus G.  § 40. 1 Laetus, for admonuit. 2 f, Aldus, for locutus.   3 est Irv/xa Sciop. (L. Sp. deleted est), for est TTMa Fv.   4 A. Sp.,for nostrae. 6 M, Laetus, for dixit.   §41. 1 Laetus, for primus. 2 For tragaedus. 3 Al-  dus, for quia. 4 Added by Mue., whose punctuation is  here followed.     § 39. Of Abdera (about 460-373 b.c), originator of the  atomic theory. * Of Athens (341-270 b.c), founder of the  Epicurean school of philosophy; Epic. 201. 33 Usener.  e That is, that he should be excused from interpreting them  (quod for quot).   § 40. For adfuerit with the goal construction, cf. Vergil,  Eel. 2. 45 hue ades, etc. 6 v. 10.  210     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 39-42     39. Democritus, a Epicurus, 6 and likewise others  who have pronounced the original elements to be  unlimited in number, though they do not tell us  whence the elements are, but only of what sort they  are, still perform a great service : they show us the  things which in the world consist of these elements.  Therefore if the etymologist should postulate one  thousand original elements of words, about which an  interpretation is not to be asked of him, and show the  nature of the rest, about which he does not make the  postulation, c the number of words which he would  explain would still be enormous.   40. Since I have given a sufficient reminder of the  number of existing words, I shall speak briefly about  their obscurity. Of the words which also indicate  time the most difficult feature is their radicals, for the  reason that these have in general no communion with  the Greek language, and those to whose birth a our  memory reaches are not native Latin ; yet of these,  as I have said, 6 we shall say what we can.   VI. 41. I shall start first from the word ago ' I  drive, effect, do.' Actio ' action ' is made from agitatus  1 motion.' a From this we say " The tragic actor agit  ' makes ' a gesture," and " The chariot-team agitantur  ' is driven ' " ; from this, " The flock agitur ' is driven '  to pasture." Where it is hardly possible for anything  agi ' to be driven,' from this it is called an angiportum 6  1 alley ' ; where nothing can agi ' be driven,' from this  it is an angulus ' corner,' or else because in it is a very  narrow (angustus) place to which this corner belongs.   42. There are three actiones ' actions,' and of these   § 41. All these words are derivatives of agere, except  angiportum and angulus ; but actio does not develop by loss  of the »' in agitatus. b Cf. v. 145.   211     VARRO     primum ea quae sumus acturi cogitare debemus,  deinde turn dicere et facere. De his tribus minime  putat volgus esse actionem cogitationem ; tertium, in  quo quid facimus, id maximum. Sed et cum cogi-  tamus 1 quid et earn rem ogitamus 2 in mente, agimus,  et cum pronuntiamus, agimus. Itaque ab eo orator  agere dicitur causam et augures augurium agere  dicuntur, quom in eo plura dicant quam faciant.   43. Cogitare a cogendo dictum : mens plura in  unum cogit, unde eligere 1 possit. Sic e lacte coacto  caseus nominatus ; sic ex hominibus contio dicta, sic  coemptio, sic compitum nominatum. A cogitatione  concilium, inde consilium ; quod ut vestimentum  apud fullonem cum cogitur, conciliari 2 dictum.   44. Sic reminisci, cum ea quae tenuit mens ac  memoria, cogitando repetuntur. Hinc etiam com-  minisci dictum, a con et mente, cum finguntur in  mente quae non sunt ; et ab hoc illud quod dicitur  eminisci, 1 cum commentum pronuntiatur. Ab eadem   § 42. 1 Sciop., for hos agitamus Fv. 2 L. Sp., for  cogitamus.   § 43. 1 a, p, RhoL, for elicere. 2 Aug., for consiliari.  § 44. 1 Heusinger, for reminisci.   § 42. a Page 16 Regell.   § 43. a Here Varro gives a parenthetic list of words with  the prefix co- or com- ; though he is wrong in including  caseus. b Cogitatio, concilium, consilium have nothing in  common except the prefix.   212     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 42-44     the first is the agitatus ' motion ' of the mind, because  we must first cogitare ' consider ' those things which  we are acturi ' going to do,' and then thereafter say  them and do them. Of these three, the common folk  practically never thinks that cogitatio ' consideration '  is an action ; but it thinks that the third, in which we  do something, is the most important. But also when  we cogitamus ' consider ' something and agitamus  ' turn it over ' in mind, we agimus ' are acting,' and  when we make an utterance, we agimus ' are acting.'  Therefore from this the orator is said agere ' to plead '  the case, and the augurs are said a agere ' to practice '  augury, although in it there is more saying than  doing.   43. Cogitare ' to consider ' is said from cogere ' to  bring together ' : the mind cogit ' brings together '  several things into one place, from which it can  choose. Thus a from milk that is coactum ' pressed,'  caseus ' cheese ' was named ; thus from men brought  together was the contio ' mass meeting ' called, thus  coemptio ' marriage by mutual sale,' thus compitum  ' cross-roads.' From cogitatio ' consideration ' came  concilium ' council,' and from that came consilium  ' counsel ' ; 6 and the concilium is said conciliari ' to be  brought into unity ' like a garment when it cogitur ' is  pressed ' at the cleaner's.   44. Thus reminisci ' to recall,' when those things  which have been held by mind and memory are fetched  back again by considering (cogitando). From this also  comminisci ' to fabricate a story ' is said, from con ' to-  gether ' and mens ' mind,' when things which are not,  are devised in the mind ; and from that comes the  word eminisci ' to use the imagination,' when the  commentum ' fabrication ' is uttered. From the same     213     VARRO     mente meminisse dictum et amens, qui a mente sua  cU'scedit. 2   45. Hinc etiam metus 1 (a) mente quodam modo  mota, 2 ut 3 metuisti (te> 4 amovisti ; sic, quod frigidus  timor, tremuisti timuisti. Tremo dictum a simili-  tudine vocis, quae tunc cum valde tremunt apparet,  cum etiam in corpore pili, ut arista in spica ^ordei,  horrent.   46. Curare a cura dictum. Cura, quod cor urat ;  curiosus, quod hac praeter modum utitur. Recor-  dan, 1 rursus in cor revocare. Curiae, ubi senatus  rempublicam curat, et ilia ubi cura sacrorum publica ;  ab his curiones.   47. Volo a voluntate dictum et a volatu, quod  animus ita est, ut puncto temporis pervolet quo volt.  Lwbere 1 ab labendo dictum, quod lubrica mens ac  prolabitur, ut dicebant olim. Ab lubendo libido,  libidinosus ac Venus Libentina et Libitina, sic alia.   2 Aug., for descendit.   § 45. 1 GS., for metuo. 2 Canal, for mentem quodam  modo motam. 3 L. Sp., for uel. 4 Added by Kent,  after Fay.   § 46. 1 Aug., with B, for recordare.   § 47. 1 L. Sp., for libere.     § 45. ° According to Mueller, the sequence of the topics  indicates that this section and § 49 have been interchanged in  the manuscripts. All etymologies in this section are wrong.   § 46. ° Three etymologically distinct sets of words are  here united : cura, curare, curiosus ; cor, recordari ; curia,  curio.   § 47. ° Volo ' I wish ' is distinct from volo 1 I fly.'  6 Ijubet, later libet, is distinct from labi and from lubricus.  e Either as a euphemism, or from the fact that the funeral  apparatus was kept in the storerooms of the Temple of Venus,  which caused the epithet to acquire a new meaning.   214     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 44-47     word mens ' mind ' come meminisse ' to remember '  and amens ' mad,' said of one who has departed a  mente ' from his mind.'   45. ° From this moreover metus ' fear,' from the  mens ' mind ' somehow mota ' moved,' as metuisti ' you  feared,' equal to te amouisti ' you removed yourself.'  So, because timor ' fear ' is cold, tremuisti ' you  shivered ' is equal to timuisti ' you feared.' Tremo ' I  shiver ' is said from the similarity to the behaviour of  the voice, which is evident then when people shiver  very much, when even the hairs on the body bristle  up like the beard on an ear of barley.   46. " Curare ' to care for, look after ' is said from  cur a ' care, attention.' Cura, because it cor urat ' burns  the heart ' ; curiosus ' inquisitive,' because such a  person indulges in cura beyond the proper measure.  Recordari ' to recall to mind,' is revocare ' to call  back ' again into the cor ' heart.' The curiae ' halls,'  where the senate curat ' looks after ' the interests of  the state, and also there where there is the cura ' care '  of the state sacrifices ; from these, the curiones ' priests  of the curiae.'   47. Volo ' I wish ' is said from voluntas ' free-will '  and from volatus ' flight,' because the spirit is such  that in an instant it pervolat ' flies through ' to any  place whither it volt ' wishes.' a Lubere 6 'to be  pleasing ' is said from labi ' to slip,' because the mind  is lubrica ' slippery ' and prolabitur ' slips forward,' as of  old they used to say. From lubere 1 to be pleasing '  come libido ' lust,' libidinosus ' lustful,' and Venus  Libentina ' goddess of sensual pleasure ' and Libitina c  ' goddess of the funeral equipment,' so also other  words.     215     VARRO   48. Metuere a quodam motu animi, cum id quod  malum casurum putat refugit mens. Cum vehe-  mentius in movendo ut ab se abeat foras fertur,  formido ; cum (parum movetur) 1 pavet, et ab eo  pavor.   49. Meminisse a memoria, cum (in) id quod  remansit in mente 1 rursus movetur ; quae a manendo 2  ut manimoria 3 potest esse dicta. Itaque Salii quod  cantant :   Mamuri Vetwn', 4  significant memoriam veterem. 5 Ab eodem monere, 6  quod is qui monet, proinde sit ac memoria ; sic  monimenta quae in sepulcris, et ideo secundum viam,  quo praetereuntis admoneant 7 et se fuisse et illos  esse mortalis. Ab eo cetera quae scripta ac facta  memoriae causa monimenta dieta.   50. Maerere a marcere, quod etiam corpus mar-  cescere(t) 1 ; hinc etiam macri dicti. Laetari ab eo   § 48. 1 Added by L. Sp.   § 49. 1 A. Sp., for id quod remansit in mente in id  quod/ the omission, with Sciop. 2 Rhol., for manando.  3 Other codices, for maniomoria Fv. 4 Turnebus, for  memurii ueterum or ueteri. 5 Maurenbrecher ; veterem  memoriam Aug., with B ; where, according to Victorius, F  had memoriam followed by an illegible word. 6 For mo-  nerem. 7 For admoueant Fv, admoneat B.   § 50. 1 L. Sp.,for marcescere.   § 48. All etymologies in the section are wrong.   § 49. See note on § 45. Meminisse, mens, monere,  monimentum (or monumentum) are from the same root ;  memoria is perhaps remotely connected with them ; but  manere is to be kept apart. 6 Frag. 8, page 339 Mauren-  brecher; page 4 Morel. c The traditional smith who made  the best of the duplicate ancilia (see vi. 22, note d), and at his  request was rewarded by the insertion of his name in the  Hymns of the Salii (Festus, 131. 11 M.). But Varro seems  216     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 48-50     48. ° Metuere ' to fear,' from a certain motus  ' emotion ' of the spirit, when the mind shrinks back  from that misfortune which it thinks will fall upon it.  When from excessive violence of the emotion it is  borne foras ' forth ' so as to go out of itself, there is  formido ' terror ' ; when parum movetur ' the emotion  is not very strong,' it pavet ' dreads,' and from this  comes pavor ' dread.'   49. ° Meminisse ' to remember,' from memoria  ' memory,' when there is again a motion toward that  which remansit 1 has remained ' in the mens ' mind ' :  and this may have been said from manere ' to remain,'  as though manimoria. Therefore the Salii, 6 when  they sing   O Mamurius Veturius,'   indicate a memoria vetus ' memory of olden times.'  From the same is monere ' to remind,' because he who  monet ' reminds,' is just like a memory. So also the  monimenta ' memorials ' which are on tombs, and in  fact alongside the highway, that they may admonere  ' admonish ' the passers-by that they themselves were  mortal and that the readers are too. From this, the  other things that are written and done to preserve  their memoria ' memory ' are called monimenta ' monu-  ments.'   50. ° Maerere ' to grieve,' was named from marcere  ' to wither away,' because the body too would marces-  cere ' waste away ' ; from this moreover the inacri  ' lean ' were named. Laetari ' to be happy,' from this,   to feel an etymological connexion between Mamuri Veturi  and memoriam veterem.   § 50. All etymologies wrong, except the association of  laetari, laetitia, laeta.   217     VARRO     quod latius gaudium propter magni boni opinionem  diffusum. Itaque Iuventius ait :   Gaudia   Sua si omnes homines conferant unum in locum,  Tamen mea exsuperet laetitia.   Sic cum se habent, laeta.   VII. 51. Narro, cum alterum facio narum, 1 a  quo narratio, per quam cognoscimus rem gesta(m). 2  Quae pars agendi est ab dicendo 3 ac sunt aut con-  iuncta cum temporibus aut ab his : eorum 4 hoc genus  videntur ervfia.   52. Fatur is qui primum homo significabilem ore  mittit vocem. Ab eo, ante quam ita faciant, pueri  dicuntur infantes ; cum id faciunt, iam fari ; cum hoc  vocabulum, 1 (turn) a similitudine vocis pueri (fario-  lus) ac fatuus dictum. 2 Ab hoc tempora 3 quod turn  pueris constituant Parcae fando, dictum fatum et res  fatales. Ab hac eadem voce 4 qui facile fantur facundi  dicti, et qui futura praedivinando soleant fari fatidici ;  dicti idem vaticinari, quod vesana mente faciunt :   §51. 1 Victorius, for narrum. 2 For gesta Fv. 3 L.  Sp. ; a dicendo Ursinus ; for ab adiacendo Fv. * Aug.,  for earum.   § 52. 1 Aug., for uocabulorum. 2 OS., for a simili-  tudine uocis pueri ac fatuus fari id dictum. 3 Popma, for  tempore. 4 Canal, for ad haec eandem uocem.     6 Com. Rom. Frag., verses 2-4 Ribbeck 3 . Juventius was a  writer of comedies from the Greek, in the second century b.c.   § 51. ° Varro wrote naro, with one R, according to Cas-  siodorus, vii. 159. 8 Keil ; the etymology is correct. 6 Cf.  vi. 42.   § 52. ° The etymologies in this section are correct, except  those of fariolus and vaticinari. 6 Dialectal form, prob-   218     OX THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 50-52     that joy is spread latius 'more widely' because of the  idea that it is a great blessing. Therefore Juventius  says 6 :   Should all men bring their joys into a single spot,  My happiness would yet surpass the total lot.   When things are of this nature, they are said to be  laeta ' happy.'   VII. 51. Narro a 'I narrate,' when I make a  second person narus ' acquainted with ' something ;  from which comes narratio ' narration,' by which we  make acquaintance with an occurrence. This part of  acting is in the section of saying, 6 and the words are  united with time-ideas or are from them : those of  this sort seem to be radicals.   52.° That man fatur ' speaks ' who first emits from  his mouth an utterance which may convey a meaning.  From this, before they can do so, children are called  infantes ' non-speakers, infants ' ; when they do this,  they are said now fan ' to speak ' ; not only this word,  but also, from likeness to the utterance of a child,  fariolus 6 ' soothsayer ' and fatuus ' prophetic speaker '  are said. From the fact that the Birth-Goddesses by  fando ' speaking ' then set the life-periods for the  children, fatum ' fate ' is named, and the things that  are fatales ' fateful.' From this same word, those who  fantur ' speak ' easily are called facundi ' eloquent,'  and those who are accustomed fari ' to speak ' the  future through presentiment, are called fatidici  ' sayers of the fates ' ; they likewise are said vaticinari  ' to prophesy,' because they do this with frenzied   ably Faliscan, for hariolus, which is connected with haruspex.  * As though fati- ; but properly from the stems of rates  ' bard ' and canere ' to sing.'   219     VARRO     sed de hoc post erit usurpandum, cum de poetis  dicemus.   53. Hinc fasti dies, quibus verba certa legitima  sine piaculo praetoribus licet fari ; ab hoc nefasti,  quibus diebus ea fari ius non est et, si fati sunt, pia-  culum faciunt. Hinc efFata dicuntur, qui augures  finem auspiciorum caelcstum extra urbem agri(s) 1  sunt effati ut esset ; hinc effari templa dicuntur : ab  auguribus efFantur qui in his fines sunt.   54. Hinc fana nominata, quod 1 pontifices in sac-  rando fati sint finem ; hinc profanum, quod est ante  fanum coniunctum fano ; hinc profanatum quid in  sacrificio aique 2 Herculi decuma appellata ab eo est  quod sacrificio quodam fanatur, id est ut fani lege^it. 3  Id dicitur pollu(c)tum, 4 quod a porriciendo est fictum:  cum enim ex mercibus libamenta porrecta 5 sunt  Herculi in aram, turn pollu(c)tum 4 est, ut cum pro-  fan(at)um 6 dicitur, id est proinde ut sit fani factum :  itaque ibi 7 olim (in) 8 fano consumebatur omne quod   § 53. 1 Laetus, for agri.   § 54. 1 Laetus, for quae. 2 M, V, Laetus, for ad quae  Fv. 3 Canal, for sit. 4 Aug. {quoting a friend), for  pollutum. 5 Aug., with B, for proiecta. 6 Turnebus,  for profanum. 7 Vertranius, for ubi. 8 Added by  Vertranius.   d Cf. vii. 36.   § 53. ° Fastus and nefastus, from fas and nefas ; but  whether fas and nefas are from the root of fari, is question-  able. 6 Cf. vi. 29-30. c Page 19 Regell. d Effari is  used both with active and with passive meaning.   § 54. Fanum (whence adj. profanus), from fas, not from  fari. b Profanus was used also of persons who remained  ' before the sanctuary ' because they were not entitled to go  inside, or because admission was refused ; therefore ' un-  initiated ' or ' unholy,' respectively. " Wrong etymology.  d Any edibles or drinkables were appropriate offerings to  220     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 52-54     mind : but this will have to be taken up later, when  we speak about the poets. d   53. From this the dies fasti a ' righteous days,  court days,' on which the praetors are permitted fori  ' to speak ' without sin certain words of legal force ;  from this the nefasti ' unrighteous days,' on which it is  not right for them to speak them, and if they have  spoken these words, they must make atonement. 6  From this those words are called effata ' pronounced,'  by which the augurs c have effati ' pronounced ' the  limit that the fields outside the city are to have, for  the observance of signs in the sky ; from this, the  areas of observation are said effari d ' to be pro-  nounced ' ; by the augurs, 6 the boundaries effantur  ' are pronounced ' which are attached to them.   54. From this the f ana ° ' sanctuaries ' are named,  because the pontiffs in consecrating them have fati  ' spoken ' their boundary ; from this, profanum ' being  before the sanctuary,' b which applies to something  that is in front of the sanctuary and joined to it ; from  this, anything in the sacrifice, and especially Hercules 's  tithe, is called prqfanatum ' brought before the sanc-»  tuary, dedicated,' from this fact that it fanatur ' is  consecrated ' by some sacrifice, that is, that it becomes  by law the property of the sanctuary. This is called  polluctum ' offered up,' a term which is shaped c from  porricere ' to lay before ' : for when from articles of  commerce first fruits d are laid before Hercules, on his  altar, then there is a polluctum ' offering-up,' just as,  when prqfanatum is said, it is as if the thing had be-  come the sanctuary's property. So formerly all that  was profanatum e ' dedicated ' used to be consumed in   Hercules ; cf. Festus, 253 a 17-21 M. ' That is, so far as  it was not burned on the altar, in the god's honour.   221     VARRO     profan(at)um 8 erat, ut etiam (nunc) 10 fit quod praetor  urb(an)ws u quotannis facit, cum Herculi immolat  publice iuvencam.   55. Ab eodem verbo fari fabulae, ut tragoediae et  comoediae, 1 dictae. Hinc fassi ac confessi, qui fati id  quod ab is 2 quaesitum. Hinc professi ; hinc fama et  famosi. Ab eodem falli, sed et falsum et fallacia,  quae propterea, quod fando quern decipit ac contra  quam dixit facit. Itaque si quis re fallit, in hoc non  proprio nomine fallacia, sed tralati(ci)o, 3 ut a pede  nostro pes lecti ac betae. Hinc etiam famigerabile 4  et sic compositicia 5 aha item ut declinata multa, in  quo et Fatuus et Fatuae. 6   56. Loqui ab loco dictum. 1 Quod qui primo  dicitur iam fari 2 vocabula et reliqua verba dicit ante  quam suo quique 3 loco ea dicere potest, 1 hunc CArys-  ippus negat loqui, sed ut loqui : quare ut imago  hominis non sit homo, sic in corvis, cornicibus, pueris  primitus incipientibus fari verba non esse verba, quod   8 L. Sp., for profanum. 10 Added by L. Sp. 11 Aug.,  with B, for P. R. urbis Fv.   % 55. 1 For tragaediae et comaediae. 2 For his.  3 A. Sp. ; tralatitio Sciop. ; for tranlatio. 4 M, V, p,  Aldus, for famiger fabile Fv. 5 A. Sp.,for composititia  Fv. « B, O, f, for fatue Fv.   § 56. 1 Punctuation by Stroux. 2 For farit Fv. 3 L.  Sp. ; quidque Aug. ; for quisque.     § 55. ° The preceding words all belong with fari ; but  falli, falsum, fallacia form a distinct group. 6 Instead of  by speaking. e That is, beet-root. d Faunus and the  Nymphs.   § 56. ° Wrong. 6 Page 143 von Arnim. " Ravens  222     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 54-56     the sanctuary, as even now is done "with that which  the City Praetor offers every year, when on behalf  of the state he sacrifices a heifer to Hercules.   