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Mozart, "La clemenza di Tito"

Augustus, first Roman Emperor in the Principate Era.

The title of Roman Emperor, although in some ways a modern concept, effectively summarises the position held by those individuals who wielded power in the Roman Empire.

The Roman Empire developed from the Roman Republic after its ascent to the dominant power in Europe, and is characterised by the concentration of power in one individual, rather than the "Senate and People of Rome".

However, Augusto, universally accepted to have been the first emperor, was careful to maintain the facade of republican rule, and took no specific title to mark his rule (which began in 27 BC).

Instead, he simply concentrated the pre-existing powers of Roman magistrates upon his own person, taking the existing honorific of 'Princeps Senatus' (the first man of the senate).^[1]

This style of government, which lasted for nearly 300 years, is thus called the 'Principate'.

The modern word 'emperor' derives from the title 'Imperator', which was granted by an army to a successful general.

As such, during the initial phase of the Roman Empire, it still had to be earned by the 'Princeps'.

The term 'emperor', though modern, is used when describing rulers of the Roman Empire, since

(a) it emphasises the strong links between the ruler and the army (on whose support the ruler's power depended), and

(b) does not discriminate between the style of rule in different phases of the Empire.
In the late 3rd century AD, after the Crisis of the Third Century, Diocletian formalised and embellished the recent manner of imperial rule, establishing the so-called 'Dominate' period of the Roman Empire.

This was characterised by the explicit investment of authority in the person of the Emperor, and the use of the style 'Dominus Noster' ('Our Lord').

From Diocletian onwards, there were often multiple simultaneous emperors, dividing the rule of the vast territories between them. After 395 AD, and the death of Theodosius I, the Empire became more firmly split into Western and Eastern halves^[2] They were not legally separate however, and the Emperor of the more stable Eastern Empire often imposed his authority over the Western half. The Western Empire was heavily troubled after 395 AD, and collapsed completely after 455 AD, the last Western Emperor abdicating in 476 AD; after which the Emperor in Constantinople ruled without partner and maintained claim to the territories in the west. The Empire would continue until 1453, and the capture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks.^[3] Later Emperors in the east have been called Byzantine Emperors by Western scholars since at least the 18th century, but were considered by themselves and their contemporaries to continue an unbroken succession of Roman Emperors. The listing of the Eastern Emperors in this article ends at the start of the 7th century with Maurice, last of the Justinian dynasty, and the last Emperor whose Empire still bore a strong resemblance to the Roman Empire of previous centuries and whose reign concludes the final era of Late Antiquity.^[4]
The emperors listed in this article are those generally agreed to have been 'legitimate' emperors (e.g. not usurpers, etc.). However, since the emperorship was rather vaguely defined legally, which persons were 'legitimate' is not easy to define; many of the 'legitimate' emperors accessed to the position by usurpation, and many 'illegitimate' claimants had a legitimate claim to the position. The following criteria can be used to derive the list:

• Any individual who undisputedly ruled the whole Empire, at some point, must, in point of fact, be a 'legitimate emperor'(1).
• Any individual who was nominated as heir or co-emperor by a legitimate emperor (1), and who succeeded to rule in his own right, is a legitimate emperor (2).
• Where there were multiple claimants, and none were legitimate heirs, the claimant accepted by the Roman Senate as emperor is the legitimate emperor (3), at least during the Principate.

So for instance, Aurelian, though acceding to the throne by usurpation, was the sole and undisputed monarch between 274–275 AD, and thus was a legitimate emperor. Gallienus, though not in control of the whole Empire, and plagued by other claimants, was the legitimate heir of (the legitimate emperor) Valerian. Claudius Gothicus, though acceding illegally, and not in control of the whole Empire, was the only claimant accepted by the Senate, and thus, for his reign, was the legitimate emperor. Equally, during the Year of the Four Emperors, all claimants, though not undisputed, were at some point accepted by the Senate and are thus included; conversely, during the Year of the Five Emperors neither Pescennius Niger nor Clodius Albinus were accepted by the Senate, and are thus not included. There are a few examples where individuals were made co-emperor, but never wielded power in their own right (typically the child of an emperor); these are legitimate, but are listed together with the 'senior' emperor.

The above formula holds until 395, when the Western and Eastern halves of the Empire split. After that, it continues to hold, with the caveat that a legitimate emperor had undisputed control over one half of the Empire. Towards the end of the Western Empire (after 455), the Western emperor ceased to be a relevant figure and there was sometimes actually no claimant. For the sake of historical completeness, all Western Emperors after that point are included. For instance, Romulus Augustus was technically a usurper who ruled only the Italian peninsula and was never legally recognized. However, he was traditionally considered the "last Roman Emperor" by 18th and 19th century western scholars and his overthrow by Odoacer used as the marking point between historical epochs. However, modern scholarship has confirmed that Romulus Augustus' predecessor, Julius Nepos continued to rule as Emperor in the other Western holdings and as a figurehead for Odoacer's rule in Italy until Nepos' death in 480. Since the question of what constitutes an emperor can be ambiguous, and dating the "fall of the Western Empire" arbitrary, this list includes details of both figures.