55. From the same word fan ' to speak,' the  fabulae ' plays,' such as tragedies and comedies, were  named. From this word, those persons have fassi  ' admitted ' and confessi ' confessed,' who have fati  4 spoken ' that which was asked of them. From this,  professi ' openly declared ' ; from this, fama ' talk,  rumour,' and famosi ' much talked of, notorious.' a  From the same,/affi ' to be deceived,' but also falsum  ' false ' and fallacia ' deceit,' which are so named on  this account, that by fando ' speaking ' one misleads  someone and then does the opposite of what he has  said. Therefore if one fallit ' deceives ' by an act, 6 in  this there is not fallacia ' deceit ' in its own proper  meaning, but in a transferred sense, as from our pes  ' foot ' the pes ' foot ' of a bed and of a beet c are  spoken of. From this, moreover, famigerabile ' worth  being talked about,' and in this fashion other com-  pounded words, just as there are many derived -words,  among which are Fatuus ' god of prophetic speaking '  and the Fatuae ' women of prophecy.' d   56. Loqui 'to talk,' is said from locus 'place.'  Because he who is said to speak now for the first time,  utters the names and other words before he can say  them each in its own locus ' place,' such a person  Chrysippus says 6 does not loqui ' talk,' but quasi-  talks ; and that therefore, as a man's sculptured bust  is not the real man, so in the case of ravens, crows,"  and boys making their first attempts to speak, their  words are not real words, because they are not talk-   and crows were the chief speaking birds of the Romans ; cf.  Macrobius, Sat. ii. 4. 29-30.   223     VARRO     non loquantur. 4 Igitur is loquitur, qui suo loco quod-  que verbum sciens ponit, et is turn 5 prolocutus, 6 quom  in animo quod habuit extulit loquendo.   57. Hinc dicuntur eloqui ac reloqui 1 in fanis  Sabinis, e cella dei qui loquuntur. 2 Hinc dictus  loquax, qui nimium loqueretur ; hinc eloquens, qui  copiose loquitur ; hinc colloquium, cum veniunt in  unum locum loquendi causa ; hinc adlocutum mulieres  ire aiunt, cum eunt ad aliquam locutum consolandi 3  causa ; hinc quidam loquelam dixerunt verbum quod  in loquendo efferimus. Concinne loqui dictum a  concinere, 4 ubi inter se conveniunt partes ita  3  novissimum, quod extremum. Sic ab eadem origine  novitas et novicius et novalis in agro et " sub No vis "  dicta pars in Foro aedificiorum, quod vocabulum ei  pervetustww, 4 ut Novae Viae, quae via iam diu vetus.   60. Ab eo quoque potest dictum nominare, quod  res novae in usum quom 1 additae erant, quibus ea(s) 2  novissent, nomina ponebant. Ab eo nuncupare, quod  tunc (pro) 3 civitate vota nova suscipiuntur. Nuncu-  pare nominare valere apparet in legibus, ubi " nun-  cupatae pecuniae " sunt scriptae ; item in Choro in  quo est :   Aenea ! — Quis  4 est qui meum nomen nuncupat ?   § 59. 1 Aug., from Gellius, x. 21. 2, for dico. 2 Ben-  tinus, from Gellius, I.e., for uetustus ac ueterrimus.  3 Added by Aug., from Gellius, I.e. 4 B, Laetus, for  peruetustas.   § 60. 1 Aug. (quoting a friend), for quomodo. 2 Ver-  tranius,for ea. 3 Added by L. Sp. 4 Added by Grotius.     e Naples ; Nova-polis is a half-way translation into Latin.   § 59. ° Page 57 Funaioli. * The Tabernae Novae were  the shops on the north side of the Forum which replaced  those burned in the fire of 210 b.c. ; those on the south side,  which escaped the fire, were called the Tabernae Veteres.   § 60. ° Nomen and nominare are distinct from novus, and  226     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 58-60     derived from a Greek word ; from this, accordingly,  their Neapolis e ' New City ' was called Nova-polis  ' New-polis ' by the old-time Romans.   59. From this, moreover, novissimum ' newest ' also  began to be used popularly for extremum ' last,' a use  which within my memory both Aelius and some  elderly men avoided, on the ground that the proper  form of the superlative of this word was nimium novum ;  its origin is just like vetustius ' older ' and veterrimum  ' oldest ' from vetus ' old,' thus from novum were derived  novius ' newer ' and novissimum, which means ' last.'  So, from the same origin, novitas ' newness ' and novi-  cius ' novice ' and novalis ' ploughed anew ' in the case  of a field, and a part of the buildings in the Forum was  called sub Xovis 6 ' by the New Shops ' ; though it has  had the name for a very long time, as has the Nova Via   New Street,' which has been an old street this long  while.   60. From this can be said also nominare ' to call  by name,' because when novae ' new ' things were  brought into use, they set nomina ' names ' on them,  by which they novissent ' might know ' them. From  this, nuncupate* ' to pronounce vows publicly,' because  then nova ' new ' vows are undertaken for the state.  That nuncupare is the same as nominare, is evident in  the laws, where sums of money are written down as  nuncupatae ' bequeathed by name ' ; likewise in the  Chorus, in which there is c :   Aeneas ! — Who is this who calls me by my name ?   also from novisse ' to know.' * Containing the elements of  nomen and capere ' to take.' e Trag. Rom. Frag., page  272 Ribbeck 3 ; R O.L. ii. 608-609 Warmington ; possibly  belonging to a play entitled Proserpina, cf. vi. 9-1. But  the title is perhaps hopelessly corrupt.   227     VARRO     Item in Medo 5 :   Quis tu es, mulier, quae me insueto nuncupasti nomine ?   61. Dico originem habet Graecam, quod Graeci  SeiKvvw. 1 Hinc (etiam dicare, ut ait) 8 Ennius :   Dico VI hunc dicare (circum metulas). 3   Hinc iudicare, quod tunc ius dicatur ; hinc iudex,  quod iu(s> dicat 4 accepta potestate ; (hinc dedicat), 5  id est quibusdam verbis dicendo finit : sic 6 enim aedis  sacra a magistratu pontifice prae(e)unte 7 dicendo  dedicatur. Hinc, ab dicendo, 8 indicium ; hinc ilia :  indicit (b)ellum, 9 indixit funus, prodixit diem, addixit  iudicium ; hinc appellatum dictum in mimo, 10 ac  dictiosus ; hinc in manipulis castrensibus (dicta 11  ab) 13 ducibus ; hinc dictata in ludo ; hinc dictator  magister populi, quod is a consule debet dici ; hinc  antiqua ilia (ad)dici 13 numo et dicis causa et addictus.   6 Aldus, for medio.   §61. 1 L. Sp. ; SeiKvvvai Mue. ; SeiKco Scaliger ; for  NISIhce Fv. 2 Added by Kent. 3 Fay, for qui hunc  dicare; cf Festus, 153 a 15-21 M., and Livy, xli. 27. 6.  4 Aug., with B,for iudicat. b Added by Stroux. 8 With  sic enim, F resumes ; cf. v. 118, crit. note 7. 7 Bcntinus  (or earlier) ; praeunte /, Laetus ; for prae unce F. 8 L.  Sp.,for dicando. 9 Turnebus, for ilium. 10 B, Aldus,  for minimo. 11 Added by Aug., with B. 18 Added by  Kent ; a added by Fay. 13 Budaeus, for dici.     d Pacuvius, Trag. Rom. Frag. 239 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 260-  261 Warmington ; the play was named from one of Medea's  sons.   §61. ° All the words explained in this section belong  together ; but dicere is cognate with the Greek word, not  derived from it. 6 Inc. frag. 39 Vahlen 2 ; see critical note.  c Rather, because he dictat ' gives orders ' to the people.  d Numo in the text is the older spelling, in which consonants  were never doubled. * Applied to the fictitious sale of an   228     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 60-61     And likewise in the Medus d :   Who are you, woman, who have called me by an  unaccustomed name ?   61. Dico ° ' I say ' has a Greek origin, that which  the Greeks call BeiKvi'm ' I show.' From this more-  over comes dicare ' to show, dedicate,' as Ennius  says b :   I say this circus shows six little turning-posts.  From this, iudicare ' to judge,' because then ius ' right '  dicitur ' is spoken ' ; from this, index ' judge,' because  he ius dicat ' speaks the decision ' after receiving the  power to do so ; from this, dedicat ' he dedicates,' that  is, he finishes the matter by dicendo ' saying ' certain  fixed words : for thus a temple of a god dedicatur ' is  dedicated ' by the magistrate, by dicendo ' saying ' the  formulas after the pontiff. From this, that is from  dicere, comes indicium ' information ' ; from this, the  following : indicit ' he declares ' war, indixit ' he has  invited to ' a funeral, prodixit ' he has postponed ' the  day, addixit ' he has awarded ' the decision ; from this  was named a dictum ' bon mot ' in a farce, and dic-  tiosus ' witty person ' ; from this, in the companies of  soldiers in camp, the dicta ' orders ' of the leaders ;  from this, the dictata ' dictation exercises ' in the  school ; from this, the dictator c ' dictator,' as master  of the people, because he must did ' be appointed ' by  the consul ; from this, those old phrases addict nummo d  ' to be made over to somebody for a shilling,' e and  dicis causa ' for the sake of judicial form,' and addictus  " bound over f ' to somebody.   inheritance to the heir. ' Said of a defendant who was  unable to pay the amount of debt or damages, and was de-  livered to the custody of the plaintiff as a virtual slave until  he could arrange payment.   229     VARRO     62. Si dico quid (sciens 1 ne)scienti, 2 quod ei 3  quod ignoravit trado, hinc doceo declinatum vel quod  cum docemus 4 dicimus vel quod qui docentur induczm-  tur 5 in id quod docentur. Ab eo quod scit ducere 6 qui  est dux aut ductor ; (hinc 7 doctor) 8 qui ita inducit, ut  doceat. Ab dwcendo 9 docere disciplina discere litteris  commutatis paucis. Ab eodcm principio documenta,  quae exempla docendi causa dicuntur.   63. Disputatio ct computatio e 1 propositione  putandi, quod valet purum facere ; ideo antiqui  purum putum appellarunt ; ideo putator, quod  arbores puras facit ; ideo ratio putari dicitur, in qua  summa fit pura : sic is sermo in quo pure disponuntur  verba, ne sit confusus atque ut diluceat, dicitur dis-  putare.   64. Quod dicimus disserit item translati(ci)o 1  aeque 2 ex agris verbo : nam ut //olitor disserit in areas  sui cuiusque generis res, sic in oratione qui facit,  disertus. Sermo, opinor, est a serie, unde serta ;  ctiam in vestimento sartum, quod comprehensum :   § 62. 1 Added by L. Sp. 2 Scaliger, for scienti.  3 Sciop., for det. 4 After docemus, Laetus deleted ut.   6 Reiter, for inducantur. 6 M, Laetus, for ducare.   7 Added by GS. 8 Added by L. Sp. 9 Fay, for docendo.   § 63. 1 L. Sp., for et.   §64. 1 A. Sp. ; translatitio Aug.; for translatio.  2 Aug., for atque.   § 62. ° Docere is quite independent of dicere, and also  of ducere. b Disciplina was popularly associated with  discere, but was really a derivative of discipulus, which came  from dis + capere 1 to take apart (for examination).'   § 64. ° There are in Latin two verbs sero serere, distinct in  etymology : serere sevi satus 4 to sow, plant,' and serere serui  sertus ' to join together, intertwine.' The derivatives in this  section are all from the second verb, except sartum, the  participle of sarcio, which is distinct from both.   230     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 62-64     62. If I dico ' say ' something that I know to one  who does not know it, because I trado ' hand over ' to  him what he was ignorant of, from this is derived  doceo a ' I teach,' or else because when we docemus  ' teach ' we dicivius ' say,' or else because those who  docentur ' are taught ' inducuntur ' are led on ' to that  which they docentur ' are taught.' From this fact,  that he knows how ducere ' to lead,' is named the one  who is dux ' guide ' or ductor ' leader ' ; from this,  doctor ' teacher,' who so inducit ' leads on ' that he  docet ' teaches.' From ducere ' to lead,' come docere  ' to teach,' disciplina b ' instruction,' discere ' to learn,'  by the change of a few letters. From the same  original element comes documenta ' instructive ex-  amples,' which are said as models for the purpose of  teaching.   63. Disputatio ' discussion ' and coniputatio ' reckon-  ing,' from the general idea of putare, which means to  make purum ' clean ' ; for the ancients used putum to  mean purum. Therefore putator ' trimmer', because  he makes trees clean ; therefore a business account is  said putari ' to be adjusted,' in which the sum is pura  ' net.' So also that discourse in which the words are  arranged pure ' neatly,' that it may not be confused  and that it may be transparent of meaning, is said  disputare ' to discuss ' a problem or question.   64. Our word disserit a is used in a figurative mean-  ing as well as in relation to the fields : for as the  kitchen-gardener disserit ' distributes ' the things of  each kind upon his garden plots, so he who does the  like in speaking is disertus ' skilful.' Sermo ' conversa-  tion,' I think, is from series ' succession,' whence serta  ' garlands ' ; and moreover in the case of a garment  sartum ' patched,' because it is held together : for   231     VARRO   sermo enim non potest in uno homine esse solo, sed  ubi (o)ratio 3 cum altero coniuncta. Sic conserere  manu(m) 4 dicimur cum hoste ; sic ex iure manu(m) 5  consertum vocare ; hinc adserere manu 6 in libertatem  cum prendimus. Sic augures dicunt :   Si mihi auctor es 7 verbenam 6 manu 9 asserere,  dicit(o> 10 consortes.   65. Hinc etiam, a quo 1 ipsi consortes, sors ; hinc  etiam sortes, quod in his iuncta tempora cum homini-  bus ac rebus ; ab his sortilegi ; ab hoc pecunia quae  in faenore sors est, impendium quod inter se iung^t. 2   66. Legere dictum, quod leguntur ab oculis  litterae ; ideo etiam legati, quod (ut) 1 publice mit-  tantur leguntur. Item ab legendo leguli, qui oleam  aut qui uvas legunt ; hinc legumina in frugibus variis ;  etiam leges, quae lectae et ad populum latae quas  observet. Hinc legitima et collegae, qui una lecti, et  qui in eorum locum suppositi, sublecti ; additi allecti  et collecta, quae ex pluribus locis in unum lecta. Ab   3 Aug., for ratio. 4 Other codd.,for manu F. 5 Sciop.,  for manu ; cf. Gellius, xx. 10. 6 p, Aug., for manum.  7 Aug., for est. 8 Bergk, for verbi nam. 9 Aug., for  manum. 10 A. Sp.,for dicit.   §65. 1 L. Sp., for ad qui. 2 Groth, for iungat.   § 66. 1 Added by B, Aldus.   b Genitive plural. e Page 18 Regell.   § 65. ° These words belong to serere, but Varro's reason  for the meaning of sors may not be correct. 6 To Varro,  the fundamental meaning in sors is one of ' joining ' : cf.  v. 183.   § 66. ° All words discussed in this section are from various  forms of the root seen in legere, which means ' to gather, pick,  select, choose, read ' ; except legumen. * Properly parti-  ciple of legare ' to appoint,' a derivative of legere. e More  exactly, legumina are, according to Varro, fruits of various  kinds that have to be picked (rather than cut, like cabbage,   232     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 64-66     sermo ' conversation ' cannot be where one man is  alone, but where his speech is joined with another's.  So we are said conserere manum ' to join hand-to-hand  fight ' with an enemy ; so to call for vianum 6 consertum  ' a laying on of hands' according to law ; from this,  adserere manu in libertatem ' to claim that so-and-so is  free,' when we lay hold of him. So the augurs say c :   If you authorize me to take in my hand the sacred  "bough, then name my colleagues (consortes).   65. From this, moreover, sors a ' lot,' from which  the consortes ' colleagues ' themselves are named ;  from this, further, sortes ' lots,' because in them time-  ideas are joined with men and things ; from these,  the sortilegi ' lot-pickers, fortune-tellers ' ; from this,  the money which is at interest is the sors 1 principal,'  because it joins 6 one expense to another.   66. ° Legere ' to pick or read,' because the letters  leguntur ' are picked ' with the eyes ; therefore also  legati 6 ' envoys,' because they leguntur ' are chosen '  to be sent on behalf of the state. Likewise, from  legere ' to pick,' the leguli ' pickers,' who legunt ' gather '  the olives or the grapes ; from this, the legumina e  ' beans ' of various kinds ; moreover, the leges ' laws,'  which are lectae ' chosen ' and brought before the  people for them to observe. From this, legitima ' law-  ful things ' ; and collegae ' colleagues,' who have been  lecti ' chosen ' together, and those who have been put  into their places, are sublecti ' substitutes ' ; those  added are allecti ' chosen in addition,' and things which  have been lecta ' gathered ' from several places into  one, are collecta ' collected.' From legere ' to gather '   or mowed, like wheat) ; but the resemblance to legere seems  to be only accidental.   233     VARRO     legendo ligna quoque, quod ea caduca legebantur in  agro quibus in focum uterentur. Indidem ab legendo  legio et diligens et dilectus.   67. Murmuran' 1 a similitudiae sonitus dictus, qui  ita leviter loquitur, ut magis e sono id faccre quam ut  intellegatur videatur. Hinc etiam poctae   Murmurantia litora.   Similiter fremere, gemere, clamare, crepare ab  similitudine vocis sonitus dicta. Hinc ilia  Arma sonant, fremor oritur ;   hinc   Nihil 2 me increpitando commoves.   68. Vicina horum quiritarc, iubilare. Quiritare  dicitur is qui Quiritum fidem clamans inplorat. Qui-  rites a Curensibus ; ab his cum Tatio rege in socie-  tatem venerunt civitatz's. 1 Ut quiritare urbanorum,  sic iubilare rusticorum : itaquc hos imitans Aprissius  ait :   Io bucco ! — Quis me iubilat ? —  Vicinns tuus antiquus.   Sic triumphare appellatum, quod cum imperatore   § 67. 1 L. Sp.,for murmuratur dictum. 2 For nichil.  § 68. 1 Sciop., for civitates.   d Better spelling, delectus.   § 67. ° Some, but not all, of the words discussed in this  section are onomatopoeic. b Lh-iter ' lightly.' e Trag.  Rom. Frag., page 314 Ribbeck 3 ; but the words look like  part of a dactylic hexameter, in which case it should read  Arma sonant, oritur fremor. d Trag. Rom. Frag., page  314 Ribbeck 3 .   § 68. a Frequentative of queri ' to complain,' and not  connected with Quirites. b Cures, ancient capital city  of the Sabines. c The name is corrupt, but no probable   234     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 66-68     comes also ligna ' firewood,' because the wood that  had fallen was gathered in the field, to be used on the  fireplace. From the same source, legere ' to gather,'  came legio ' legion,' and diligens ' careful,' and dilectus A  ' military levy.'   67. ° From likeness to the sound, he is said mur-  murari ' to murmur,' who speaks so softly b that he  seems more as the result of the sound to be doing  it, than to be doing it for the purpose of being  understood. From this, moreover, the poets say   Murmuring sea-shore.  Likewise, fremere ' to roar,' gemere ' to groan,'  clamare ' to shout,' crepare ' to rattle ' are said from  the likeness of the sound of the word to that which it  denotes. From this, that passage c :   Arms are resounding, a roar doth arise.  From this, also, d   By your rebuking you alarm me not.   68. Close to these are quiritare a ' to shriek,'  iubilare ' to call joyfully.' He is said quiritare, who  shouts and implores the protection of the Quirites.  The Quirites were named from the Curenses ' men of  Cures ' b ; from that place they came with King  Tatius to receive a share in the Roman state. As  quiritare is a word of city people, so iubilare is a word  of the countrymen ; thus in imitation of them Apris-  sius c says :   Oho, Fat-Face ! — Who is calling rne ? —  Your neighbour of long standing.   So triumpkare ' to triumph ' was said, because the   emendation has been suggested ; Com. Rom. Frag., page  332 Ribbeck 3 .     235     VARRO   milites redeuntes clamitant per Urbem in Capitolium  eunti " (I)o 2 triumphe " ; id a dpidfifiu) 3 ac Graeco  Liberi cognomento potest dictum.   69- Spondere est dicere spondee-, a sponte : nam id  (idem) 1 valet et a voluntate. Itaque Lucilius scribit  de Cretcea, 2 cum ad se cubitum venerit sua voluntate,  sponte ipsam suapte adductam, ut tunicam et cetera 3  reiceret. Eandem voluntatem Terentius significat,  cum ait satius esse   Sua sponte recte facere quam alieno metu.   Ab eadem sponte, a qua dictum spondere, declinatum  (de)spondet 4 et respondet et desponsor et sponsa,  item sic alia. Spondet enim qui dicit a sua sponte  " spondeo " ; (qui) spo(po)ndit, 5 est sponsor ; qui  (i)dem« (ut) 7 faciat obligatur sponsu, 8 consponsus.   70. Hoc Naevius significat cum ait " consponsi."  (Si) 1 spondebatur pecunia aut filia nuptiarum causa,   2 Laetus, for o. 3 Aldus, for triambo.   § 69. 1 Added by Fay. 2 For Gretea. 3 For ceterae.  4 GS, after Lachmann, for spondit. 8 L. Sp., for spondit.  6 B, Ed. Veneta, for quidem. 7 Added by Aug., with B.  8 L. Sp.,for sponsus.   § 70. 1 Added by Fay.   d From the Greek, through the Etruscan. e Ac, intro-  ducing an appositive.   § 69. ° Verses 925-927 Marx. Cretaea was a meretrix,  named from the country of her origin. Varro has para-  phrased the quotation, which was thus restored to metrical  form by Lachmann, the first two words being added by Marx :   Cretaea nuper, cum ad me cubitum venerat,  Sponte ipsa suapte adducta ut tunicam et cetera  Reiceret.     236     ON THE LATINS LANGUAGE, VI. 68-70     soldiers shout " Oho, triumph ! " as they come back  with the general through the City and he is going up  to the Capitol; this is perhaps derived** from dpiafifios,  as * a Greek surname of Liber.   69« Spondere is to say spondeo ' I solemnly promise,'  from sponte ' of one's own inclination ' : for this has  the same meaning as from voluntas ' personal desire.'  Therefore Lucilius writes of the Cretan woman, that  when she had come of her own desire to his house to  lie with him, she was of her own sponte ' inclination '  led to throw back her tunic and other garments. The  same voluntas ' personal desire ' is what Terence  means 6 when he says that it is better   Of one's own inclination right to do,  Than merely by the fear of other folk.   From the same sponte from which spondere is said, are  derived despondet ' he pledges ' and respondet ' he  promises in return, answers,' and desponsor ' promiser '  and sponsa ' promised brides' and likewise others in  the same fashion. For he spondet ' solemnly promises '  who says of his own sponte ' inclination ' spondeo ' I  promise ' ; he who spopondit ' has promised ' is a  sponsor ' surety ' ; he who is by sponsus ' formal  promise ' bound to do the same thing as the other  party, is a consponsus ' co-surety.'   70. This is what Naevius means" when he says  consponsi. If money 6 or a daughter spondebatur ' was  promised ' in connexion with a marriage, both the   While this might accord with the Lucilian prototype of  Horace, Sat. i. 5. 82-85, the meter forbids, and because of the  subject matter A. Spengel proposed Licinius, writer of  comedies, for Lucilius. b Adelphoe, 75.   §70. " Com. Rom. Frag., page 34 Ribbeck*; R.O.L.  ii. 598 Warmington. * As dower.   237     VARRO     appellabatur etpecunia et quae desponsa erat sponsa ;  quae pecunia inter se contra sponsu 2 rogata erat, dicta  sponsio ; cui desponsa quae 3 erat, sponsus ; quo die  sponsum erat, sponsalis.   71. Qui 1 spoponderat filiam, despondisse 2 dice-  bant, quod de sponte eius, id est de voluntate,  exierat : non enim si volebat, dabat, quod sponsu erat  alligatus : nam ut in com(o)ediis vides dici :   Sponde(n) 3 tuam gnatam 4 filio uxorem meo ?  Quod turn et praetorium ius ad legem et censorium  iudicium ad aequum existimabatur. Sic despondisse  animum quoque dicitur, ut despondisse filiam, quod  suae spontis statuerat finem.   72. A sua sponte dicere cum spondere, (respon-  dere) 1 quoque dixerunt, cum a(d) sponte(m) 2 re-  sponderent, id est ad voluntatem rogatoris. 3 Itaque  qui ad id quod rogatur non dicit, non respondet, ut  non spondet ille statim qui dixit spondeo, si iocandi   2 L. Sp., for sponsum. 3 Hue., for quo.   § 71. 1 G, B, Laetus, for quo. 2 B, Aldus, for dispon-  disse. 3 Aug. ; spondem Rhol. ; for sponde. 4 Rhol.,  for agnatam.   § 72. 1 Lachmann, for a qua sponte dicere cumspondere.  2 Turnebus, for a sponte. 3 L. Sp.,for rogationis.     c To be forfeited to the other party as damages by that party  which might break the agreement.   § 71. ° Com, Rom. Frag., page 134 Ribbeck 3 .   238     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 70-72     money and the girl who had been desponsa ' pledged '  were called sponsa ' promised, pledged * ; the money  which had been asked under the sponsus ' engagement '  for their mutual protection against the breaking of  the agreement,* was called a sponsio ' guarantee de-  posit ' ; the man to whom the money or the girl was  desponsa ' pledged,' was called sponsus ' betrothed ' ;  the day on which the engagement was made, was  called sponsalis ' betrothal day.'   71. He who spoponderat ' had promised ' his  daughter, they said, despondisse ' had promised her  away,' because she had gone out of the power of his  sponte ' inclination,' that is, from the control of his  voluntas ' desire ' : for even if he wished not to give  her, still he gave her, because he was bound by his  sponsus ' formal promise ' : for you see it said, as in  comedies a :   Do you now promise your daughter to my son as wife ?   This was at that time considered a principle estab-  lished by the praetors to supplement the statutes, and  a decision of the censors for the sake of fairness. So a  person is said despondisse animum ' to have promised  his spirit away, to have become despondent,' just as  he is said despondisse Jiliam ' to have promised his  daughter away,' because he had fixed an end of the  power of his sponte ' inclination.'   72. Since spondere was said from sua sponte dicere  ' to say of one's own inclination,' they said also re-  spondere ' to answer,' when they responderunt ' promised  in return ' to the other party's spontem ' inclination,'  that is, to the desire of the asker. Therefore he who  says " no " to that which is asked, does not respondere,  just as he does not spondere who has immediately said   239     VARRO   causa dixit, neque agi potest cum eo ex sponsu.  Itaqu(e) is 4 qu(o)i dicit(ur) 5 in co?«oedia 6 :   Meministin 7 te spondere 8 mihi gnatam 9 tuam ?   quod sine sponte sua dixit, cum eo non potest agi ex  sponsu.   73. Etiam spes a sponte potest esse declinata,  quod turn sperat cum quod 1 volt fieri putat : nam  quod non volt si putat, metuit, non sperat. Itaque  hi 2 quoque qui dicunt in Astraba Plauti :   Nwwc 3 sequere adseque, Polybadisce, meam spem   cupio consequi. —  Sequor hercle (e)quidem, 4 nam libenter mea(m)   sperata(m) 5 consequor :   quod sine sponte dicunt, vere neque ille sperat qui  dicit adolescens neque ilia (quae) 6 sperata est.   74. Sponsor et praes et vas neque ide/w, 1 neque  res a quibus hi, sed e re simili. 2 Itaque praes qui  a magistratu interrogatus, in publicum ut praestet ;  a quo et cum respondet, dicit " praes." Vas appel-   4 L. Sp., for itaquis. 5 Kent, for qui dicit F (d'r a = dici-  tur). 6 L. Sp.,for tragoedia. 7 Aug., for meministine.  8 Lachmann, metri gratia, for despondere. 9 Rhol., for  agnatam.   § 73. 1 Aug., for quod cum. 2 L. Sp., for hie. 3 L.  Sp., for ne. 4 L. Sp., for quidem. 6 Ritschl, for mea  sperata. 6 Added by Kent.   §74. 1 Laetus, for ideo. 2 Sciop., for simile.     § 72. Hanging nominative, resumed by cum eo after the  quotation. b Trag. Rom. Frag., page 305 Ribbeck 3 ; but  as the content indicates that it came from a comedy rather  than from a tragedy, I have accepted L. Spengel's emenda-  tion comoedia for the. manuscript tragoedia.   § 73. a Wrong. * Frag. I Ritschl. c A dseque, active  imperative form ; cf. Neue-Wagener, Formenlehre der lat.   240     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 72-74     spondeo, if he said it for a joke, nor can legal action  be taken against him as a result of such a sponsus  'promise.' Thus he" to whom someone says in a  comedy, 6   Do you recall you pledged your daughter unto me ?   which he had said without his sponte ' inclination,'  cannot be proceeded against under his sponsus.   73. Spes ' hope ' is perhaps also derived a from  sponte ' inclination,' because a person then sperat  ' hopes,' M'hen he thinks that what he wishes is coming  true ; for if he thinks that what he does not wish is  coming true, he fears, not hopes. Therefore these  also who speak in the Astraba of Plautus 6 :   Follow now closely,' Polybadiscus, I wish to overtake  my hope. —   Heavens I surely do : I'm glad to overtake her whom  I hope :   because they speak without sponte ' feeling of success,'  the youth who speaks does not truly ' hope,' nor does  the girl who is ' hoped for.' d   74. Sponsor and praes and vas are not the same  thing, nor are the matters identical from which these  terms come ; but they develop out of similar situa-  tions. Thus a praes is one who is asked by the  magistrate that he praestat 1 make a guarantee ' to  the state ; from which, also when he answers, he  says, " I am your praes." He was called a vas   Spr. 3 iii. 89. d Sperata, a regular term for the object of  a young man's love.   § 7i. " Varro apparently says that a sponsor is one who  undertakes an engagement toward an individual or indivi-  duals ; a praes is one who undertakes an engagement on his  own behalf, toward the state ; a vas is one who guarantees  another person's engagement toward the state.   VOL. I r 2-H     VARRO   latus, qui pro altero vadimonium promittebat. Con-  suetudo erat, cum re?/s 3 parum esset idoneus inceptis  rebus, ut pro se alium daret ; a quo caveri 4 postea lege  coeptum 5 est ab his, qui praedia venderent, vadem ne  darent ; ab eo ascribi coeptum 5 in lege mancipiorum:   Vadem ne poscerent nec dabitur.   75. Canere, 1 accanit et succanit ut canto et can-  tatio ex Camena permutato pro M N. 2 Ab eo quod  semel, canit, si saepius, cantat. Hinc cantitat, item  alia ; nec sine canendo (tubicines, liticines, corni-  cines), 3 tibicines dicti : omnium enim horum quo-  da^) 4 canere ; etiam bucinator a vocis similitudine  et cantu dictus.   76. Oro ab ore et perorat et exorat et oratio et  orator et osculum dictum. Indidem omen, orna-  mentum ; alterum quod ex ore primum elatum est,  osmen dictum ; alterum nunc cum propositione dici-  tur vulgo ornamentum, quod sicut olim ornamenta 1   3 For reos. 4 For cavari. 6 For caeptum.   §75. 1 For canerae. 2 Mue., for N.M. 8 Added  by L. Sp., after Mue. recognized the lacuna and its contents,  but set it after tibicines; cf v. 91. 4 Kent ; quoddam  Canal ; for quod a.   §76. 1 OS., for ornamentum.     §75. ° The words explained in this section belong to-  gether, except Camena, which stands apart. 6 Either  ' sing ' or ' play on an instrument.' c Usually in the  plural ; Italian goddesses of springs and waters, regularly  identified with the Greek Muses. d The insertion in the  text is rendered necessary by omnium horum ; cf. also critical  note. e Quodam, ablative with canere.   § 76. ° These words are from os, except omen, ornamen-  tum, oscines.   242     OX THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 74-76     ' bondsman ' who promised bond for another. It  was the custom, that when a part}' in a suit was not  considered capable of fulfilling his engagements, he  should give another as bondsman for him : from which  they later began to provide by law against those who  should sell their real estate, that they should not  offer themselves as bondsmen. From this, they began  to add the provision in the law about the transfer of  properties, that   " they should not demand a bondsman, nor will a  bondsman be given."   7o. a Canere 6 ' to sing,' accanit ' he sings to ' some-  thing, and succanit ' he sings a second part,' like canto  ' I sing ' and cantatio ' song,' from Camena c ' Muse,'  with N substituted for M. From the fact that a  person sings once, he canit : if he sings more often, he  cantat. From this, cantitat ' he sings repeatedly,' and  likewise other words ; nor without canere ' singing,  playing ' are the tubicines ' trumpeters,' named, and  the liticines ' cornetists,' cornicines ' horn-blowers,' d  iibicines ' pipes-players ' : for canere ' playing ' on  some special instrument * belongs to all these. The  bucinator ' trumpeter ' also was named from the like-  ness of the sound and the cantus ' playing.'   76. a Oro ' I beseech ' was so called from os  ' mouth,' and so were perorat ' he ends his speech ' and  exorat ' he gains by pleading,' and oratio ' speech ' and  orator ' speaker ' and osculum ' kiss.' From the same,  omen ' presage ' and ornamentum ' ornament ' : because  the former was first uttered from the os ' mouth,' it  was called osmen ; the latter is now commonly used  in the singular with the general idea of ornament,  but as formerly most of the play-actors use it in   24-3     VARRO     scoenici plerique dicunt. Hinc oscines dicuntur apud  augures, quae ore faciunt auspicium.   VIII. 77. Tertium gradum agcndi esse dicunt, ubi  quid faciant ; in eo propter similitudinem agendi et  faciendi et gerendi quidam error his qui putant esse  unum. Potest enim aliquid facere et non agere, ut  poeta facit fabulam et non agit, contra actor agit et  (non) 1 facit, et sic a poeta fabula fit, non agitur, ab  actore agitur, non fit. Contra imperator quod dicitur  res gerere, in eo neque facit neque agit, sed gerit, id  est sustinet, tralatum ab his qui onera 2 gerunt, quod  hi sustinent.   78. Proprio nomine dicitur facere a facie, qui rci  quam facit imponit faciem. Ut fictor cum dicit fingo,  figuram imponit, quom dicit formo, 1 formam, sic cum  dicit facio, faciem imponit ; a qua facie discernitur, ut  dici possit aliud esse vestimentum, aliud vas, sic item  quae fiunt apud fabros, fictores, item alios alia. Qui  quid 2 amministrat, cuius opus non extat quod sub   § 77. 1 Omitted in F. 2 G, H, for honera F.   § 78. 1 L. Sp„ for informo. 2 Aug., for quicquid.     6 Found only in the plural in the scenic poets, who used  it of ornaments for the head and face (os) ; it is a derivative  of ornare ' to adorn,' which comes from ordo ordinis.  c From prefix ops + can- ' sing ' : cf. o(p)s-tendere ' to show.'   § 77. Cf vi. 41-42. 6 The distinction is almost  impossible to imitate in translation, but the argument is good  so far as the examples in the text are concerned.   § 78. a Fades is from facere.  244     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 76-78     the plural. 6 From this, oscines c ' singing birds ' are  spoken of among the augurs, which indicate their pre-  monitions by the os ' mouth.'   VIII. 77. The third stage of action ° is, they say,  that in -which they fadunt ' make ' something : in this,  on account of the likeness among agere ' to act ' and   facere ' to make ' and gerere ' to carry or carry on,'  a certain error is committed by those •who think  that it is only one thing. 6 For a person can facere  something and not agere it, as a poet fadt ' makes ' a  play and does not act it, and on the other hand the  actor agit ' acts ' it and does not make it, and so a play   ft ' is made ' by the poet, not acted, and agitur ' is  acted ' by the actor, not made. On the other hand,  the general, in that he is said to gerere ' carry on '  affairs, in this neither fadt ' makes ' nor agit ' acts,'  but gerit ' carries on,' that is, supports, a meaning  transferred from those who gerunt ' carry ' burdens,  because they support them.   78. In its literal sense facere ' to make ' is from   fades ° ' external appearance ' : he is said facere ( to  make ' a thing, who puts a fades ' external appear-  ance ' on the thing which he facit ' makes.' As the   fetor ' image-maker,' when he says " Fingo ' I shape,' "  puts a figura ' shape ' on the object, and when he says  " Formo ' I form,' " puts a. forma ' form ' on it, so when  he says " Fado ' I make,' " he puts a fades ' external  appearance ' on it ; by this external appearance there  comes a distinction, so that one thing can be said to be  a garment, another a dish, and likewise the various  things that are made by the carpenters, the image-  makers, and other workers. He who furnishes a  service, whose work does not stand out in concrete  form so as to come under the observation of our     245     VARRO     sensu(m) 3 veniat, ab agitatu, ut dixi, magis agere  quam facere putatur ; sed quod his magis promiscue  quam diligenter eonsuetudo est usa, translations  utimur verbis : nam et qui dieit, faeere verba dieimus,  et qui aliquid agit, non esse inficientem.   79- (Et facere lumen, 1 faculam) 2 qui adlueet,  dieitur. Lucere ab luere, (quod) et 3 luce dissolvun-  tur tenebrae ; ab luce Noctiluea, 4 quod propter lueem  amissam is eultus institutus. Aequirere est ad et  quaerere ; ipsum quaerere ab eo quod quae res ut  reeiperetur datur opera ; a quoerendo quaestio, ab  his turn quaestor. 5   80. Video a visu, (id a vi) 1 : qui(n)que 2 enim  sensuum maximus in oeulis : nam cum sensus nullus  quod abest mille passus sentire possit, oculorum  sensus vis usque pervenit ad stellas. Hinc :   Visenda vigilant, vigilium invident.   Et Acci 3 :   3 //, Aldus, for sensu.   § 79. 1 Added by GS. 2 Added by Fay, from Plautus,  Persa, 515. 3 quod et Kent; quod A. Sp. ; for et.   4 After Noctiluea, L. Sp. deleted lucere item ab luce, a mar-  ginal gloss that had crept into the text. 6 Kent, for con-  qucstor.   §80. 1 Added by L. Sp. 2 For qui que. 3 Kent, for  atti.     6 vi. 41-42.   § 79. " Wrong etymology. 6 This sentence, if properly  reconstructed, goes with the preceding section. c Wrong.  d As dis-so-luuntur, which is in fact its origin. * This  sentence is out of place, but its proper place cannot be deter-  mined ; cf. v. 81. f Correct etymologies, except that of  qnaerere itself.   § 80. " Video is to be kept distinct from vis and from  vigilium. 6 Part of a verse from an unknown play, in   246     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 78-80     physical senses, is, from his agitatus ' action, motion,'  as I have said, 6 thought rather agere ' to act ' than  facere ' to make ' something ; but because general  practice has used these words indiscriminately rather  than with care, we use them in transferred meanings ;  for he who dicit ' says ' something, we say facere  ' makes ' words, and he who agit ' acts ' something, we  say is not inficiens ' failing to do ' something.   79. And he who lights a faculam a ' torch,' is said  to facere ' make ' a light. 6 Lucere ' to shine,' from  luere c ' to loose,' because it is also by the light that the  shades of night dissohuntur d ' are loosed apart ' ; from  lux ' light ' comes Noctiluca ' Shiner of the Night,'  because this worship was instituted on account of the  loss of the daylight. Acquirere e ' to acquire ' is ad' in  addition ' and quaerere ' to seek ' ; quaerere itself is  from this, that attention is given to quae res ' what  thing ' is to be got back ; from quaerere comes  quaestio ' question ' ; then from these, quaestor ' in-  vestigator, treasurer.' *   80. Video a ' I see,' from visus ' sight,' this from vis  ' strength ' ; for the greatest of the five senses is in  the eyes. For while no one of the senses can feel that  which is a mile away, the strength of the sense of the  eyes reaches even to the stars. From this 6 :   They watch for what is to be seen, but hate to  stay awake.'   Also the verse of Accius d :   which the persons are watching the night sky for omens.  e Invidere 4 to look at with dislike ' originally took a direct  object, as here ; cf. Cicero, Tusc. iii. 9. 20. d If properly  reconstituted, an iambic tetrameter catalectic, referring to  Actaeon,_who inadvertently beheld Artemis bathing with  the nymphs.   247     VARRO   Cum illud o(c)wli(s) violavit 4 (is), 5 qui inmdit 6  invidendum.   A quo etiam violavit virginem pro vit(i)avit dicebant ;  acque eadem modestia potius cum muliere fuisse  quam concubuisse dicebant.   81. Cerno idem valet : itaque pro video ait En-  nius :   Lumen — iubarne ? — in caelo cerno.   Cawius 1 :   Sensumque inesse et motum in membris cerno.   Dictum cerno a cereo, id est a creando ; dictum ab eo  quod cum quid creatum est, tunc denique videtur.  Hinc fines capilli d^scripti, 2 quod finis videtur, dis-  crimen ; et quod 3 in testamento (cernito), 4 id est  facito videant te esse heredem : itaque in cretione  adhibere iubent testes. Ab eodem est quod ait  Medea :   Ter sub armis malim vz'tam 5 cernere,  Quam semel modo parere ;   quod, ut decernunt de vita eo tempore, multorum  videtur vitae finis.   4 Mue., for obliuio lavet (obviolavit Aug., with B).   5 Added by Kent, metri gratia. 6 Kent ; vidit Mue. ;  for incidit.   §81. 1 Schoell, marginal note in his copy of A. Sp.'s  edition,for canius. 2 A. Sp., for descripti. 3 Turnebus,  for qui id. 4 Added by Turnebus. 5 Bentinus, from  Nonius Marc. 261. 22 M.,for multa.     e See note c. f Invidendum with negative prefix in-,  unlike the preceding word; cf. infectum meaning both  ' stained ' and ' not done.'   §81. "Literally 'separate'; hence 'distinguish, see,'  and also ' discriminate, decide.' Cerno has no connexion     248     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 80-81     When that he violated with his eyes,   Who looked upon • what ought not to be seen.'   From which moreover they used to say violavit ' he did  violence to ' a girl instead of vitiavit ' ruined ' her ;  and similarly, with the same modesty, thev used to  say rather that a man fult ' was ' with a woman, than  that he concubuit ' lay ' with her.   81. Cerno a has the same meaning; therefore  Ennius b uses it for video :   I see light in the sky — can it be dawn ?   Cassius c says :   I see that in her limbs there's feeling still and motion.   Cerno ' I see ' is said from cereo, that is, creo ' I create ' ;  it is said from this fact, that when something has been  created, then finally it is seen. From this, the bound-  ary-lines of the parted hair, d because a boundary-  line is seen, got the name discrimen ' separation ' ; and  the cernito ' let him decide,' e which is in a will, that is,  make them see that you are heir : therefore in the  cretio ' decision ' they direct that the heir bring wit-  nesses. From the same is that which Medea says / :   I'd rather thrice decide, in battle wild,   My life or death, than bear but once a child.   Because, when they decernunt ' decide ' about life at  that time, the end of many persons' lives is seen.   with creo. 6 Trag. Rom. Frag., verse 338 Ribbeck* ;  R.O.L. i. 226-227 Warmington ; from the Ajar ; cf. vi. 6  and vii. 76. e Fitting Cassius's play Lucretia ; cf. vi. 7  and vii. 72. * Capittus in the singular was used as a  collective by Varro, according to Charisius, i. 104. 20 Keil.  • Cf. Gams, Institut. ii. 1 74. ' Ennius, Medea, 222-223  Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. i. 316-317 Warmington; translated from  Euripides, Medea, 250-251.     249     VARRO     82. Spectare dictum ab (specio) 1 antiquo, quo  etiam Ennius usus :   uos 2 Epulo postquam spexit,   et quod in auspiciis distributum est qui habent spec-  tionem, qui non habeant, et quod in auguriis etiam  nunc augurcs dicunt avem specere. Consuetudo  com(m)unis quae cum praeverbi(i)s coniun(c)ta  fuerunt etiam nunc servat, ut aspicio, conspicio,  respicio, suspicio, despicio, 3 sic alia ; in quo etiam  expecto quod spectare volo. Hinc speculo(r), 4 hinc  speculum, quod in eo specimus imaginem. Specula,  de quo prospicimus. Speculator, quern mittimus  ante, ut respiciat quae volumus. Hinc qui oculos  inunguimus quibus specimus, specillum.   