[edit] The Principate Period

Main article: Principate

[edit] Julio-Claudian dynasty

Main article: Julio-Claudian dynasty

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Death	Time in Office
	Augusto GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR AVGVSTVS	September 23 63 BC, Rome, Italia	Became de facto emperor as a result of the 'first settlement' between himself and the Roman Senate.	January 16, 27 BC – August 19, 14 AD	August 19, 14 AD Natural causes.	41 Years, 8 Months
	Tiberio TIBERIVS IVLIVS CAESAR AVGVSTVS	November 16 42 BC, Rome	Son of Augustus's wife Livia by a previous marriage; adopted son of Augustus.	September 18, 14 AD – March 16, 37 AD	March 16, 37 AD Probably natural causes, possibly assassinated by Caligula	22 Years, 6 Months
	Caligula GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR AVGVSTVS GERMANICVS	August 31, 12 AD, Antium, Italia	Tiberius's great-nephew and adopted grandson; great-grandson of Augustus.	March 18, 37 AD – January 24, 41 AD	January 24, 41 AD Assassinated in a conspiracy involving senators and Praetorian Guards.	3 Years, 10 Months
	Claudio TIBERIVS CLAVDIVS CAESAR AVGVSTVS GERMANICVS	August 1, 10 BC, Lugdunum, Gallia Lugdunensis	Nephew of Tiberius, brother of Germanicus and uncle of Caligula; proclaimed emperor by the Praetorian Guard.	January 25/26, 41 AD – October 13, 54 AD	October 13, 54 AD Probably poisoned by his wife Agrippina the Younger, in favour of her son Nero.	13 Years, 9 Months
	Nerone NERO CLAVDIVS CAESAR AVGVSTVS GERMANICVS	December 15, 37 AD, Antium, Italia	Grandson of Germanicus, nephew of Caligula, step- and adopted son of Claudius; great-great-grandson of Augustus.	October 13, 54 AD – June 9, 68 AD	June 9, 68 AD Committed suicide after being declared a public enemy by the Senate.	13 Years, 8 Months

[edit] Year of the Four Emperors and Flavian Dynasty

Main articles: Year of the Four Emperors and Flavian Dynasty

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Death	Time in Office
	Galba SERVIVS SVLPICIVS GALBA CAESAR AVGVSTVS	December 24 3 BC, Near Terracina, Italia	Seized power after Nero's suicide, with support of the Spanish legions	June 8, 68 AD – January 15, 69 AD	January 15, 69 AD Murdered by Praetorian Guard in coup led by Otho.	7 Months
	Otho MARCVS SALVIVS OTHO CAESAR AVGVSTVS	April 28, 32 AD, Ferentinum, Etruria, Italia	Appointed by Praetorian Guard	January 15, 69 AD – April 16, 69 AD	April 16, 69 AD Committed suicide after losing Battle of Bedriacum to Vitellius	3 months 1 day (91 days)
	Vitellio AVLVS VITELLIVS GERMANICVS AVGVSTVS	September 24, 15 AD, Rome	Seized power with support of German Legions (in opposition to Galba/Otho)	April 17, 69 AD – December 20, 69 AD	December 20, 69 AD Murdered by Vespasian's troops	8 Months
	Vespasiano TITVS FLAVIVS CAESAR VESPASIANVS AVGVSTVS	November 17, 9 AD, Falacrine, Italia	Seized power with the support of the eastern Legions (in opposition to Vitellius)	July 1, 69 AD – June 24, 79 AD	June 24, 79 AD Natural causes	10 years
	Tito TITVS FLAVIVS CAESAR VESPASIANVS AVGVSTVS	December 30, 39 AD, Rome	Son of Vespasian	June 24, 79 AD – September 13, 81 AD	September 13, 81 AD Natural causes (Plague)	2 years, 3 months
	Domiziano TITVS FLAVIVS CAESAR DOMITIANVS AVGVSTVS	October 24, 51 AD, Rome	Son of Vespasian	September 14, 81 AD – September 18, 96 AD	September 18, 96 AD Assassinated by court officials	15 years