83. Ab auribus verba videntur dicta audio et  ausculto ; aures 1 ab aveo, 2 quod his avemus di(s)cere 3  semper, quod Ennius videtur ervfiov ostendere velle  in Alexandro cum ait :   lam dudum ab ludis animus atque aures avent,  Avide expectantes nuntium.   Propter hanc aurium aviditatem theatra replentur.  Ab audiendo etiam auscultare declinatum, quod hi   § 82. 1 Added bp Aug. 2 A. Sp., from Festus, 330 b  32 31., for uos. 3 31, Jxietus, for didestspicio. 4 Canal,  for specula.   § 83. 1 3Iue., for audio. 2 Laetus, for abaucto.  3 Aug., for dicere.   § 82. ° Annales, 421 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 148-149 Warm-  ington ; given in better form by Festus, 330 b 32 M. : Quos  ubi rex (Ep)ulo spexit de cotibus (=cautibus) celsis. Epulo  was a king of the Istrians, who fought against the Romans  in 178-177 b.c. ; cf. Livy,xli. 1,4, 11. 6 Page 20 Regell.  c Page 17 Regell.   § 83. Auris, audio, ausculto belong ultimately together,   250     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 82-83     82. Spectare ' to see ' is said from the old word  specere, which in fact Ennius used a :   After Epulo saw them,  and because in the taking of the auspices 6 there is a  division into those who have the spectio ' watch-duty '  and those who have not ; and because in the taking  of the auguries even now the augurs say c specere ' to  watch ' a bird. Gammon practice even now keeps  the compounds made with prefixes, as aspicio ' I look  at,' conspicio ' I observe,' respicio ' I look back at,'  suspicio ' I look up at,' despicio ' I look down upon,'  and similarly others ; in which group is also expecto ' I  look for, expect ' that which I wish spectare ' to see.'  From this, speculor ' I watch ' ; from this, speculum  ' mirror,' because in it we specimus ' see ' our image.  Specula ' look-out,' that from which we prospicimus  ' look forth.' Speculator ' scout,' whom we send  ahead, that he respiciat 1 may look attentively ' at  what we wish. From this, the instrument with  which we anoint our eyes by which we specimus ' see,'  is called a specillum ' eye-spatula.'   83. From the aures ' ears ' seem to have been said  the words audio ' I hear ' and ausculto ' I listen, heed ' ;  aures ' ears ' from aveo a ' I am eager,' because with  these we are ever eager to learn, which Ennius seems  to wish to show as the radical in his Alexander, 1 * when  he says :   A long time eager have been my spirit and my ears,  Awaiting eagerly some message from the games.   It is on account of this eagerness of the ears that the  theatres are filled. From audire ' to hear ' is derived  also auscultare ' to listen, heed,' because they are said   but are not to be connected with aveo. 6 Trag. Rom. Frag.  34-35 Ribbeck'; R.O.L. i. 236-237 Warmington.   251     VARRO   auscultare dicuntur qui auditis parent, a quo dictum  poetae :   Audio, . 7   84. Ore edo, sorbeo, bibo, poto. Edo a Graeco  low, 1 hinc esculentum et esca  edulia 2 ; et quod  Graece yei'eTcu, 3 Latine gustat. Sorbere, item bi-  bere a vocis sono, ut fervere aquam ab eius rei simili  sonitu. Ab eadem lingua, quod irorov, potio, unde  poculum, potatio, repotia. 4 Indidem puteus, quod  sic Graecum antiquum, non ut nunc (f>peap dictum.   85. A manu manupretium 1 ; mancipium, quod  manu capitur ; (quod) 2 coniungit plures manus,  manipulus ; manipularis, manica. Manubrium, quod  manu tenetur. Mantelium, ubi manus terguntur. . . . 3   4 Aug. {quoting a friend), for aut. 5 B, Laetus, for ob-  scnlto. 6 L. Sp., for odoratur. 7 sic alia ab ore A. Sp.,  for sic ab ore (Mue. deleted sic, and set ab ore at the begin-  ning of the next section).   §84. 1 A Idus, for edon. 2 Canal; escae edulia Aldus;  for escaedulia. 3 Victorias, for geuete. 4 Aug. (quot-  ing a friend), for repotatio.   § 85. 1 Victorius, for mantur praetium. 2 Added by  G, H. 3 Lacuna recognized by Aug.     e That is, with an changed to o, as if audor were the origin  of odor ; olor, with the well-known change of d to I, is not  attested elsewhere in Latin literature, but is found in the  glosses and survives in the Romance languages. These  words belong together, but are not to be grouped with audio.   § 84. ° The etymological connexions are correct (except  for puteus ; cf. v. 25 note a), but the Latin words are cognate   252     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 83-85     auscultare who obey what they have heard ; from  which comes the poet's saying :   I hear, but do not heed.   With the change of a letter are formed odor c or olor  ' smell ' ; from this, olet ' it emits an odour,' and odorari  ' to detect by the odour,' and odoratus ' perfumed,' and  an odora ' fragrant ' thing, and similarly other words.   84. a With the mouth edo ' I eat,' sorbeo ' I suck in,'  6160 ' I drink,' poto ' I drink.' Edo from Greek eSto ' I  eat ' ; from this, esculentum ' edible ' and esca ' food '  and edulia ' eatables ' ; and because in Greek it is  yevtrat ' he tastes,' in Latin it is gustat. Sorbere ' to  suck in,' and likewise bibere ' to drink,' from the sound 6  of the word, as for water fervere ' to boil ' is from the  sound like the action. From the same language,  because there it is — 6-ov ' drink,' is potio ' drink,'  whence poculum ' cup,' potatio ' drinking-bout,' repotia  ' next day's drinking.' From the same comes puteus  ' well,' because the old Greek word was like this, and  not pcap as it is now.   80. From manus ' hand ' comes manupretium  ' workman's wages ' ; mancipium ' possession of pro-  perty,' because it capitur ' is taken ' mann ' in hand ' ;  manipulus ' maniple,' because it unites several manus  ' hands ' ; manipularis ' soldier of a maniple,' manica  ' sleeve.' Manubrium ' handle,' because it is grasped  by the manus ' hand.' Mantelium ' towel,' on which  the manus ' hands ' terguniur ' are wiped.' . . . a   with the Greek, not derived from it. 6 These words are  not onomatopoeic   § 85. The gap is serious : the subject matter shifts  abruptly, and many appropriate topics are missed, such as  the actions of the feet, and some further discussion of the  distinctions among agere, facere, gerere, cf. § 77.   253     VARRO     IX. 86. Nunc primum ponam (de) 1 Censoriis  Tabulis :   Ubi noctu in templum censor 2 auspicaverit atque de  caelo nuntium erit, praeconi 3 sic imperato 4 ut viros vocet :  " Quod bonum fortunatum felix salutareque siet 5 populo Ro-  mano Quiritiiw* 6 reique publicae populi Romani Quiritium  mihique collegaeque meo, fidei magistratuique nostro :  omnes Quirites pedites armatos, privatosque, curatores  omnium tribuum, si quis pro se sive pro 1 altero rationem dari  volet, voca 8 inlicium hue ad me."   87. Praeco in templo primum vocat, postea de moeris 1  item vocat. Ubi ht 12 ex(qua)0ra(s>, 13 consules  praetores tribunosque plebis collegasque uos, 14 et in  templo adesse iubeas omnes 15 ; ac cum mittas, contionem  avoces. 18   92. In eodem Commentario Awquisitionis 1 ad ex-  tremum scriptum caput edicti hoc est :   Item quod attingat qui de censoribus 2 classicum ad  comitia centuriata redemptum habent, uti curent eo die quo  die comitia erunt, in Arce classicus canat 3 circumque muros  et ante privati huiusce T. Quinti Trogi scelerosi ostium 4 canat,  et ut in Campo cum primo luci adsiet. 5   93. Inter id cum circum muros mittitur et cum  contio advocatur, interesse tempus apparet ex his  quae interea fieri mlicium 1 scriptum est ; sed ad  comitiatum 2 vocatur populus ideo, quod alia de causa  hie magistratus non potest exercitum urbanum con-   § 91. 1 Bergk, for orande sed. 2 Mommsen, for au-  spiciis. 3 L. Sp., for dum. 4 Sciop., for commeatum.   5 Kent ; praeco reum Aug. ; for praetores. 6 Laetus, for  portet. 7 Aug., with B, for cornicem. 8 Aldus, for  cannat. ' Rhol., for colligam. 10 Mue., for rogis.  11 Victorius, for comitiae dicat. 12 Mue., for censeat.  13 Bergk ; exquiras Mue.; for extra. 14 Sciop., for uos.  15 Sciop., for homines. 16 B, G, Aug., for auoces.   § 92. 1 Aug., with B, for acquisitionis. 2 Aug., with  B, for decessoribus. 3 Victorius, for cannatum.  4 Sciop., for hostium. 5 Sciop., for adsit et.   § 93. 1 Aldus, for illicitum F 1 (illicium F 2 ). 2 Sciop.,  for comitia turn.   § 91. a The document is addressed to Sergius as quaestor.   6 Page 21 Regell. "The northern summit of the Capito-   258     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 91-93     91. You° shall give your attention to the auspices, 4 and  take the auspices in the sacred precinct ; then you shall send  to the praetor or to the consul the favourable presage which  has been sought. The praetor shall call the accused to  appear in the assembly before you, and the herald shall call  him from the walls : it is proper to give this command. A  horn-blower you shall send to the doorway of the private  individual and to the Citadel," where the signal is to sound.  Your colleague you shall request that from the speaker's  stand he proclaim an assembly, and that the bankers shut up  their shops.* You shall seek that the senators express their  opinion, and bid them be present ; you shall seek that the  magistrates express their opinion, the consuls, the praetors,  the tribunes of the people, and your colleagues, and you shall  bid them all be present in the temple ; and when you send the  request, you shall summon the gathering.   92. In the same Commentary on the Indictment, at  the end, this summing up of the edict is written :   Likewise in what pertains to those who have received  from the censors the contract for the trumpeter who gives the  summons to the centuriate assembly, they shall see to it that  on that day, on which the assembly shall take place, the  trumpeter shall sound the trumpet on the Citadel and around  the walls, and shall sound it before the house-entrance of this  accursed Titus Quintius Trogus, and that he be present in the  Campus Martius at daybreak."   93. That between the sending around the walls  and the calling of the gathering some time elapses, is  clear from those things the doing of which in the  meantime is written down as the inlicium ' imitation ' ;  but the people is called to appear in the assembly  because for any other reason this magistrate cannot  call together the citizen-army of the City. The   line. * These shops (c/. § 59 and note), on both sides of  the Forum, were to be closed during the trial of Trogus.   § 92. In early Latin, lux was normally masculine, as in  Plautus, Aul. 7-lS,Cist. 525, Capt. 1008 ; Terence, Adel. 841.   § 93. a The praetor.   259     VARRO     vocare ; censor, consul, dictator, interrex potest, quod  censor 3 exercitum centuriato constituit quinquen-  nalem, cum lustrare 4 et in urbem ad vexillum ducere  debet ; dictator et consul in singulos annos, quod hie  exercitui imperare potest quo eat, id quod propter  centuriata comitia imperare solent.   94. Quare non est dubium, quin 1 hoc inlicium sit,  cum circum muros itur, ut populus inliciatur ad magis-  tratus conspectum, qui (vi)ros 2 vocare 3 potest, in eum  locum unde vox ad contionem vocantis exaudiri possit.  Quare una origine illici et inlicis quod in Choro Pro-  serpinae est, et pellexit, quod in //ermiona est, cum  ait Pacuius :   Regni alieni cupiditas   Pellexit.   Sic Elicii Iovis ara 4 in Aventino, ab eliciendo.   95. Hoc nunc aliter fit atque olim, quod augur  consuli adest turn cum exercitus imperatur ac praeit  quid eum dicere oporteat. Consul augur(i) 1 imperare  solet, ut iralicium 2 vocet, non accenso aut praeconi.  Id inceptum credo, cum non adesset accensus ; et  nihil intererat cui imperaret, et dicis causa fieba(n)t 3   3 Laetus, for censorem. 4 Scaliger, for lustraret.   § 94. 1 Vertranvus, for cum. 2 L. Sp., for qui ros.  3 Aldus, for uocari. 4 Victor -ins, for iobis uisa ara.   §95. 1 Victorius, for augur. 2 B, Laetus, for is licium.  3 Aug., with B, for fiebat.     6 This statement refers to the consul only ; the part de-  fining the dictator's powers seems to have fallen out of the  text.   § 94. " Trag. Rom. Frag., page 272 Ribbeck 3 , of an un-  known poet ; unless Chorus Proserpinae is a substitute name  for Eumenides, a tragedy of Ennius. " Trag. Rom. Frag.,  verses 170-171 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 226-227 Warmington.  c A popular etymology only, since Jupiter could hardly be   260     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 93-95     censor, the consul, the dictator, the interrex can,  because the censor arranges in centuries the citizen-  army for a period of five years, when he must cere-  monially purify it and lead it to the city under its  standards ; the dictator and the consul do so every  year, 6 because the latter can order the citizen-army  where it is to go, a thing which they are accustomed  to order on account of the centuriate assembly.   91. Therefore there is no doubt that this is the  inUcium, when they go around the walls that the  people may inlici 1 be enticed ' before the eyes of  the magistrate who has the authority to call the men  into that place from which the voice of the one who is  calling them to the gathering can be heard. There-  fore there come from the same source also illici 1 to be  enticed ' and inlicis ' thou enticest,' which are in the  Chorus of Proserpina, a and pellexit ' lured,' which is in  the Hermiona, when Pacuvius says 6 :   Desire for another's kingdom lured him on.   So also the altar of Jupiter Elicius ' the Elicited ' on  the Aventine, from elicere ' to lure forth.' c   95. This is now done otherwise than it was of old,  because the augur is present with the consul when the  citizen-army is summoned, and says in advance the  formulas which he is to say. The consul regularly  gives order to the augur, not to the assistant nor to  the herald, that he shall call the inlicium ' invitation.'  I believe that this was begun on an occasion when the  assistant was not present ; it really made no difference  to whom he gave the order, and it was for form's sake   ' tricked ' ; according to G. S. Hopkins, Indo-European  deiwos and Related Words, 27-32, Elicius is a derivative of  liquere ' to be liquid,' and Jupiter Elicius is a rain-god.   261     VARRO     quaedam neque item facta neque item dicta semper.  Hoc ipsum inlieium scriptum inveni in M. Iunii Com-  mentariis ; quod tamen (inlex apud Plautum in Persa  est qui legi non paret), 4 ibidem est quod illicit illex,  (f)it quod 5 (I) 6 cum E et C cum G magnam habet  co(m)munitatem.   X. 96. Sed quoniam in hoe de paucis rebus verba  feci plura, de pluribus rebus verba faciam pauca, et  potissimum quae in Graeea lingua putant Latina, ut  sealpere a o-KaAeveiv, 1 sternere a a-rpwvvf.iv, 2 lingere  a Xixfiaadai? i ab W(t), i ite ab Ttc, 5 gignitur toris. 6 Non reprehendendum igitur in illis  qui in scrutando verbo litteram adiciunt aut demunt,  quo 7 facilius quid sub ea voce subsit viden' 8 possit :  ut* enim facilius obscuram operam (M)yrmecidw 10 ex   1 The lost heading is restored after that of Book VI. 2 F  contains this statement of loss; B and the Leipzig codex  contain an interpolated beginning : Temporum vocabula et  eorum quae coniuncta sunt, aut in agendo fiunt, aut cum  tempore aliquo enuntiantur, priore libro dixi. In hoc dicam  de poeticis vocabulis et eorum originibus, in quis multa  difficilia : nam, after which comes repens ruina aperuit.   266     MARCUS TERENTIUS VARRO'S  ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE     BOOK VI ENDS, AND HERE BEGINS  BOOK VII   AT THIS POINT, IN THE MODEL COPY, ONE LEAF IS  LACKING, ON WHICH IS THE BEGINNING OF BOOK VII   I. 1. The words of the poets are hard to expound.  For often some meaning that was fixed in olden times  has been buried by a sudden catastrophe, or in a word  whose proper make-up of letters is hidden after some  elements have been taken away from it, the intent of  him who applied the word becomes in this fashion  quite obscure. There should be no rebuking then of  those who in examining a word add a letter or take  one away, that what underlies this expression may be  more easily perceived : just as, for instance, that the  eyes may more easily see Myrmecides' indistinct     § 1. 1 Proposed by A. Sp., as the most probable indication  of what immediately preceded. * Turnebus, for aperuit.  s A. Sp., for ut. * Turnebus, for sit. 5 Aldus, 11, for  obscurius. 6 Victorius, for in posterioris. 7 Turnebus,  for quid. 8 L. Sp., for uidere. ' Victorius, for et.  10 L. Sp. ; Myrmetidis Aldus ; for yrmeci dum.   267     VARRO     ebore oculi videant, extrinsecus admovent nigras  setas.   2. Cum haec amminicula addas ad eruendum  voluntatem impositoris, tamen latent multa. Quod  si poetice (quae) 1 in carminibus servant 2 multa prisca  quae essent,sic etiam cur essent posuisset^yecundius 4  poemata ferrent fructum ; sed ut in soluta oratione  sic in poematis verba (non) 5 omnia quae habent 8  ervfxa possunt dici, neque multa ab eo, quern non  erunt in lucubratione litterae prosecutae, multum  licet legeret. AeliV hominis in primo in litteris  Latinis exercitati interpretationem Carminum Salio-  rum videbis et exili littera expedita(m) 8 et praeterita  obscura 9 multa.   3. Nec mirum, cum non modo Epemenides 1  (s)opor(e) 2 post annos L experrectus a multis non  cognoscatur, sed etiam Teucer Livii post XV annos  ab suis qui sit ignoretur. At 3 hoc quid ad verborum  poeticorum aetatem ? Quorum si Pompili regnum  fons in Carminibus Saliorum neque ea ab superioribus   § 2. 1 Added by L. Sp. 2 Victorius, for servabit.  3 Victorius, for posuissent. 4 Laetns, for secundius.  6 Added by line. 6 For haberent. 7 H, B, Ed. Veneta,  for helii. 8 Laetus, for expedita. 9 For praeteritam  obscuram.   §3. 1 Aug., icith B, for Epamenidis. 2 GS., for opos.  3 Victorius, for ad.     § 1. ° Cf. ix. 108 ; his carvings were so tiny that the  detail in the white ivory could be seen only against a black  background.   §3. ° A Cretan poet and prophet, reputed to have cleansed  Athens of a plague in 596 b.c According to one story, in his  boyhood he went into a cave to escape the noonday sun, and  fell into a sleep that lasted fifty-seven years. When he awoke,   268     OX THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 1-3     handiwork in ivory, men put black hairs behind the  objects.   2. Even though you employ these tools to unearth  the intent of him who applied the word, much remains  hidden. But if the art of poesy, which has in the  verses preserved many words that are early, had in  the same fashion also set down why and how they  came to be, the poems would bear fruit in more pro-  lific measure ; unfortunately, in poems as in prose,  not all the words can be assigned to their primitive  radicals, and there are many which cannot be so  assigned by him whom learning does not attend with  favour in his nocturnal studies, though he read pro-  digiously. In the interpretation of the Hymns of the  Saltans, which was made by Aelius, an outstanding  scholar in Latin literature, you will see that the inter-  pretation is greatly furthered by attention to a single  poor letter, and that much is obscured if such a letter  is passed by.   3. Nor is this astonishing : for not only were there  many who failed to recognize Epimenides ° when he  awoke from sleep after fifty years, but even Teucer's  own family, in the play of Livius Andronicus, 6 do not  know who he is after his absence of fifteen years.  But what has this to do with the age of poetic words ?  If the reign of Numa Pompilius c is the source of those  in the Hymns of the Saltans and those words were not  received from earlier hymn-makers, they are none the   everything was changed ; his younger brother had become an  old man. * Livius Andronicus, T rag. Rom. Frag., page 7  Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 14-15 Warmington. Teucer, son of  Telamon king of Salamis, was absent from home during  the Trojan War, and again during his exile after his return  from that war. e Second king of Rome, founder of the  Salian priesthood.   269     VARRO     accepta, tamen habent DCC annos. Quare cur  scriptoris industriam reprehendas qui herois tritavum,  atavum non potuerit reperire, cum ipse tui tritavi  matrem dicere non possis ? Quod intervallum multo  tanto propius nos, quam hinc ad initium Saliorum,  quo Romanorum prima verba poetica dicunt Latina.   4. Igitur de originibus verborum qui multa dix-  erit commode, potius boni consulendum, quam qui  aliquid nequierit reprehendendum, praesertim quom  dicat etymologice 1 non omnium verborum posse dici  causa 2 natura in caelo, ab  auspiciis in terra, a similitudine sub terra. In caelo  te(m)plum dicitur, ut in .Hecuba :   O magna templa caelitum, commixta stellis splendidis.   In terra, ut in Periboea :   Scrupea saxea Ba(c)chi  Templa prope aggreditur.   Sub terra, ut in Andromacha :   Acherusia templa alta Orci, salvete, infera.   7. Quaqua 1 initi erat 2 oculi, a tuendo  primo templum dictum : quocirca caelum qua attui-  mur dictum templum ; sic :   Contremuit templum magnum Iovis altitonantis,   2 Sciop., for excidit.   § 6. 1 Groth, with V, p, for auspicendo. 2 Added by  L. Sp.   % 7. 1 Aug., for quaquia. 2 Sciop., for initium erat.     § 6. ° Said of Romulus, by Ennius, Ann. 65-66 Vahlen 2 ;  R.O.L. i. 22-23 Warmington ; quoted without templa by  Ovid, Met. xiv. 814 and Fast. ii. 487. » Properly a  ' limited space,' for divination or otherwise ; from the root  tern- 'cut.' c Page 18 Regell. d That is, likeness to a  templum in the sky or on the earth. ' Ennius, Trag.  Rom. Frag. 163 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. i. 292-293 Warmington.   272     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 5-7   that if any word lies outside this fourfold division, I  shall still include it in the account.   6. I shall begin from this :   One there shall be, whom thou shalt raise up to sky's  azure temples."   Templum 6 ' temple ' is used in three ways, of nature,  of taking the auspices, 6 from likeness d : of nature, in  the sky ; of taking the auspices, on the earth ; from  likeness, under the earth. In the sky, templum is  used as in the Hecuba e :   O great temples of the gods, united with the shining  stars.   On the earth, as in the Periboea f :   To Bacchus' temples aloft   On sharp jagged rocks it draws near.   Under the earth, as in the Andromacha :   Be greeted, great temples of Orcus,  By Acheron's waters, in Hades.   7. Whatever place the eyes had iniuiti ' gazed  on,' was originally called a templum ' temple,' from  tueri ' to gaze ' ; therefore the sky, where we  attuimur ' gaze at ' it, got the name templum, as in  this ° :   Trembled the mighty temple of Jove who thunders  in heaven,   ' Pacuvius, Tray. Rom. Frag. 310 Ribbeck*; R.O.L. ii. 278-  279 Warmington ; anapaestic; said of a Bacchic rout.  ' Ennius, Trag. Rom. Frag. 70-71 Ribbeck*; R.O.L. i. 254-  255 Warmington ; anapaestic ; quoted more fully by Cicero,  Tusc. Disp. i. 21. 48.   §7. "Ennius, Ann. 541 Vahlen*; R.O.L. i. 450-451  Warmington.   vol. i T 273     VARRO     id est, ut ait Naevius,   HemispAaerium 3 ubi conca*  Caerulo 6 septum stat.   Eius templi partes quattuor dicuntur, sinistra ab  oriente, dextra ab occasu, antica ad meridiem, postica  ad septemtrionem.   8. In terris dictum templum locus augurii aut  auspicii causa quibusdam conceptis verbis finitus.  Concipitur verbis non isdem 1 usque quaque ; in  Arce sic :   Tem tescaque 2 me ita sunto, quoad ego- ea rite 3  lingua 4 nuncupavero.   Olla t'er(a) 6 arbos quirquir est, quam me sentio  dixisse, templum tescumque me esto 6 in sinistrum.   Olla ver(&} 7 arbos quirquir est, quam 6 me sentio  dixisse, te(m)plum tescumque me esto 6 (in) 9 dextrum.   Inter ea conregione conspicione cortumione, utique  ea (rit)e dixisse me 10 sensi.   9. In hoc templo faciundo arbores constitui fines  apparet et intra eas regiones qua oculi conspiciant, id   3 Turnebns, B, for hiemisferium. 4 Mue., for conca.  6 For cherulo.   §8. 1 Mue., for hisdem. 2 Turnebus,for item testaque.  3 ea rite L. Sp., for eas te. 4 Victorius, p, for linquam.  6 Kent, for ullaber. 6 tescum Turnebus, -que me Fay, esto  Scaliger and Turnebns, for tectum quern festo. 7 Kent,  for ollaner. 6 Mue., for quod. . 9 Added by B, Laetus.  10 L. Sp., ; ea dixisse me Sciop. ; for ea erectissime.     b An uncertain fragment, not listed in the collections of the  fragments of Naevius. c Cf. p. 18 Regell.   § 8. Page 18 Regell. 6 Text and translation both  very problematic. I take me as dative (cf Fest. 160. 2) ;  regard quirquir as equal to quisquis, either by manuscript  corruption or with rhotacism in the phrase quisquis est,   274     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 7-9     that is, as Naevius says, 6   Where land's semicircle lies,  Fenced by the azure vault.   Of this temple c the four quarters are named thus :  the left quarter, to the east ; the right quarter, to  the west ; the front quarter, to the south ; the back  quarter, to the north.   8. On the earth, templum is the name given to a  place set aside and limited by certain formulaic  words for the purpose of augury a or the taking of the  auspices. The words of the ceremony are not the  same everywhere ; on the Citadel, they are as  follows 6 :   Temples and wild lands be mine in this manner, up to  where I have named them with my tongue in proper  fashion.   Of whatever kind that truthful' tree is, which I con-  sider that I have mentioned, temple and wild land be  mine to that point on the left.   Of whatever kind that truthful tree is, which I consider  that I have mentioned, temple and wild land be mine to  that point on the right.   Between these points, temples and wild lands be mine  for direction, for viewing, and for interpreting, and just  as I have felt assured that I have mentioned them in  proper fashion.   9. In making this temple, it is evident that the  trees are set as boundaries, and that within them the  regions are set where the eyes are to view, that is we   becoming quisquir est (so Fay, Amur. Journ. Phil. xxxv.  253) ; take as datives the three words in -one in the last  sentence (meanings, vii. 9), supplying after them templa  tescaque me sunto. For meaning of tescum, cf. vii. 10-11.  ' That is, lending itself to true predictions through the  auspices.   275     VARRO     est tueamur, a quo templum dictum, et contemplare,  ut apud Ennium in Medea :   Contempla et templum Cereris ad laevam aspice.  Contempla et conspicare id(em) 1 esse apparet, ideo  dicere turn, cum te(m)plum 2 facit, augurem con-  spicione, qua oculorum conspectum fmiat. Quod  cum dicunt conspicionem, addunt cortumionem,  dicitur a cordis visu : cor enim cortumionis origo.   10. Quod addit templa ut si(n)t 1 tesca, 2 aiunt  sancta esse qui glossas scripserunt. Id est falsum :  nam Curia Hostilia templum est et sanctum non est ;  sed hoc ut putarent aedem sacram esse templum,  . 14   Quare haec quo(d) tesca dixit, non erravit, neque  ideo quod sancta, sed quod ubi mysteria fiunt at-  tuentur, 15 tuesca dicta.   12. Tueri duo significat, unum ab aspectu ut dixi,  unde est Ennii 1 illud :   Tueor te, senex ? Pro Iupiter !   § 11. 1 Laetus, for ut. 2 Aldus, for philocto etatem.   3 Aldus, for appones (cf. adportas Festus, 356 a 26 31.).   4 Added by Mue. 6 Aug., with B, for prest olitor a rarat.  6 For teues. 7 Aldus, for castris. 8 For uolgania.  9 Added by Ribbeck. 10 Aug., with B, for lumine.   11 Vertranius {from Cicero, Tusc. ii. 10. .23), for ignes.   12 Aldus, for clauet. 13 Added by Victorius (from Cicero,  I.e.). 14 Turnebus (from Cicero, I.e.), for diuis. 15 Mue..  for aut tuentur.   § 12. 1 Sciop., for enim.     § 11. » Trag. Bom. Frag. 554 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 514-  515 Warmington. 6 Trag. Bom. Frag. 525-534 Ribbeck 3 ;  278     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 11-12     11. For there is the following in Accius, in the  Philoctetes of Lemnos a :   What man are thou, who dost advance  To places desert, places waste ?   What sort of places these are, he indicates when he  says 6 :   Around you you have the Lemnian shores,  Apart from the world, and the high-seated shrines  Of Cabirian Gods, and the mysteries which  Of old were expressed with sacrifice pure.   Then :   You see now the temples of Vulcan, close by  Those very same hills, upon which he is said  To have fallen when thrown from the sky's lofty sill. e   And :   The wood here you see with the smoke gushing forth,  Whence the fire — so they say — was secretly brought  To mankind.*   Therefore he made no mistake in calling these lands  tesca, and yet he did not do so because they were con-  secrated ; but because men attuentur ' gaze at ' places  where mysteries take place, they were called tuesca. 6   12. Tueri has two meanings, one of ' seeing ' as I  have said, whence that verse of Ennius ° :   I really see thee, sire? Oh Jupiter !   R.O.L. ii. 506-507 Warmington ; anapaestic. e He fell on  Lemnos, as related in Iliad, i. 590-594. d This last portion  is quoted by Cicero, Tusc. Disp. ii. 10. 23, who continues  with a summary of the story of Prometheus. * Varro  means that tesca is for tuesca, waste or wild land where men  may look at (attueri) celebrations of religious mysteries : an  incorrect etymology.   § 12. ° Trag. Rom. Frag. 335 Ribbeck 8 ; R.O.L. i. 290-  291 Warmington.   279     VARRO     Et :   Quis pater aut cognatus volet vos 2 contra tueri ?   Alterum a curando ac tutela, ut cum dicimus " vellet 3  tueri villain," a quo etiam quidam dicunt ilium qui  curat aedes sacras cedituum, non aeditamuiw ; sed  tamen hoc ipsum ab eadem est profectum origine,  quod quern volumus domum curare dicimus " tu domi  videbis," ut Plautus cum ait :   Intus para, cura, vide. Quod opus(t> 5 flat.   Sic dicta vestis(pi)ca,* quae vestem spiceret, id est  videret vestem ac tueretur. Quare a tuendo et  templa et tesca dicta cum discrimine eo quod dixi.  13. Etiam indidem illud EnmV 1 :   Extemplo acceptam 2 me necato 3 et filiam. 4  Extemplo enim est continuo, quod omne te(m)plum  esse debet conti(nu)o septum nec plus unum in-  troitum habere.   2 Aug., with B, for nos. 3 Ellis, for bell . . et {vacant  space for two letters). 4 For aeditomum. 6 From  Plautus, Men. 352, for quid opus. 6 Aldus, for vestisca.   § 13. 1 Scaliger, for enim. 2 Voss, for acceptum.   3 Scaliger, for negato. 4 Bothe,for filium / cf. Euripides,  Hecuba, 391.     » Ann. 463 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 172-173 Warmington.  * Aeditumus is original, with the second part of uncertain  origin. d Varro compares the two meanings of tueri  with the two meanings of videre, ' to see ' and ' to see after,  care for.' * Men. 352.   280     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 12-13     And 6 :   Who will now wish, though father or kinsman, to look  on your faces ?   The other meaning is of ' caring for ' and tutela  ' guardianship,' as when we say " I wish he were will-  ing tueri ' to care for ' the farmhouse," from which  some indeed say that the man who attends to con-  secrated buildings is an aedituus and not an aedi-  tumus c ; but still this other form itself proceeded from  the same source, because when we want some one to  take care of the house we say " You will see to d  matters at home," as Plautus does when he says * :   Inside prepare, take pains, see to 't ;  Let that be done, that's needed.   In this way the vestispica ' wardrobe maid ' was named,  who was spicere ' to see ' the vestis ' clothing,' that is,  was to see to the clothing and tueri 1 guard ' it. There-  fore, both temples and tesca ' wastes ' were named  from tueri, with that difference of meaning which I  have mentioned.   13. Moreover, from the same source comes the  word in Ennius a :   Extemplo take me, kill me, kill my daughter too.   For extemplo 6 ' on the spot ' is continuo ' without in-  terval,' because every templum ought to be fenced  in uninterruptedly and have not more than one  entrance.   § 13. a Trag. Rom. Frag. 355 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. i. 380-  381 Warmington; perhaps spoken by the captive Hecuba,  who gave her name to a tragedy by Ennius. 6 Templum  denotes a limited portion of time as well as of space ; in  extemplo the application is to time.   281     VARRO   14. Quod est apud Accium :   Pervade polum, splendida mundi  Sidera, bigis, (bis) 1 continues )  Se(x ex)pkti $ign\s,*   polus Graecum, id significat circum caeli : quare quod  est pervade polum valet 3 vade irepl ttoXov. Signa  dicuntur eadem et sidera. Signa quod aliquid  significent, ut libra aequinoctium ; sidera, quae  (qua)si 4 insidunt atque ita significant aliquid in terris  perurendo aliave 5 qua re : ut signum candens in  pecore.   15. Quod est :   Terrarum anfracta revisam, 1   anfractum est flexum, ab origine duplici dictum, ab  ambitu et frangendo : ab eo leges iubent in directo  pedum VIII esse (viam), 2 in anfracto XVI, id est in  flexu.   16. Ennius :   Ut tibi   Titanis Trivia dederit stirpem liberum.  Titanis Trivia Diana est, ab eo dicta Trivia, quod in   § 14. 1 Added by Kent ; cf. GS., note. 2 Continui se  cepit spoliis F ; continuis sex apti signis Scaliger ; picti  Ribbeck, exceptis Fay, expicti Kent. 3 Victoritis, for  valde. 4 quae quasi GS. ; quod quasi L. Sp. ; for quae  si. 5 A. Sp., for aliudue.   § 15. 1 Aug., with B, for anfractare visum. 2 Added  by GS ; following Sciop., who added viam after iubent.     § 14. ° Trag. Rom. Frag. 678-680 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L.  ii. 572-573 Warmington ; anapaestic. The passage is appar-  ently addressed to Phaethon, but possibly to the Sun-God or  to the Moon-God. The twelve signs of the zodiac are con-  ceived as taken by the Universe and worn by it as a girdle.  6 Properly 1 white-hot ' ; the Roman poets often speak of   282     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 14-16     14. As for what is in Accius,°   With thy team do thou go through the sky, through  the bright   Constellations aloft, which the universe holds,  Adorned with its twice six continuous signs,   the word polus ' sky ' is Greek, it means the circle  of the sky : therefore the expression pervade polum  ' traverse the sky ' means ' go around the -oAos.'  Signa 1 signs of the zodiac ' means the same as sidera  ' constellations.' Signa are so called because they  significant ' indicate ' something, as the Balance marks  the equinox ; those are sidera which so to speak in-  sidunt ' settle down ' and thus indicate something on  earth by burning or otherwise : as for example a  signum candens ' scorching sign,' 6 in the matter of  the flocks.   15. In the phrase   Again of the land I shall see the anfracta,"   anfractum means ' bent or curved,' being formed from  a double source, from ambitus ' circuit ' and frangere  ' to break.' Concerning this the laws 6 bid that a road  shall be eight feet wide where it is straight, and six-  teen at an anfractum, that is, at a curve.   16. Ennius says ° :   As surely as to thee  Titan's daughter Trivia shall grant a line of sons.   The Trivian Titaness is Diana, called Trivia from the   the flocks as being burned by the heat of Canicula ' the  Dog-star,' which is visible while the sun is in the sign of Leo.   § 15. • Accius, Trag. Rom. Frag. 336 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L.  ii. 440-141 Warmington. 6 Cf. XII Tabulae, page 138  Schoell.   § 16. ■ Trag. Rom. Frag. 362 Ribbeck*; R.O.L. i. 260-  261 Warmington.   283     VARRO   trivio ponitur fere in oppidis Graecis, vel quod luna  dicitur esse, quae in caelo tribus viis movetur, in  altitudinem et latitudinem et longitudinem. Titanis  dicta, quod earn genuit, ut ai(t) 1 Plautus, Lato ; ea,  ut scribit Manilius,   Est Coe(o> creata 2 Titano.   Ut idem scribit :   Latona pari(e)t 3 casta complexu Iovis  Deliadas 4 geminos,   id est Apollinem et Dianam. Dii, quod Titanis  aX6si 1 :   /iellespontum et claustra.   (Claustra), 2 quod Xerxes 3 quondam eum locum   clausit : nam, ut Ennius ait,   Isque Hellespont*) pontem contendit in alto.   Nisi potius ab eo quod Asia et Europa ibi cow(c)ludi-   t(ur> 4 mare ; inter angustias facit Propontidis fauces.   §19. 1 Ribbeck, for quid. 2 Ribbeck ; aequam pugnam  Mue. ; aequom palam Bothe ; for quam pudam. 3 Laetus,  for his locis.   § 20. 1 For piple. ide ( = id est) espiades, with h above the  e of esp-.   § 21. 1 Mue. ; Cassius Sciop. ; for quasi. 2 Added by  Scaliger. 3 Bentinus, for exerses. 4 A. Sp. ; con-  clude Ijaetus ; for colludit.     c Trag. Rom. Frag. 349 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. i. 272-273  Warmington. d At the trial of Orestes for the murder  of his mother.   §20. "Ennius, Ann. 1 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 2-3 War-  mington ; opening the poem. * As home of the gods.  c That is, not merely the Greeks. a Pipleides or Pim-   288     OX THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 19-21     In the verse of Ennius, c   Since the Areopagites have cast an equal vote,*   Areopagitae ' Areopagites ' is from Areopagus ; this is  a place at Athens.   20. Muses, ye who with dancing feet beat mighty  Olympus."   Olympus is the name which the Greeks give to the  sky, b and all peoples c give to a mountain in Mace-  donia ; it is from the latter, I am inclined to think,  that the Muses are spoken of as the Olympiads : for  they are called in the same way from other places on  earth the Libethrids, the Pipleids, d the Thespiads,  the Heliconids. e   21. In this phrase of Cassius,   The Hellespont and its barriers,   claustra ' barriers ' is used because once on a time  Xerxes clausit ' closed ' the place by barriers b : for,  as Ennius says, c   He, and none other, on Hellespont deep did fasten  a bridgeway.   Unless it is said rather from the fact that at this place  the sea concluditur ' is hemmed in ' by Asia and Europe ;  in the narrows it forms the entrance to the Propontis.   pleides. e Respectively from Libethra, a fountain sacred  to the Muses, near Libethmm and Magnesia, in Mace-  donia ; Pimpla, a place and fountain in Pieria, in Mace-  donia ; Thespiae, a town of Boeotia at the foot of Helicon ;  and Helicon, a mountain-range in Boeotia.   §21. 8 Trag. Rom. Frag. inc. inc. 106 Ribbeck* ; with  the text as here emended, it belongs to Cassius. * Cf.  Herodotus, vii. 33-36. e Ann. 378 Vahlen*; R.O.L. i.  136-137 Warming-ton.   vol. I U 289     VARRO     22. Pacui :   Li 2 nos esse   (Camenas). 2   Ca(s)menarum 3 priscum vocabulum ita natum ac  scriptum est alibi ; Carmenae ad eadem origine sunt  declinatae. In multis verbis in quo 4 antiqui dicebant  S, postea dicunt R, ut in Carmine Saliorum sunt haec :   10 This statement is in the margin of F, opposite a blank space  which amounts to one and one half pages.   § 24. 1 Added by L. Sp. and by Bergk. 2 Mue., for  infulas hostiis. 3 For sepulchrum. 4 L. Sp. and Rib-  beck, for lanas. 6 L. Sp. and Ribbeck, for frondentis  comas.   § 25. 1 GS. (cornutam umbram L. Sp. ; cornutarum  umbram Victor hi s ; iacit Scaliger), for cornua taurum  umbram iaci.   § 26. 1 Scaliger, for curuamus ac (which includes the last  word of § 25). 2 Additions by Jordan. 3 Laetus, for  camenarum. 4 Later codd.,for quod F.     § 24. a Trag. Rom. Frag. inc. inc. 220-221 Ribbeck 3 .   § 25. ° Trag. Rom. Frag. inc. inc. 222 Ribbeck 3 .  6 Cornu and curvus are not connected etymologically.   § 26. a Ennius, Ann. 2 Vahlen 2 . 6 Perhaps of Etruscan  origin ; at any rate, not connected with canere ' to sing.'  c A spelling caused by association with carmen and Car-   292     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 23-26     HERE OXE LEAF IS LACKING IX THE MODEL COPY   III. 2 k ... it is clear that agrestes ' rural '  sacrificial victims were so called from ager ' field-  land ' ; that infulatae ' filleted ' victims were so called,  because the head-adornments of wool which are put  on them, are infulae ' fillets ' : therefore then, with  reference to the carrying of leafy branches and flowers  to the burial-place, he added a :   Decked not with wool, but with a hair-like shock  of leaves.   25. The horned shadow lures the bull to fight.   It is clear that cornuta ' horned ' is said from cormia  ' horns ' ; cornua is said from curvor ' curvature,'  because most horns are curva ' curved.' 6   26. Learn that we, the Camenae, are those whom   they tell of as Muses.   Casmenae b is the early form of the name, when it  originated, and it is so written in other places ; the  name Carmenae c is derived from the same origin. In  many words, at the point where the ancients said S,  the later pronunciation is R, d as the following in the  Hymn of the Saltans e :   menta ; though no etymological connexion with them exists.  d The well-known phenomenon of rhotacism, the change of  intervocalic S to R. • Fragy. 2-3, pp. 332-335 Mauren-  brecher ; page 1 Morel. It is hazardous in the extreme to  attempt to restore and interpret the text of the Hymn. These  sentences seem to invoke Mars not as God of War, but in his  old Italic capacity of God of Agriculture, spoken of in several  functions. It was the view of L. Spengel, approved by A.  Spengel, that this verbatim text of the Hymn was an inter-  polation, and that foedesum foederum of § 27 immediately  followed in Carmine Saliorum sunt haec.   293     VARRO     Cozevi o6orieso. Omnia vero ad Patulc(ium)   co»imisse.  Ianeus iam es, duonus Cerus es, du(o)nus Ianus.  Ven(i)es po(tissimu)m melios eum recum . . . 5   IIIC SPATIUM X LINEARUM RELICTUM ERAT IN  EXEMPLARI 6   27. . . . f(o)edesum foederum, 1 plusima plu-  rima, meliosem meliorem, asenam arenam, ianitos  ianitor. Quare e 2 Casmena Carmena,  3 Carmena 4  R extrito Camena factum. Ab eadem voce canite,  pro quo in Saliari versu scriptum est cante, hoc  versu :   Divum em pa 5 cante, divum deo supplicate. 6   28. In Carmine Priami 1 quod est :  Veteres Casmenas cascam rem volo profarier, 2   5 F has : Cozeulodori eso. Omnia uero adpatula coemisse.  ian cusianes duonus ceruses, dunus ianusue uet pom melios  eum recum. This is here emended as follows : Cozevi Havet ;  oborieso Kent; Patulcium Kent, after Bergk ; commissei  Kent; Ianeus GS., cf Festus, 103. 11 31.; iam es Kent;  duonus Cerus es, duonus Ianus Bergk; ueniet V, venies  Kent ; potissimum, cf Festus, 205 all 31. 6 At this point,  the remainder of the line and the next four lines are vacant in  F, with traces of writing in the last empty line, which must  have given the data for this statement, found in II and a.   §27. 1 For faederum. 2 A. Sp. ; ex Ursinus ; for e  (=est). 3 Added by A. Sp. * A. Sp., for carmina  carmen. 5 Bergk, for empta. 6 Grotefend, for sup-  plicante.   § 28. 1 At this point, the rest of the page (three and one-  third lines) remains vacant in F, but there is no gap in the  text. 2 Scaliger,for profari et.   ' Cozevi, voc. of Consivius (epithet of Janus, in Macrobius,  Sat. i. 9. 15), with NS developing to NTS as in Umbrian,  the N not written before the consonants (cf. Latin cosol for  consul), and z having the value of ts, as in the Umbrian   294     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 2&-28     O Planter God/ arise. Everything indeed have I  committed unto (thee as) the Opener." Now art  thou the Doorkeeper, thou art the Good Creator,  the Good God of Beginnings. Thou'lt come especi-  ally, thou the superior of these kings * . . .   HERE A SPACE OF TEX LIXES WAS LEFT VACANT IX  THE MODEL COPY *   27. . . . (In the Hymn of the Saltans are found  such old forms as) foedesum for foederum ' of treaties,'  plusima for plurima ' most,' meliosem for meliorem  ' better,' asenam for arenam ' sand,' ianitos for ianitor °  ' doorkeeper.' Therefore from Casmena came Car-  viena, and from Carmena, with loss of the R, came  Camena. b From the same radical came canite ' sing  ye,' for which in a Salian verse c is written cante, and  this is the verse :   Sing ye to the Father d of the Gods, entreat the God  of Gods.*   28. In The Song of Priam there is the following ° :  I wish the ancient Muses to tell a story old.   alphabet. 9 Epithet of Janus, in Macrobius, Sat. i. 9. 15.  * The god is addressed as more powerful than all earthly  lords, whether kings or (perhaps) priests. The gen. plural  eum, equal to eorum. is elsewhere attested. ' The vacant  lines in the model copy may have represented more of the  text of the Hymn, too illegible to copy.   § 27. a Fragg. 4, 7, 20, 26, 27, pages 335, 339, 347, 349  Maurenbrecher. Ianitos is an incorrect form, since the word  had an original R ; but all the other words have R from  earlier S. » Cf. § 26, note 6. e Frag. 1, page 331  Maurenbrecher ; page 1 Morel. * Here em pa stands for  in patrem ; so Th. Bergk, Zts.f. Altertumswiss. xiv. 138 =  Kleine Philol. Schriften, i. 505, relying on Festus, 205 all M.,  pa pro parte (read patre) et po pro potissimum positum est in  Saliari Carmine. * Equal to ' father of the gods.'   § 28. a Frag. Poet. Lat., page 29 Morel.   295     VARRO   primum cascum significat vetus ; secundo eius origo  Safeina, quae usque radices in Oscam linguam egit.  Cascum vetus esse significat Ennius quod ait :   Quam Prisci casci populi tenuere 3 Latini.  Eo magis Manilius quod ait :   Cascum duxisse cascam non mirabile est,  Quoniam cariosas 4 conficiebat nuptias.   Item ostendit Papini epigrammation, quod in adole-  scentem fecerat Cascam :   Ridiculum est, cum te Cascam tua dicit arnica, 5  Fili(a> 6 Potoni, sesquisenex' puerum.   Die tu illam 8 pusam : sic net " mutua 9 muli " :  Nam vere pusns tu, tua arnica senex.   29. Idem ostendit quod oppidum vocatur Casinum  (hoc enim ab Sabinis orti Samnites tenuerunt) et 1  nostri etiam nunc Forum Vetus appellant. Item  significat 2 in Atellanis aliquot Pappum, senem quod  Osci 3 casnar appellant.   3 Columna, for genuere. 4 L. Sp. and Lachmann, for  carioras. 6 Laetus, B, for amici. 6 Popma, for fili.  7 Turnebus, for potonis es qui senex. 8 Turnebus, for dicit  pusum puellam. 9 Pantagatkus, for mutuam.   § 29. 1 L. Sp. deleted nunc after et. 2 For significant.  3 For ostii.     * The native Latin word was canus 1 grey-haired,' from  casnos, with the same root as in cascus, but a different suffix.  e Sabine was not a dialect of Oscan, but stood on an equal  footing with it. d Ann. 24 Vahlen 2 ; B.O.L. i. 12-13  Warmington. ' Frag. Poet. Lat., page 52 Morel.  1 Frag. Poet. Lat., page 42 Morel ; the poet's name is  doubtful : Priscian, ii. 90. 2 K., calls him Pomponius, and  Bergk, Opusc. i. 88, proposes Pompilius. 9 Casca was  a male cognomen in the Servilian gens only ; for this reason  Potonius is rather to be taken as a jesting family name of  the arnica. h Pusum puellam (see crit. note) was origin-   296     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 28-29   First, cascum means ' old ' ; secondly, it has its origin  from the Sabine language, 6 which ran its roots back  into Oscan. c That cascum is ' old,' is indicated by the  phrase of Ennius a :   Land that the Early Latins then held, the long-ago  peoples.   It is even better shown in Manilius's utterance e :   That Whitehead married Oldie is surely no surprise :  The marriage, when he made it, was aged and decayed.   It is shown likewise in the epigram of Papinius/ which  he made with reference to the youth Casca :   Funny it is, when your mistress tenderly calls you her  " Casca " 3 :   Daughter of Rummy she, old and a half — you a boy.  Call her your " laddie " A ; for thus there will be the   mule's trade of favours ' :  You're but a lad, to be sure ; Oldie's the name for   your girl.   29. The same is shown by the fact that there is a  town named Casinum, a which was inhabited by the  Samnites, who originated from the Sabines, 6 and we  Romans even now call it Old Market. Likewise in  several Atellan farces c the word denotes Pappus, an  old man's character, because the Oscans call an old  man casnar.   ally a marginal gloss to pusam, since pusus had no normal  feminine form ; cf. French la garqonne. But the gloss  crept into the text. ' Proverbial phrase, equal to ' tit for  tat,' or ' an eye for an eye.'   § 29. A town of southeastern Latium, on the borders of  Samnium. b The Samnites and the Sabines were separate  peoples, but their names are etymologically related, and so  presumably were the two peoples. e Com. Rom. Frag,  inc. nom. vii. p. 334 Ribbeck 3 ; these farces were named  from Atella, an Oscan town in Campania a few miles north  of Naples.   297     VARRO   30. Apud Lucilium :   Quid tibi ego ambages Ambiv(i) 1 scribere coner ?   Profectum a verbo ambe, quod inest in ambitu et  ambitioso.   31. Apud Valerium Soranura :   Vetus adagio est, O Publi 1 Scipio,  quod verbum usque eo evanuit, ut Graecum pro eo  positum magis sit apertum : nam id(em) est 2 quod  Trapoi/xiav vocant Graeci, ut est :   Auribus lupum teneo ;  Canis caninam non est.   Adagio est littera commutata a(m)bagio, 3 dicta ab  eo quod ambit orationem, neque in aliqua una re  consistit sola. (Amb)agio 4 dicta ut a(m)6ustum, 5  quo(d) 6 circum ustum est, ut ambegna 7 bos apud  augures, quam circum aliae hostiae constituuntur.   32. Cum tria sint coniuncta in origine verborum  quae sint animadvertenda, a quo sit impositum et in  quo et quid, saepe non minus de tertio quam de  primo dubitatur, ut in hoc, utrum primum una canis   § 30. 1 Laetus, for ambiu.   § 31. 1 Abbreviated to P in F. 2 idem est Mve. ; idem  early edd., with later codd. ; for id est F. 3 Tvrnebus,  for abagio. 4 L. Sp. ; adagio Laetus ; for agio. 8 Aug.,  for adustum. 6 Laetus, M, for quo. 7 Tvrnebus, with  Festus, 4. 16 M., for ambiegna.     § 30. ° 1281 Marx. 6 If the text is correctly restored,  this is L. Ambivius Turpio, famous stage director and actor  of Caecilius Statius and of Terence ; Lucilius puns on his  name. c Equal to Greek a^i, and found in Latin only  as a prefix.   § 31. "A little-known writer of the second century b.c. ;  Frag. Poet, Lat., page 40 Morel. b Adagio, gen. -onis ; not   298     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 30-32     30. In Lucilius ° :   Why should I try to tell to you Roundway's * round-  about speeches ?   The word ambages ' circumlocutions ' comes from the  word ambe c ' round about,' which is present in ambitus  ' circuit ' and in ambitiosus ' going around (for votes),  ambitious.'   31. In Valerius of Sora a is the following :   It is an old adagio, 1 * Publius Scipio.   This word has gone out of use to such a,point that the  Greek word put for it is more easily understood : for  it is the same as that which the Greeks call Trapoifita  ' proverb,' as for example :   I'm holding a wolf by the ears, c  Dog doesn't eat dog-flesh.   Now adagio d is only ambagio with a letter changed,  which is said because it ambit ' goes around ' the dis-  course and does not stop at some one thing only."  Ambagio resembles ambustum, which is ' burnt around,'  and an ambegna cow f in the augural speech, 9 which is  a cow around which other victims are arranged.   32. Whereas there are three things combined  which must be observed in the origin of words, namely  from what the word is applied, and to what, and what  it is, often there is doubt about the third no less than  about the first, as in this case, whether the word  for dog in the singular was at first canis or canes :   the more usual adagium. e Terence, Phor. 506, etc.  4 Really from ad ' thereto ' and the root of aio 'I say.'  e That is, it applies also to other things than that which it  specifically mentions. ' ' Having a lamb {agna) on each  side.' 8 Page 17 Regell.   299     VARRO   aut canes si^ 1 appellata : dicta enim apud veteres una  canes. Itaque Ennius scribit :   Tantidem quasi feta 2 canes sine dentibus latrat.   Lucilius :   Nequam et magnus homo, laniorum immams 3 canes ut.   Impositio unius debuit esse canis, plurium canes ; sed  neque Ennius consuetudinem illam sequens repre-  hendendus, nec is qui nunc dicit :   Canis canina(m> 4 non est.   Sed canes quod latratu 5 signum dant, ut signa canunt,  canes appellatae, et quod ea voce indicant noctu quae  latent, latratus appellatus.   33. Sic dictum a quibusdam ut una canes, una  trabes :   (Trabes) 1 remis rostrata per altum.   Ennius :   Utinam ne in nemore Pelio 2 securibiis  Caesa accidisset abiegna ad terram trabes,   cuius verbi singularis casus rect«s 3 correptus 4 ac facta  trabs.   § 32. 1 For sic. 2 For faeta. 3 Aug., with B, for  immanes. 4 Laetus, for canina. 6 M, V,p, Laetus,for  latratus.   § 33. 1 Added by Colnmnn. 2 For polio. 3 Sciop.,  for recte. 4 Laetus, for correctus.     §32. ° Ann. 528 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 432-433 Warming-  ton. 6 Her bark is worse than her bite, as a pregnant  bitch was proverbially harmless ; cf. Plautus, Most. 852,  Tarn placidast {ilia canis) quam feta quaevis. e 1221   300     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 32-33   for in the older writers the expression is one canes.  Therefore Ennius writes the following, using canes a :   Barks just as loud as a pregnant bitch : but she's  toothless. 6   Lucilius also uses canes :   Worthless man and huge, like the monstrous dog  of the butchers.   When applied to one, the word should have been  cams, and when applied to several it should have been  canes ; but Ennius ought not to be blamed for follow-  ing the earlier custom, nor should he who now says :   Canis ' dog ' doesn't eat dog-flesh.   But because dogs by their barking give the signal, as  it were, canunt ' sound ' the signals, they are called  canes ; and because by this noise they make known  the things which latent ' are hidden ' in the night, their  barking is called latratus. d   33. As some have said canes in the singular, so  others have said trabes ' beam, ship ' in the singular :   The beaked trabes is driven by oars through the waters.   Ennius used trabes in the following 6 :   I would the trabes of the fir-tree ne'er had fall'n  To earth, in Pelion's forest, by the axes cut !   But now the nominative singular of this word has lost  a vowel and become trabs.   Marx. d Canis is not etymologically connected with  canere, nor tat rat us with latere.   §33. ° Ennius, Ann. 616 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 458-459  Warmington. * Medea Exul, Trag. Rom. Frag. 205-  206 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. i. 312-313 Warmington; that is,  " would that the ship Argo had never been built."   301     VARRO   34. In Medo :   Caelitum Camilla, expectata advenis : salve, Aospita.  Camilla(m) 1 qui glos(s)emata interpretati dixerunt  administram ; addi oportet, in his quae occultiora :  itaque dicitur nuptiis camillus 2 qui cumerum 3 fert, in  quo quid sit, in ministerio plerique extrinsecus  neim 1 :   Subulo quondam marinas propter astabat plagas. 2  Subulo dictus, quod ita dicunt tibicines Tusci : quo-  circa radices eius in Etr(ur)ia, non Latio quaerundae. 3   36. Versibus quo(s) 1 olim Fauni 2 vatesque canebant.   Fauni dei Latinorum, ita ut et Faunus et Fauna sit ;  hos versibus quos vocant Saturnios in silvestribus  locis traditum est solitos fari (futura, 3 a) 4 quo fando   § 34.. 1 Mue., for Camilla. 2 Turnebus, for scamillus.  3 Turnebus, for quicum merum. 4 Turnebus, for nectunc.  6 For casmillus.   § 35. 1 Laetus, for enim. 2 Mue., from Fest. 309 a 5  M., for aquas. 3 Victorius, for querunda e.   §36. 1 Aldus, for quo. 2 Laetus deleted et after Fauni,  following Cicero, Div. i. 50. 114, Brut. 18. 71, Orator, 51. 171.  3 Added by Mue., from Serv. Dan. in Georg. i. 11. 4 Added  by Aug.     §34. "Pacuvius, Trag. Rom. Frag. 232 Ribbeck 3 ;  R.O.L. ii. 256-257 Warmington. 6 Page 112 Funaioli.  c Probably certain belongings of the bride. d Identified  with Hermes, the messenger of the gods, according to Ma-  crobius, Sat. iii. 8. 6. ' More probably Etruscan than  Greek : there were Etruscans on Lemnos, not far from  Samothrace, which may explain the use of the similar word   302     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 34-36     34. In the Medus a :   Long awaited, Camilla of the gods, thou comest ;  guest, all hail !   A Camilla, according to those who have interpreted 6  difficult words, is a handmaid assistant ; one ought to  add, in matters of a more secret nature : therefore at  a marriage he is called a camillus who carries the box  the contents of which c are unknown to most of the  uninitiated persons who perform the service. From  this, the name Casmilus is given, in the Samothracian  mysteries, to a certain divine personage who attends  upon the Great Gods.  6 poematis cum scribam  ostendam.   37. Corpore Tartarino prognata Pallida virago.  Tartarino dictj^m) 1 a Tartaro. Plato in IIII de  fluminibus apud inferos quae sint in his unum Tar-  tarum appellat : quare Tartari origo Graeca. Paluda  a paludamentis. Haec insignia atque ornamenta  militaria : ideo ad bellum cum exit imperator ac  lictores mutarunt vestem et signa incinuerunt, palu-  datus dicitur proficisci ; quae propter quod con-  spiciuntur qui ea habent ac fiunt palam, paludamenta  dicta.   38. Plautus :   Epeum fumificum, qui legioni nostrae habet  Coctum cibum.   Epeum fumificum cocum, ab Epeo illo qui dicitur ad  Troiam fecisse Equum Troianum et Argivis cibum  curasse.   39. Apud Naevium :   Atque 1 prius pariet lucusta 2 Lucam bovem.   Luca bos elepAans ; cur ita sit dicta, duobus modis   5 Canal and L. Sp., for antiquos. 6 Added by L. Sp., cf.  vi. 52.   § 37. 1 Laetus, for dicta.   § 39. 1 For at quae. 2 For lucustam.   c This applies both to words and to music. d Page 213  Funaioli.   §37. "Ennius, Ann. 521 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 96-97  Warmington; referring to Discordia, an incarnation of chaos.  b Phaedo, 112-113; in Thrasyllus' numbering of Plato's  dialogues, the Phaedo was the fourth in the first tetralogy.  But in Plato's account, Tartarus is not a river of Hades, but  the abyss beneath, into which all the rivers of Hades empty.  c Of unknown etymology ; not from palam.     304.      ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 36-39     rates ' poets,' the old writers used to give this name to  poets from viere ' to plait ' c verses, as I shall show  when I write about poems. d   37. Born of a Tartarine body, the w arrior maiden   Paluda.   Tartarinum ' Tartarine ' is derived from Tartarus.  Plato in his Fourth Dialogue,* speaking of the rivers  which are in the world of the dead, gives Tartarus as  the name of one of them ; therefore the origin of  Tartarus is Greek. Paluda c is from paludamenta,  which are distinguishing garments and adornments  in the army ; therefore when the general goes forth  to war and the lictors have changed their garb and  have sounded the signals, he is said to set forth palu-  datus ' wearing the pahdamentum.' The reason why  these garments are called paludamenta is that those  who wear them are on account of them conspicuous  and are made palam ' plainly * visible.   38. Plautus has this a :   Epeus the maker of smoke, who for our army gets  The well-cooked food.   Epeus fumificus ' the smoke-maker ' was a cook,  named from that Epeus who is said to have made the  Trojan Horse at Troy and to have looked after the  food of the Greeks. 6   39. In Naevius is the verse a :   And sooner will a lobster give birth to a Luca bos.  Luca bos is an elephant ; why it is thus called, I have   § 38. Fab. inc. frag. 1 Ritschl. * Epeus is not else-  where said to have been a cook, though he is said to have  furnished the Atridae with their water supply.   § 39. « Frag. Poet. Jxit., page 28 Morel; R.O.L. ii. 72-73  Warmington.   vol. I x 305     VARRO     inveni scriptum. Nam et in Cornelii Commentario  erat ab Libycis Lucas, et in Vergilu 3 ab Lucanis  Lucas ; ab co quod nostri, cum maximam quadri-  pedem quam ipsi habercnt vocarent bovem et in  Lucanis PyrrAi bello primum vidissent apud hostis  elep^antos, id est 4 item quadripedes cornutas (nam  quos dentes multi dicunt sunt cornua), Lucanam  bovem quod putabant, Lucam bovem appellasse(nt). 5   40. Si ab Libya dictae essent Lucae, fortasse an  pantherae quoque et leones non Africae bestiae  dicerentur, sed Lucae ; neque ursi potius Lucani  quam Luci. Quare ego 1 arbitror potius Lucas ab  luce, quod longe relucebant propter inauratos regios  clupeos, quibus eorum turn ornatae erant turres.   41. Apud Ennium :   Orator sine pace redit regique refert rem.  Orator dictus ab oratione : qui enim verba 1 haberet  publice adversus eum quo legabatur, 2 ab oratione  orator dictus ; cum res maior erat (act)iom', 3 lege-   3 For uirgilius. 4 Aug. deleted non after est. 5 O, H,  Mue., for appellasse.   § 40. 1 G, H, M, for ergo.   §41. 1 Sciop. deleted orationum after verba. 2 Seal i-  ger, for legebatur. 3 GS. (maior erat Turn.), for maiore  ratione.     6 Cf. v. 150. " An otherwise unknown author; page 106  Funaioli. a Varro is wrong ; elephants' tusks are teeth.  * Apparently correct ; iAicanus was in Oscan Jsucans, pro-  nounced Lucas by the Romans, to which a feminine form  Lnica was made.  306     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 39-41     found set forth by the authors hi two ways. For in  the Commentary of Cornelius 6 was the statement that  Lucas is from Libyci ' the Libyans,' and in that of Ver-  gilius, c that Lucas was from Lucani ' the Lucanians ' :  from the fact that our compatriots used to call the  largest quadruped that they themselves had, a bos  ' cow ' ; and so, when among the Lucanians, in the  war with Pyrrhus, they first saw elephants in the  ranks of the enemy — that is, horned quadrupeds like-  wise (for what many call teeth are really horns riai. 1  Olli valet dictum illi ab olla et olio, quod alterum  comitiis cum recitatur a praecone dicitur olla centuria,  non ilia ; alterum apparet in funeribus indictivis, quo  dicitur   Ollus leto 2 datus est,  quod Graecus dicit ^jOy, id est oblivioni.   43. Apud Ennium :   Mensas constituit idemque ancilia (primus. 1  Ancilia) 2 dicta ab ambecisu, quod ea arma ab utraquc  parte ut TTzracum incisa.   44. Libaque, 1 fictores, Argeos et tutulatos.  Liba, quod libandi causa fiunt. Fictores dicti a fin-  gendis libis. Argei ab Argis ; Argei fiunt e scir-  peis, simulacra hominum XXVII ; ea quotannis de   § 42. 1 Victor his, for egria i. 2 For laeto.  § 43. 1 Added by Scaliger. 2 Added by B, Laetns.  § 44. 1 Victorius, for incisa saliba quae {which includes  the end of § 43).   c Ann. 582 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 438-439 Warmington.   § 42. ° Ann. 119 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 42-43 Warmington ;  a conversation between Numa Pompilius and his adviser,  the nymph Egeria. 6 Fest. 254 a 34 M. inserts Quirts  in this formula after ollus. c Of uncertain etymology,  but not from the Greek.   § 43. ° Ann. 120 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 42-43 Warmington ;  enumerating the institutions of Numa Pompilius. 6 Of  the priests ; cf. Livy, i. 20. e Cf vi. 22.   §44. "Ennius, Ann. 121 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 42-43   308     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 41-44     port, those were selected for the pleading who could  plead the case most skilfully. Therefore Ennius  says c :   Spokesmen, learnedly speaking.   42. In Ennius is this a :   Olli answered Egeria's voice, speaking softly and sweetly.   Olli ' to him ' is the same as Mi, dative to feminine olla  and to mascuhne ollus. The one of these is said by  the herald when he announces at the elections " Olla  ' that ' century," and not Ma. The other is heard in  the case of funerals of which announcement is made,  wherein is said   Ollus h ' that man ' has been given to letum e ' death,'  which the Greek calls XrjOrj, that is, oblivion.   43. In Ennius this verse is found a :   Banquets 6 he first did establish, and likewise the  shields c that are holy   The ancilia ' shields ' were named from their ambe-  cisus ' incision on both sides,' because these arms  were incised at right and left like those of the  Thracians.   44. Cakes and their bakers, Argei and priests with   conical topknots."   Liba ' cakes,' so named because they are made  libare ' to offer ' to the gods. 6 Fictores ' bakers ' were  so called irom Jingere ' to shape ' the liba. Argei from  the city Argos c : the Argei are made of rushes, human  figures twenty-seven d in number ; these are each   Warmington; continuing the list of Numa's institutions.  * Libare is derived from liba I c Etymology of Argei and  of tutulus quite uncertain. * On the number, see v. 45,  note a.   309     VARRO   Ponte Sublicio a sacerdotibus publice dezci 2 solent in  Tiberim. Tutulati dicti hi, qui in sacris in capitibus  habere solent ut metam ; id tutulus appellatus ab eo  quod matres familias crines convolutos ad verticem  capitis quos habent vit(ta} 3 velatos 4 dicebantur tutuli,  sive ab eo quod id tuendi causa capilli fiebat, sive ab  eo quod altissimum in urbe quod est, Arcs, 5 tutis-  simum vocatur.   45. Eundem Pompilium ait fecisse flamines, qui  cum omnes sunt a singulis deis cognominati, in qui-  busdam apparent erv/xa, ut cur sit Martialis et Quiri-  nalis ; sunt in quibus flaminum cognominibus latent  origines, ut in his qui sunt versibus plerique :   Volturnalem, Palatualem, Furinalem,  Floralemqu^ 1 Falacrem et PomonaJem fecit  Hie idem,   quae o(b>scura sunt ; eorum origo Volturnus, diva  Palatua, Furrina, Flora, Falacer pater, Pomona. 2   46. Apud Ennium :   lam cata signa ferae 1 sonitum dare voce parabant.   Cata acuta : hoc enim verbo dicunt Sa&ini : quare   Catus Melius Sextus   2 Rhoh, for duci. 3 Mue. ; vittis Popma ; for uti.  4 Laetus, for velatas. 5 For ares.   § 45. 1 Mue., for floralem qui. 2 Turnebus, for pomo-  rum nam.   § 46. 1 So F ; but fera {agreeing with voce) Mue.     " See § 44 note c.   §45. "Ennius, Ann. 122-124 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 44-45  Warmington. 6 The protecting spirit of the Palatine.   §46. Ann. 459 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 182-183 "Warming-  ton. "Ennius, Ann. 331 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 120-121   310     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 44-46     year thrown into the Tiber from the Bridge-on-Piles,  by the priests, acting on behalf of the state. These  are called tutulati ' provided with tutuli,' since they at  the sacrifices are accustomed to have on their heads  something like a conical marker ; this is called a  tutulus from the fact e that the twisted locks of hair  which the matrons wear on the tops of their heads  wrapped with a woollen band, used to be called tutuli,  whether named from the fact that this was done for  the purpose of tueri ' protecting ' the hair, or because  that which is highest in the city, namely the Citadel,  was called tutissimum ' safest.'   45. He says ° that this same Pompilius created  the flamens or special priests, every one of whom gets  a distinguishing name from one special god : in cer-  tain cases the sources are clear, for example, why one  is called Martial and another Quirinal ; but there are  others who have titles of quite hidden origin, as most  of those in these verses :   The Volturnal, Palatual, the Furinal, and Floral,  Falacrine and Pomonal this ruler likewise created ;   and these are obscure. Their origins are Volturnus,  the divine Palatua, 6 Furrina, Flora, Father Falacer,  Pomona.   46. In Ennius is this verse ° :   Now the beasts were about to give cry, their shrill-toned  signals.   In this, cata ' shrill-toned ' is acuta ' sharp or pointed,'  for the Sabines use the word in this meaning ; there-  fore   Keen Aelius Sextus *   Warmington ; Sextus Aelius Paetus, consul 198, censor  194, a distinguished writer on Roman law.   311     VARRO     non, ut aiunt, sapiens, sed acutus, et quod est :   Tunc cepit memorare simul cata 2 dicta,  accipienda acuta dicta.   47. Apud Lucilium :   Quid est P 1 Thynno capto co&ium 2 excludunt foras,   et   Occidunt, Lupe, saperdae te 3 et iura siluri   et   Sumere te atque amian.  Piscium nomina sunt eorumque in Groecia origo.   48. Apud Ennium :   Quae cava corpore caeruleo (c)orh'na receptat. 1  Cava cortina dicta, quod est inter terram et caelum  ad similitudinem cortinae Apollinis ; ea a eorde, quod  inde sortes primae existimatae.   49. Apud Ennium :   Quin inde invitis sumpserwnt 1 perduellibus.   2 Bergk filled out the verse by reading simul stulta et cata ,  Vahlen, by proposing simul lacrimans cata.   § 47. 1 L. Sp., for quidem. 2 Mue., for corium.   3 Turnebus, for lupes aper de te.   § 48. 1 Mue. (following Turnebus in cava and cortina  receptat, and Scaliger in deleting in and caelo; he himself  deleted que and transposed corpore cava), for quaeque in  corpore causa ceruleo caelo orta nare ceptat.   § 49. 1 M, Laetus, for sumpserint.     "Page 115 Funaioli. d Ennius, Ann. 529 Vahlen 2 ;  R.O.L. i. 458-459 Warmington.   § 47. a Respectively 938, 54, 1304 Marx. 6 Lucilius  puns on iura, 'sauces ' and ' rights, justice,' and on Lupe, a  man's name and also a kind of fish. Respectively Ovwos  ' tunny,' called horse-mackerel and tuna in America ; Kw&og  ' sand-goby,' a worthless fish ; o. 3   Roram 1 dicti ab rore qui bellum committebant, ideo  quod ante rorat quam plu«7. 4 Accensos 5 ministra-  tores Cato esse scribit ; potest id (ab censione, id  est) 6 ab arbitrio : nam ide(m) 7 ad arbitrium eius  cuius minister.   59- Pacuvius :   Cum deum triportenta . .  60. In Mercatore :   Non tibi 1 istuc magis dividiaest 2 quam mihi hodie fuit.   (Eadem (vi) 3 hoc est in Corollaria Naevius (usus). 4 )  Dividia ab dividendo dicta, quod divisio distractio est  doloris : itaque idem in Curculione ait :   Sed quid tibi est ? — Lien enecat, 5 renes dolent,  Pulmones distrahuntur.   § 58. 1 RhoL, for rorani. 2 F 2 , for an F 1 . 3 Added  by Kent, to complete verse metrically. 4 H 2 and p, for  plusti. 5 For acensos F 1 , adcensos F 2 . 6 Added by GS.  7 Brakmann, for inde.   § 59. 1 Lacuna marked by Scaliger.   § 60. 1 L. Sp. deleted in mercatore non tibi, here repeated  in F. 2 Aug., for diuidia est, from the text of Plautus.  3 Added by GS. 4 Added by L. Sp. 5 b, for liene negat.     b That is, not to be retained in the hand during use.   § 58. a Plautus, Friv. frag. IV Ritschl. 6 Page 81. 14  Jordan. e For correct etymology, see vi. 89, note a.   §59. a Trag. Rom. Frag. 381 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 304-   320     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 57-60     empty and profitless ; or because those were called  ferentarii cavalrymen who had only weapons which  ferrentur ' were to be thrown,' 6 such as a javelin.  Cavalrymen of this kind I have seen in a painting in  the old temple of Aesculapius, with the label "feren-  tarii."   58. In The Story of the Trifles a :   Where are you, rorarii ? Behold, they're here.  Where are the accensi ? See, they're here.   Rorarii ' skirmishers ' were those who started the  battle, named from the ros ' dew-drops,' because it  rorat ' sprinkles ' before it really rains. The accensi,  Cato writes, 6 were attendants ; the word may be  from censio ' opinion,' that is, from arbitrium ' de-  cision,' for the accensus c is present to do the arbitrium  of him whose attendant he is.   59- Pacuvius says a :   When the gods' portents triply strong . . .   60. In The Trader a :  That's no more a dividia to you than 'twas to me to-day.  (This word was used by Naevius in The Story of the  Garland, b in the same meaning.) Dividia ' vexation '  is said from dividere ' to divide,' because the distractio  ' pulling asunder ' caused by pain is a division ;  therefore the same author says in the Curculio e :   But what's the matter ? — Stitch in the side, an aching  back,   And my lungs are torn asunder.   305 Warmington ; perhaps referring to portents of the in-  fernal deities.   § 60. Plautus, Merc. 619. " Cam. Rom. Frag. IX  Ribbeck*. e Plautus, Cure. 236-237 ; literally, ' my  spleen kills me, my kidneys hurt me.'   vol. 1 Y 321     VARRO   61. In Pagone :   Honos syncerasto peri(i>t, x pernis, gla stribula 1 (a)ut 2 de lumbo obscena viscera. 3  Stribula, ut Opil/us 4 scribit, circum coxendices 5 sunt  bovis e ; id Graecum est ab eius loci versura.   68. In (N)ervolaria 1 :   Scobina 2 ego illu?i(c) 3 actutum adrasi (s)enem. 4  Scobinam a scobe : lima enim materia(e) 5 fabrilis est.   69. In Penulo :   Vinceretis cerium curs?* 1 vel gralatorem 2 gradu. 3  Gral(l)ator 2 a gradu 3 magno dictus.   70. In Truculento :   Sine virtute argutum civem mihi habeam pro praefica.  (Praefica) 1 dicta, ut Aurelius scribit, mulier ab luco  quae conduceretur quae ante domum mortui laudis   ' Added by Mue., whose et was changed to ut by GS.   § 67. 1 Buecheler, for distribute. 2 Sciop., for ut.  3 Mue., for obscenabis cera, with o above first e and v above  second b, F 1 . 4 GS. (cf. vii. 50), for opilius. 5 Aldus,  for coxa indices. 6 Sciop., for uobis.   § 68. 1 Aldus, for eruolaria. 2 Sciop., for scobinam.  3 A. Sp., metri gratia, for ilium. 4 Lachmann, for enim.  5 Canal, for materia.   §69. 1 Aldus, from Plautus, for circumcurso. 2 -1I-,  from Festns, 97. 12 M. 3 Aldus, from Plautus, for gradum.   § 70. 1 Added by B, Aldus.   c Page 97 Funaioli.   § 67. ° Plautus, Frag. 52 Ritschl. 6 Page 92 Funaioli.  c Of uncertain etymology ; Festus, 313 a 34 M ., has strebula,  and calls it an Umbrian word. d Varro perhaps derived  it from Greek orpefiXos ' twisted.'  326     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 66-70   Claudius c writes that women who make joint en-  treaties are clearly shown to be axitiosae ' united,  unionist.' Axitiosae is from agere ' to act ' : as fac-  tiosae ' partisan women ' are named from facere  ' doing ' something in unison, so axitiosae are named  from agere ' acting ' together, as though actiosae.   67. In the Cesistio a :   For the gods the thigh-meats or the lewd parts from  the loins.   Stribula ' thigh-meats,' as Opillus 6 - writes, are the  fleshy parts of cattle around the hips ; the word c is  Greek, derived from the fact that in this place there  is a socket-joint. d   68. In The Story of the Prison Ropes a :   At once I with my rasp did scrape the old fellow clean.   Scobina ' rasp,' from scobis ' sawdust ' ; for a file belongs  to a carpenter's equipment.   69- In The Little Man from Carthage a :   You'd outdo the stag in running or the stilt-walker  in stride.   Grallator ' stilt-walker ' is said from his great gradus  ' stride.'   70. In The Rough Customer a :   Although without a deed of bravery I may have  A clear-toned citizen as leader of my praise.   Praefica ' praise-leader,' as Aurelius 6 writes, is a name  applied to a woman from the grove of Libitina, 6 who  was to be hired to sing the praises of a dead man in   § 68. ° Plautus, Frag. 94 Ritschl.  § 69. ° Plautus, Poen. 530.   § 70. ° Plautus. True. 495. " Page 90 Funaioli.  c Where the wailing-women had their stand ; cf. Dionysius  Halic iv. 15.   327     VARRO   eius caneret. Hoc factitatum Aristoteles scribit in  libro qui (in)scribitur 2 No/xi/m (3apj3apiKa, 3 quibus  testimonium est, quod (in) Freto est 4 Noevii :   Haec quidem hercle, opinor, praefica est : nam  mortuum collaudat.   Claudius scribit :   Quae praeficeretur ancillis, quemadmodum  lamentarentur, praefica est dicta.   Utrumque ostendit a praefectione praeficam dictam.  71. Apud Ennium :   Decern Coclites quas montibus summis  Ripaeis fodere. 1   Ab oculo codes, ut ocles, dictus, qui unum haberet  oculum : quocirca in Curculione est :   De Coclitum prosapia  2 esse arbitror :  Nam hi sunt unoculi.   IV. 72. Nunc de temporibus dicam. Quod est  apud Cassium :   Nocte intempesta nostram devenit domum,   intempesta nox dicta ab tempestate, tempestas ab   2 Aug., with B, for scribitur. 3 Turnebus, for nomina  barbarica. 4 GS. ; Freto inest Canal ; for f return est.   § 71. 1 a, Ttirnebvs,for federe. 2 Added by Aug., from  Plautus.     d Frag. 604, page 367 Rose. " Coin. Rom. Frag. 129  Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 142-143 Warmington. 'Page 98  Funaioli.   § 71. ° Sat. 67-68 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 392-393 Warming-  ton. The one-eyed Arimaspi of northern Scythia (where the  Rhipaean or Rhiphaean mountains were located) were said  to have taken much gold from their neighbours the Grypes  (or Griffins); cf. Herodotus, iii. 116, iv. 13, iv. 27, who   328     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 70-72   front of his house. That this was regularly done, is  stated by Aristotle in his book entitled Customs of  Foreign Nations d ; whereto there is the testimony  which is in The Strait of Naevius e :   Dear me, I think, the woman's a praefica : it's a dead  man she is praising.   Claudius writes f :   A woman who praeficeret ur ' was to be put in charge '  of the maids as to how they should perform their  lamentations, was called a praefica.   Both passages show that the praefica was named from  praefectio ' appointment as leader.'  71. In Ennius we find ° :   Treasures which ten of the Coclites buried,  High on the tops of Rhiphaean mountains.   Codes ' one-eyed ' was derived from ociilus ' eye,' as  though ocles, b and denoted a person who had only  one eye ; therefore in the Curculio c there is this :   I think that you are from the race of Coclites ;  For they are one-eyed.   IV. 72. Now I shall speak of terms denoting time.  In the phrase of Cassius,"   By dead of night he came unto our home,   intempesta nox ' dead of night ' is derived from tem-  pestas, and tempestas from tempus ' time ' : a nox   quotes (with incredulity) from a poem by Aristeas of Procon-  nesus. Fodere = infodere. * Varro means, from co-ocles  ' with an eye ' ; but the word is derived from Greek kvkXcdi/i,  through the Etruscan. e Plantus, Cure. 393-394.   § 72. ° Accius, Com. Rom. Frag. Praet. V, verse 41 Rib-  beck 8 ; R.O.L. ii. 562-563 Warmington ; repeated from  vi. 7, where see note a on authorship.   329     VARRO   tempore ; nox intempesta, quo tempore nihil 1  agitur.   73. Quid noctis videtur ? — In altisono  Caeli clipeo temo superat  Stellas sublime(n) 1 agens etiam  Atque etiam noctis iter.   Hie multam noctem ostendere volt a temonis motu ;  sed temo unde et cur dicatur latet. Arbitror antiques  rusticos primum notasse quaedam in caelo signa, quae  praeter alia erant insignia atque ad aliquem usum,  (ut) 2 culturae tempus, designandum convenire  animadvertebantur.   74. Eius signa sunt, quod has septem Stellas  Graeci ut Homcrus voca(n)t a/jui^ar 1 et propinquum  eius signum {3qwti)v, nostri eas septem Stellas  (t)r(i)o«es 2 et temonem et prope eas axem : triones  enim et boves appellantur a bubulcis etiam nunc,  maxime cum arant terra??* 3 ; e quis ut dicti   Valentes glebarii,  qui facile proscindunt glebas, sic omnes qui terram  arabant a terra terriones, unde triones ut dicerentur   detrito. 4   75. Temo dictus a tenendo : is enim continet  § 72. 1 For nichil.   §73. 1 Skutsch, after Buecheler, for sublime. 2 Added  by Mue.   §74. 1 For AMA2AN. 2 L. Sp.,/or boues. 3 For  terras. 4 A tig., for de tritu.   §73. "Ennius, Trag. Rom. Frag. 177-180 Ribbeck 3 ;  R.O.L. i. 300-301 Warmington; freely adapted from Euri-  pides, Iphig. in Aid. 6-8; anapaestic. Cf. v. 19, above.  6 Signa in this and the following seems to vary in meaning  between ' signs = marks ' and ' signs = constellations.'   § 74. " E.g., Od. v. 272-273. 6 Charles' Wain, or the  Great Dipper ; and other parts of the constellation Ursa   330     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 72-75     intempesta ' un-timely night ' is a time at which no  activity goes on.   73. What time of the night doth it seem ? — In the shield  Of the sky, that soundeth aloft, lo the Pole   Of the Wain outstrippeth the stars as on high  More and more it driveth its journey of night."   Here the author -wishes to indicate that the night is  advanced, from the motion of the Temo ' Wagon-  Pole ' ; but the origin of Temo and the reason for its  use, are hidden. My opinion is that in old times the  farmers first noticed certain signs 6 in the sky which  were more conspicuous than the rest, and w T hich were  observed as suitable to indicate some profitable use,  such as the time for tilling the fields.   74. The marks of this one are, that the Greeks, for  example Homer, call these seven stars the Wagon 6  and the sign that is next to it the Ploughman, while  our countrymen call these seven stars the Triones  ' Plough-Oxen ' and the Temo ' Wagon-Pole ' and near  them the Axis ' axle of the earth, north pole * c : for  indeed oxen are called triones by the ploughmen even  now, especially when they are ploughing the land ;  just as those of them which easily cleave the glebae  ' clods of earth ' are called   Mighty glebarii ' clod-breakers,'   so all that ploughed the land were from terra ' land '  called terriones, so that from this they were called  triones, d with loss of the E.   75. Temo is derived from tenere ' to hold ' ° : for it   Major. e Or perhaps even the Pole-Star itself. d Trio  is a derivative of terere ' to tread,' cf. perf. trivi and ptc.  tritus.   § 75. ° Wrong etymology.   331     VARRO   iugum et plaustrum, appellatum a parte 1 totum, ut  multa. Possunt triones dicti, VII quod ita sitae  stellae, ut ternae trigona faciant.   76. Aliquod lumen — iubarne ? — in caelo cerno.   Iubar dicitur stella Lucifer, quae in summo quod  habet lumen diffusum, ut leo in capite iubam. Huius  ortus significat circiter esse extremam noctem.  Itaque ait Pacuius :   Exorto iubare, noctis decurso itinere.   77. Apud Plautum in Parasito Pigro :   Inde hie bene potus 1 primo 2 crepusculo.   Crepusculum ab Saftinis, et id dubium tempus noctis  an diei sit. Itaque in Condalio est :   Tarn crepusculo, ferae 3 ut amant, lampades accendite.   Ideo (d)ubiae res 4 creperae dictae.   78. In Trinummo :   Concubium sit noctis priusquam (ad) 1 postremum  perveneris.   Concubium a concubitu dormiendi causa dictum.  § 75. 1 B, Laetus,for aperte.   § 77. 1 Pius, for de nepotus. 2 Scaliger, for primo.  3 Buecheler, for fere. 4 Laetus, for ubi heres.  § 78. 1 Added by Aug., from Plautus.   6 Wrong etymology.   § 76. ° Ennius, Trag. Rom. Frag. 336 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L.  i. 226-227 Warmington; cf. vi. 6 and vi. 81. 6 Iubar and  iuba are not etymologically connected. c That is, shortly  before sunrise, when it is visible in the eastern sky.  d Trag. Rom. Frag. 347 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 320-321  Warmington : cf. vi. 6.  332     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 75-78     continet ' holds together ' the yoke and the cart, the  whole being named from a part, as is true of many  things. The name triones may perhaps have been  given because the seven stars are so placed that the  sets of three stars make triangles. 1 *   76. I see some light in the sky — can it be dawn ? °   The morning-star is called iubar, because it has at the  top a diffused light, just as a lion has on his head a  tuba ' mane.' 6 Its rising c indicates that it is about  the end of the night. Therefore Pacuvius says d :   When morning-star appears and night has run her  course.   77. Plautus has this in The Lazy Hanger-on a :   From there to here, right drunk, he came, at early  dusk.   Crepusculum ' dusk ' is a word taken from the Sabines,  and it is the time when there is doubt whether it  belongs to the night or to the day. 6 Therefore in  The Finger-Ring there is this c :   So at dusk, the time when wild beasts make their  love, light up your lamps.   Therefore doubtful matters were called creperae. b   78. In The Three Shillings ° :   General resting time of night 'twould be, before you  reached its end.   Concubium ' general rest ' is said from concubitus  ' general lying-down ' for the purpose of sleeping. 6   § 77. ° Frag. I, verse 107 Ritschl. * Cf. vi. 5 and notes.  e Plautus, Frag. 60 Ritschl.   § 78. a Plautus, Trin. 8S6 ; that is, " if I should try to  tell you my name." * Cf. vi. 7 and note c.   333     VARRO     79. In Asinaria :   Videbitur, factum volo : redito 1 conticim'o. 2   Putem a conticiscendo conticinn/m 3 sive, ut Opil/us 4  scribit, ab eo cum conticuerunt homines.   V. 80. Nunc de his rebus quae assignificant ali-  quod tempus, cum dicuntur aut fiunt, dicam.   Apud Accium :   Reciproca tendens nervo equino concita  Tela.   Reciproca est cum unde quid profectum redit eo ; ab  recipere reciprocare Actum, aut quod poscere procare 1  dictum.   81. Apud Plautum :   Ut 1 transversus, 2 non proversus cedit quasi cancer  solet.   (Proversus) 3 dicitur ab eo qui in id quod est (ante,  est) 4 versus, et ideo qui exit in vestibulum, quod est  ante domum, prodire et procedere ; quod cum lerao 5  non faceret, sed secundum parietem transversus iret,   § 79. 1 A. Sp. ; redito hue Vertranius, from Plautus ; at  redito Rhol. ; for ad reditum. 2 Laetus, for conticinno.  3 Laetus, for conticinnam. 4 GS.,for o pilius ; cf. vii. 50,  vii. 67.   § 80. 1 B, Aldus, for prorogare.   § 81. 1 Bentinus,for aut. 2 Aug., for transuersum ;  the mss. of Plautus have non prorsus uerum ex transuerso  cedit ... 3 Added by L. Sp. 4 Added by Christ.  5 Aldus, for lemo.     § 79. Plautus, Asin. 685 ; where the text is redito hue.  Cf. vi. 7. 6 Page 88 Funaioli.   § 80. a That is, words of actions, whether or not they are  verbs. 6 Philoctetes, Trag. Rom. Frag. 545-546 Ribbeck 3 ;  Ji.O.L. ii. 512-513 Warmington. Reciproca tela is properly   334     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 79-81     79- In The Story of the Ass there is this verse a :   I'll see to it, I wish it done ; come back at conticinium.   I rather think that conticinium ' general silence ' is  from conticiscere ' to become silent,' or else, as Opillus 6  writes, from that time when men conticuerunt ' have  become silent.'   V. 80. Now I shall speak of those things which  have an added meaning of occurrence at some special  time, when they are said or done.   In Accius b :   The elastic weapon bring into action, bending it  With horse-hair string.   Reciproca ' elastic ' is a condition which is present  when a thing returns to the position from which it has  started. Reciprocare ' to move to and fro ' is made c  from recipere ' to take back,' or else because procare  was said for poscere ' to demand.' d  81. InPlautus :   How sidewise, as a crab is wont, he moves,  Not straight ahead.   Proversus ' straight ahead ' is said of a man who is  turned toward that which is in front of him ; and  therefore he who is going out into the vestibule,  which is at the front of the house, is said prodire ' to  go forth ' or procedere ' to proceed.' But since the  brothel-keeper was not doing this, but was going  sidewise along the wall, Plautus said " How sidewise   only the Homeric (Iliad, viii. 266, x. 459) iraAlmova t6£cl  ' backward-stretched bow,' and not as Varro interprets it.  e Probably from reque proque ' backward and forward ' ;  not as Varro interprets it. d That is, ' demand return.'   §81. " Pseud. 955; said of the brothel-keeper as he  enters.   335     VARRO     dixit " ut transversus cedit quasi cancer, non pro-  versus ut homo."   82. Apud Ennium :   Andromachae nomen qui indidit, recte 1 indidit.  Item :   Quapropter Parim pastores nunc Alexandrum vocant.   Imitari dum volm't* Eurip/den 3 et ponere ervfiov, est  lapsus ; nam Euripides quod Graeca posuit, eTv/ia  sunt aperta. Ille ait ideo nomen additum Andro-  machae, quod ai'S/yt ^a^eTca 4 : hoc Enni?/(m) 5 quis  potest intellegere in versu 6 significare   Andromachae nomen qui indidit, recte indidit,  aut Alexandrum ab eo appellatum in Graecia qui  Paris fuisset, a quo Herculem quoque cognominatum  aX^iKaKov, ab eo quod defensor esset hominum ?   83. Apud Accium :   Iamque Auroram rutilare procul  Cerno.   Aurora dicitur ante solis ortum, ab eo quod ab igni  solis turn aureo aer aurescit. Quod addit rutilare, est  ab eodem colore : aurei enim rutili, et inde equam 1 lymphata (aut Bacchi sacris  Commota.   Lymphata) 2 dicta a hympha ; (lympha) 3 a Nympha,  ut quod apud Graecos 9eT 5 spe quidem id successor* tibi ;  apud Pompilium :   Heu, qua me causa, Fortuna, infeste premis 7 ?   Quod ait iurgio, id est litibus : itaque quibus res erat  in controversia, ea vocabatur lis : ideo in actionibus  videmus dici   quam rem sive litem 8 dicere oportet.   Ex quo licet vidcre iurgare esse ab iure dictum, cum  quis iure litigaret ; ab quo obiurgat is qui id facit  iuste.   94. Apud LuczVium 1 :   Atque aliquo(t) sibi 2 , 8 osmen, e  quo S 9 extritum.   98. Apud Plautum :   Quia ego antehac te amavi o 5 quidem nos pretio (facile 8   0>ptanti est 7 frequentare :   Ita in prandio nos lepide ac nitide   Accepisti,   apparet dicere : facile est curare ut (adsidue) 8 adsi-  mus, cum tarn 9 bene nos accipias.   100. Apud Ennium :   Decretum est stare i muset 1 obrutum.   §99. 1 Aug., for quo desimi. 2 Ellis ; fere quom  Canal; for ferret quern. 3 Aug., with B, for his.  4 Added by L. Sp. 5 GS. (pol istoc Aug., from Plautus),  for dicunto. 8 Added by Aug., from Plautus. 7 Schoell  (after A. Sp., icho proposed and rejected optanti), for ptanti  F, with p deleted by cross-lines. 8 Added by GS. ' Aug.,  for iam.   § 100. 1 GS., after Fest. 84. 7 M. ; est stare et fossari  Bergk ; est fossare B, Vertranius ; for est stare.   § 101. 1 L. Sp. ; fac is musset Mue. ; face musset Turne-  bus ; for facimus et.     § 99 ° Plautus, Cist. 6. b Frequens usually means  ' in numbers ' (that is, many at one place at the same time)  352     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 99-101   99- In the same author, the word frequentem b  frequent ' in   Frequent aid you gave me   means assiduam ' busily present ' : therefore he who is  at hand assiduus ' constantly present ' fere et quom  ' generally and when ' he ought to be, he is frequens,  as the opposite of which infrequens c is wont to be used.  Therefore that which these same girls say d :   Dear me, at that price that you say it is easy  For one who desires it to be frequently with us ;  So nicely and elegantly you received us  At luncheon,   clearly means : it is easy to get us to be constantly  present at your house, since you entertain us so well.   100. In Ennius ° :   Resolved are they to stand and be dug through their  bodies with javelins.   This verb Jbdare ' to dig ' which Ennius used, was made  from fodere ' to dig,' from which comes fossa ' ditch.'   101. In Ennius ° :   With words destroy him, crush him if he make a sound.   and not ' frequent ' (that is, one in the same place at many  different times), which is why the word here needs explana-  tion. Varro takes it as a shortening of the phrase fere et  quom=f , r , e'qu(ym+s, which needs no refutation. " Used  especially of a soldier qui abest afuitve a signis ' who is or has  been absent from his place in the ranks ' (Festus, 112. 7 M.).  d Cist. 8-11, with omissions ; anapaestic and bacchiac verses  alternately.   §100. 'Ann. 571 Vahlen*; B.O.L. i. 190-191 Warm-  ington.   § 101. » Trag. Rom. Frag. 393 Ribbeck 8 ; R.O.L. i. 378-  379 Warmington.   VOL. I 2 A 353     VARRO   Mussare dictum, quod muti non amplius quam fxv  dicunt ; a quo idem dicit id quod minimum est :   Neque, ut aiunt, (iD facere audent.   102. Apud Pacuium :   Di 1 monerint meliora atque amentiam averruncassint  (tuam. 2   Ab) 3 avertendo averruncare, ut deus qui in eis rebus  praeest Averruncus. Itaque ab eo precari solent, ut  pericula avertat.   103. In Aulularia :   Pipulo te 1 differam ante aedis,  id est convicio, declinatum a pi(p)atu 2 pullorum.  Multa ab animalium vocibus tralata in homines,  partim quae sunt aperta, partim obscura ; perspicua,  ut Ennii :   Animus cum pectore latrat.   Plauti :   Gannit odiosus omni totae familiae.  (Cae)cilii 3 :   Tantum rem dibalare ut pro nilo habuerit.   § 102. 1 For dim. 2 Added from Festus, 373. 4 M.  3 Added by Turnebus.   § 103. 1 So F ; but pipulo te hie Nonius, 152. 5 31., pipulo  hie Plautus. 2 Aldus, for piatu. 3 Laetus, for cilii.     6 Onomatopoeic, as Varro indicates. c Ennius, Inc. 10  Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 438-439 Warmington.   §102. a Trag. Rom. Frag. 112 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii.  206-207 Warmington; quoted by Festus, 373. 4 M., with  tuam, and by Nonius, 74. 22 M. (who assigns it to Lucilius,  Bk. XXVI.) with meam. b Monerint is perf. subj. of  monere, a form known from other sources also. e The  word combines averrere ' to sweep away ' with runcare  ' to remove weeds.' d Mentioned elsewhere only by  354     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 101-103   Mussare 6 ' to make a sound ' is said because the muti  ' mute ' say nothing more than mu ; from which the  same poet uses this for that which is least c :  And, as they say, not even a mu dare they utter.   102. In Pacuvius a :   May the gods advise * thee of better things to  do, and thy madness sweep away !   Averruncare e ' to sweep away ' is from avertere ' to  avert,' just as the god who presides over such matters  is called Averruncus.  neque 12 in  Iudicium ^4esopi nec theatri trittiles.   105. In Colace :   Nexum . . .   (Nexum) 1 Mawilius 2 scribit omne quod per libram et  aes geritur, in quo sint mancipia ; Mucius, quae per  aes et libram fiant ut obligentur, praeter quom 3  mancipio detur. Hoc verius esse ipsum verbum  ostendit, de quo quaerit(ur) 4 : nam id aes 5 quod  obligatur per libram neque suum fit, inde nexum  dictum. Liber qui suas operas in servitutem pro  pecunia quam debebat (nectebat), 6 dum solveret,  nexus vocatur, ut ab aere obaeratus. Hoc C. Poetelio   9 GS., after Mati Mue., for Maccius. 10 Baehrens, for  sues. 11 Mue. ; a volucri L. Sp. ; for auoluerat.  12 Kent, for tradedeque inreneque.   § 105. 1 Added by L. Sp., who recognized the lacuna.  2 Laetus, for mamilius. 3 Huschke, for quam. 4 Aug.,  for querit. 5 Mommsen, for est. 6 debebat nectebat  Kent ; debeat dat Aug. ; for debebat.     ' Plautus, Cas. 267 ; the more common orthography is  fringilla and friguttis. k Frag. Poet. Lat., page 54  Morel ; wrongly listed by Ribbeck 3 as Juventius, Com.  Rom. Frag. IV. 1 Trit, the sound made by the crushing  or breaking of a hard grain or seed, as by the strong-beaked  birds. If the text is correctly restored, the passage refers  to a complaint against trittiles, that is, persons who made  similar noises and thereby disturbed a theatrical perform-  ance ; the poet says that he will refer the complaint to a  regular law-court, and not to the prejudiced decision of the   358     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 10Jr-105     That of Maccius in the Casina, from finches 3 :   What do you twitter for ? What's that you wish so  eagerly ?   That of Sueius, from birds * :   So he'll bring the snappers 1 fairly into court and not  To the judgement of Aesopus m and the audience.   105. In The Flatterer a :   A bound obligation . . .   Xexum ' bound obligation,' Manilius 6 writes, is every-  thing which is transacted by cash and balance-scale, c  including rights of ownership ; but Mucius d defines  it as those things which are done by copper ingot and  balance-scale in such a way that they rest under  formal obligation, except when delivery of property is  made under formal taking of possession. That the  latter is the truer interpretation, is shown by the very  word about which the inquiry is made : for that copper  which is placed under obligation according to the  balance-scale and does not again become independent  (nec suum) of this obligation, is from that fact said to  be nexum ' bound.' A free man who, for money which  he owed, nectebat ' bound ' his labour in slavery until  he should pay, is called a nexus ' bondslave,' just as a  man is called obaeratus ' indebted,' from aes ' money-  debt.' When Gaius Poetelius Libo Visulus * was   offended actor and of the annoyed fellow - spectators.  m Famous tragic actor of Cicero's time.   § 105. ° Plautus, Frag. IV Ritschl ; but possibly from  the Colax of Naevius. 6 Page 6 Huschke. e That is,  by agreement to pay a sum of money, measured by weight.  * Page 18 Huschke. • Consul in 346, 333 (?), 326 (Liyy,  viii. 23. 17), and dictator in 313 (Livy, ix. 28. 2), in which  Varro sets the abolition of slavery for debt, though Livy,  viii. 28, sets it in his third consulship.   359     VARRO   (Li)bone Ftsolo 7 dictatore sublatum ne fieret, et  omnes qui Bonam Copiam iurarunt, ne essent nexi  dissoluti.   106. In Ca(sina) :   Sine ame^, 1 sine quod lubet id facial, 2  Quando tibi domi nihil 3 delicuum est.   Dictum ab eo, quod (ad) deliquandum non sunt, ut  turbida quae sunt deliquantur, ut liquida fiant.  Aurelius scribit delicuum esse 1 ab liquido ; Cla(u)dius  ab eliquato. Si quis alterutrum sequi malet, 5 habebit  auctorem.   Apud Atilium :   Per laetitiam liquitur  Animus.  Ab liquando liquitur fictum.   VI. 107. Multa apud poetas reliqua esse verba  quorum origines possint dici, non dubito, ut apud  Naevium in ^4esiona mucro 1 gladii " lingula " a  lingua ; in Clastidio " vitulantes " a Vitula ; in Dolo   7 Poetelio Libone Visolo Lachmann ; Poetelio Visolo Aug. ;  for popillio vocare sillo.   § 106. 1 In CasinaiW^M*, sine a.met Aldus (from Plautus),  for in casineam esses. 2 Aug. (from Plautus), for facias.  3 Plautus has nihil domi. 4 For est. 5 Laetus, for  mallet.   § 107. 1 Aesiona Buecheler, mucro Groth, for esionam  uero.     ' That is, swore that they were not regular slaves, but were  held in slavery for debt only. 9 Mentioned also by Ovid,  Met. ix. 88.   § 106. ° Plautus, Cas. 206-207 ; anapaestic. * Appar-  ently meant by Plautus as ' lacking,' from delinquere ' to  lack,' and so understood by Festus, 73. 10 M., who glosses it  with minus. Varro has taken it as ' strainable, subject to  straining (for purification),' and has connected it with liquare  and liquere ' to strain, purify,' also ' to melt.' c Page   360     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 105-107     dictator, this method of dealing with, debtors was  done away with, and all who took oath f by the Good  Goddess of Plenty 3 were freed from being bond-  slaves.   106. In the Casino. a :   Let him go and make love, let him do what he will,  As long as at home you have nothing amiss.   Nihil delicuum 6 ' nothing amiss ' is said from this, that  things are not ad deliquandum ' in need of straining  out ' the admixtures, as those which are turbid are  strained, that they may become liqvida ' clear.'  Aurelius c writes that delicuum is from liquidum ' clear ' ;  Claudius, 4 * that it is from eliquatum ' strained.' Any-  one who prefers to follow either of them will have an  authority to back him up.   In Atilius e :   With joy his mind is melted.  Liquitur ' is melted ' is formed from liquare ' to melt.'   VI. 107. I am quite aware ° that there are many  words still remaining in the poets, whose origins  could be set forth ; as in Naevius, 6 in the Hesione, 6  the tip of a sword is called lingula, from lingua  ' tongue ' ; in the Clastidium, d vitulantes ' singing songs   89 Funaioli. d Page 97 Funaioli. • Com. Rom. Frag.,  inc. fab. frag. II, page 37 Ribbeck*.   § 107. » Cf the beginning of § 109. * All the citations  in § 107 and § 108 are from Naevius; R.O.L. ii. 88-89, 92-93,  96-97, 104-105, 136-137, 597-598 Warmington. c Trag.  Rom. Frag. 1 Ribbeck 8 ; for the spelling of the title, cf  Buecheler, Rh. Mus. xxvii. 475. d Trag. Rom. Frag.,  Praet. I Ribbeck* ; vitulari was glossed by Varro with TrauwC-  £«v, according to Macrobius, Sat. iii. 2. 11. It is difficult  to connect the two words with Latin rictus and victoria, so  that the resemblance may be fortuitous — unless Vitula be a  dialectal word, with CT reduced to T.   361     VARRO   " caperrata fronte " a caprae fronte ; in Demetrio  " persibus " a perite : itaque sub hoc glossema  ' callide ' subscribunt ; in Lampadione " protinam  a protinus, continuitatem significans ; in Nagidone  " c/u(ci)datfus " 3 suavis, tametsi a magistris accepi-  mus mansuetum ; in Romulo " (con)sponsus " 3 contra  sponsum rogatus ; in Stigmatia " praebia " a prae-  bendo, ut sit tutus, quod si(n)t 4 remedia in collo  pueris ; in Technico 5 " confidant" 6 a conficto con-  venire dictum ;   108. In Tarentilla " p(r)ae(l)u(c)idum Ml a luce,  illustre ; in Tunicularia :   ecbolas 2 aulas quassant   quae eiciuntur, a Graeco verbo ck/JoA?? 3 dictum ; in  Bello Punico :   nec satis sardare 4   2 Scallger, for caudacus. 3 JYeukirch, with Popma, for  sponsus. 4 Laetus, for sit. 5 For thechnico. 6 Turne-  bus, for conficiant.   § 108. 1 Mue., for pacui dum. 2 Kent, for exbolas,  metri gratia. 3 Aldus, for exbole. 4 A. Sp. {from  Festus, 323. 6 M.), for sarrare.     * Com. Rom. Frag, after 49 Ribbeck 3 ; caperrata may be  related to capra only by popular etymology. ' Com. Rom.  Frag, after 49 Ribbeck 3 ; persibus is seemingly an Oscan  perfect participle active, cf. Oscan sipus, from which perhaps  it is to be corrected to persipus. 9 Page 113 Funaioli.  h Com. Rom. Frag, after 60 Ribbeck 3 . * Com. Rom.  Frag, after 60 Ribbeck 3 ; clucidatus is a participle to a Latin  verb borrowed from Greek yAu/a'£eiv ' to sweeten.' ' Trag.  Rom. Frag., Praet. IT Ribbeck 3 ; for consponsus, cf. vi. 70.   * Com. Rom. Frag. 71 Ribbeck 3 . 1 Com. Rom. Frag, after  93 Ribbeck 3 ; confidant, derived from confingere.   362     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 107-108   of victory,' from Vitula 'Goddess of Joy and Victory ' ;  in The Artificer caperrata f route ' with wrinkled fore-  head,' from the forehead of a capra ' she-goat ' ; in  the Demetrius/ persibus ' very knowing,' from perite  ' learnedly ' : therefore under this rare word they  write 9 collide' shrewdly ' ; in the Lampadio, h protinam  ' forthwith ' from protinus (of the same meaning),  indicating lack of interruption in time or place ; in  the Nagido,* clucidatus ' sweetened,' although we have  been told by the teachers that it means ' tame ' ; in  the Romulus,' consponsus, meaning a person who has  been asked to make a counter-promise ; in The  Branded Slave, k praebia ' amulets,' from praebere ' pro-  viding ' that he may be safe, because they are prophy-  lactics to be hung on boys' necks ; in The Craftsman, 1  confidant ' they unite on a tale,' said from agreeing on  a confictum ' fabrication.'   108. Also, in The Girl of Tarentum, a praelucidum  ' very brilliant,' from lux ' light,' meaning ' shining ' :  in The Story of the Shirt, b   They shake the jars that make the lots jump out,   ecbolicas ' causing to jump out,' because of the lots  which are cast out, is said from the Greek word  eK/SoXi] ; and in The Punic War c   Not even quite sardare ' to understand like a Sardinian,'   § 108. ° Com. Rom. Frag, after 93 Ribbeck 3 . h Com.  Rom. Frag. 103 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 106-107 Warming-  ton (with different interpretation). e Frag. Poet. Rom.  53-54 Baehrens; R.O.L. ii. 72-73 Warmington. According  to Festus, 322 a 24 and 323. 6 M., sardare means intel-  legere, perhaps 'to understand like a Sardinian,' that is,  very poorly, for the Sardinians had in antiquity a bad re-  putation in various lines. The verse of Naevius runs :  Quod bruti nec satis sardare queunt.   363     VARRO     ab serare dictum, id est aperire ; hinc etiam sera, 5  qua remota fores panduntur.   VII. 109. Sed quod vereor ne plures sint futuri  qui de hoc genere me quod nimium multa scripseriwz 1  reprehendant quam quod 2 reliquerim 3 quaedam  accusent, ideo potius iam reprimendum quam pro-  cudendum puto esse volumen : nemo reprensus qui e  segete ad spicilegium reliquit stipulam. Quare in-  stitutis sex libris, quemadmodum rebus Latina  nomina essent imposita ad usum nostrum : e quis tn's 4  scripsi Po. 5 Septumio qui mihi fuit quaestor, tris tibi,  quorum hie est tertius, prior es de disciplina verborum  originis, posterior es de verborum originibus. In illis,  qui ante sunt, in primo volumine est quae dicantur,  cur ervfj-oXoyiKr) 6 neque ar(s> sit 7 neque ea utilis sit,  in secundo quae sint, cur et ars ea sit et (ut)ilis 8 sit,  in tertio quae forma etymologiae. 9   110. In secundis tribus quos ad te misi item  generatim discretis, primum in quo sunt origines  verborum 1 locorum et earum rerum quae in locis  esse solent, secundum quibus vocabulis te(m)pora  sint notata et eae res quae in temporibus hunt, tertius   5 Ed. Veneta, for serae.   §109. 1 Laetus,for rescripserint. 2 quam quod A Idus,  for quamquam. 3 For reliquerint. 4 Laetus, for tres.   5 po stands here in F, but with lines drawn through the letters.   6 L. Sp.,for ethimologice. 7 ars sit V, p, L. Sp.,for ansit.  8 et utilis Turnebus; et illis utilis V; for et illis F. 9 For  ethimologiae.   § 110. 1 Crossed out by F 1 , but required by the meaning.   d In such an etymology, Varro is operating on the basis that  things may be named from their opposites; cf. Festus, 122.  16 M., ludum dicimus, in quo minime luditur.  § 109. ° A liber or ' book ' was calculated to fill a volumen   364     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 108-110     where sardare is said from serare ' to bolt,' d that is,  sardare means ' to open ' ; from this also sera ' bolt,'  on the removal of which the doors are opened.   VII. 109- But because I fear that there will be  more who will blame me for writing too much of this  sort than will accuse me of omitting certain items, I  think that this roll must now rather be compressed  than hammered out to greater length a : no one is  blamed who in the cornfield has left the stems for the  gleaning. 6 Therefore as I had arranged six books c on  how Latin names were set upon things for our use d :  of these I dedicated three to Publius Septumius who  was my quaestor," and three to you, of which this is  the third — the first three on the doctrine of the  origin of words, the second three f on the origins of  words. Of those which precede, the first roll con-  tains the arguments which are offered as to why  Etymology is not a branch of learning and is not  useful ; the second contains the arguments why it is  a branch of learning and is useful ; the third states  what the nature of etymology is.   110. In the second three which I sent to you, the  subjects are likewise divided off: first, that in which  the origins of words for places are set forth, and for  those things which are wont to be in places ; second,  with what words times are designated and those  things which are done in times ; third, the present   or ' roll ' of convenient size for handling. * That is, who  has cut off the ears of standing grain and left the stalks.  e Books II.-VII. ; cf. v. 1. d This sentence is resumed at  Quocirca, in the middle of § 1 10. * Varro held office in the  war against the pirates and Mithridates in 67-66, under  Pompey, and again in Pompey's forces in Spain in 49 and  at Pharsalus in 48 ; but it is unknown in which of these he  had Septumius as quaestor. ' Books V.-VII.   365     VARRO     hie, in quo a poetis item sumpta ut il/a 2 quae dixi in  duobus libris solwta 3 oratione. Quocirca quoniam  omnis operis de Lingua Latina tris feci partis, primo  quemadmodum vocabula imposita essent rebus,  secundo quemadmodum ea in casus declinarentur,  tertio quemadmodum coniungerentur, prima parte  perpetrata, ut secundam ordiri possim, huic libro  faciam finem.   8 Victorius, for utilia. 3 Sciop., for solita.     366      ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 110     book, in which words are taken from the poets in  the same way as those which I have mentioned in  the other two books were taken from prose writings.  Therefore," since I have made three parts of the  whole work On the Latin Language, first how names  were set upon things, second how the words are  declined in cases, third how they are combined into  sentences — as the first part is now finished, I shall  make an end to this book, that I may be able to  commence the second part.   §110. "This resumes the sentence interrupted at the  middle of § 109.     367     Printed in Great Britain by R. & R. 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