[edit] Nervan-Antonian dynasty

Main article: Nervan-Antonian dynasty

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Death	Time in Office
	Nerva MARCVS COCCEIVS NERVA CAESAR AVGVSTVS	November 8, 30 AD, Narni, Italia	Appointed by the Senate	September 18, 96 AD – January 27, 98 AD	January 27, 98 AD Natural causes	1 year, 4 months
	Trajan CAESAR MARCVS VLPIVS NERVA TRAIANVS AVGVSTVS	September 18, 53 AD, Italica, Hispania Baetica	Adopted son and heir of Nerva	January 28, 98 AD – August 7, 117 AD	August 7, 117 AD Natural causes	19 years, 7 months
	Adriano CAESAR PVBLIVS AELIVS TRAIANVS HADRIANVS AVGVSTVS	January 24, 76 AD, Italica, Hispania Baetica (or Rome)	Adopted son and heir of Trajan	August 11, 117 AD – July 10, 138 AD	July 10, 138 AD Natural causes	21 years
	Antonino Pio CAESAR TITVS AELIVS HADRIANVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVS PIVS	September 19, 86 AD, Near Lanuvium, Italia	Adopted son and heir of Hadrian	July 10, 138 AD – March 7, 161 AD	March 7, 161 AD Natural causes	22 years, 7 months
	Lucio Vero CAESAR LVCIVS AVRELIVS VERVS AVGVSTVS	December 15, 130 AD, Rome	Adopted son and heir of Antoninus Pius; Co-emperor with Marcus Aurelius until death	March 7, 161 AD – ? March 169 AD	March 169 AD Natural causes (Plague)	8 years
	Marc'Aurelio CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVS	April 26, 121 AD, Rome	Adopted son and heir of Antoninus Pius; Co-emperor with Lucius Verus until 169 AD	March 7, 161 AD – March 17, 180 AD	March 17, 180 AD Natural causes	19 years
	Commodo CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS COMMODVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVS	August 31, 161 AD, Lanuvium, Italia	Natural son of Marcus Aurelius; joint emperor from 177 AD	177 AD – December 31, 192 AD	December 31, 192 AD Assassinated in palace, strangled to death	15 years,

[edit] Year of the Five Emperors & Severan dynasty

Main articles: Year of the Five Emperors and Severan dynasty family tree

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Death	Time in Office
	Pertinax CAESAR PVBLIVS HELVIVS PERTINAX AVGVSTVS	August 1, 126 AD, Alba, Italia	Proclaimed emperor by Praetorian Guard	January 1, 193 AD – March 28, 193 AD	March 28, 193 AD Murdered by Praetorian Guard	3 months
	Didius Julianus CAESAR MARCVS DIDIVS SEVERVS IVLIANVS AVGVSTVS	133 or 137 AD, Milan, Italia	Won auction held by the Praetorian Guard for the position of emperor	March 28, 193 AD – June 1, 193 AD	June 1, 193 AD Executed on orders of the Senate	2 months 4 days (65 days)
	Septimius Severus CAESAR LVCIVS SEPTIMIVS SEVERVS PERTINAX AVGVSTVS	April 11, 145 AD, Leptis Magna, Africa	Seized power with support of Pannonian legions[5]	April 9, 193 AD – February 4, 211 AD	February 4, 211 AD Natural causes	17 years, 10 months
	Caracalla CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS SEVERVS ANTONINVS PIVS AVGVSTVS	April 4, 188 AD, Lugdunum, Gallia Lugdunensis	Son of Septimius Severus; co-emperor with Severus from 198 AD; with Severus and Geta from 209 AD until February 211 AD; co-emperor with Geta until December 211 AD	198 AD – April 8, 217 AD	April 8, 217 AD Murdered by a soldier as part of a conspiracy involving Macrinus	19 years
	Geta CAESAR PVBLIVS SEPTIMIVS GETA AVGVSTUS	March 7, 189 AD, Rome	Son of Septimius Severus; co-emperor with Severus and Caracalla from 209 AD until February 211 AD; co-emperor with Caracalla until December 211 AD	209 AD – December 26, 211 AD	December 19, 211 AD Murdered on the orders of Caracalla	3 years
	Macrinus MARCVS OPELLIVS SEVERVS MACRINVS AVGVSTVS PIVS FELIX with Diadumenian MARCVS OPELLIVS ANTONINVS DIADUMENIANVS	c. 165 AD, Iol Caesarea, Mauretania	Praetorian Prefect to Caracalla, probably conspired to have Caracalla murdered and proclaimed himself emperor after Caracalla's death; appointed his son Diadumenian junior emperor in May 217	April 11, 217 AD – June 8, 218 AD	June 8, 218 AD Both executed in favour of Elagabalus	1 year, 2 months
	Elagabalus MARCVS AVRELIVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVS	c. 203 AD, Emesa, Syria	Grandson of Septimius Severus's sister-in-law, alleged illegitimate son of Caracalla; proclaimed emperor by Syrian legions	June 8, 218 AD – March 11, 222 AD	March 11, 222 AD Murdered by Praetorian Guard	3 years, 9 months
	Severus Alexander CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS SEVERVS ALEXANDER AVGVSTVS	October 1, 208 AD, Arca Caesarea, Iudaea	Grandson of Septimius Severus's sister-in-law, cousin and adoptive heir of Elagabalus	March 13, 222 AD – March 18, 235 AD	March 18, 235 AD Murdered by the army	13 years

[edit] Emperors during the Crisis of the Third Century

Main article: Crisis of the Third Century

Main article: Roman Emperor (Crisis of the Third Century)

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Death	Time in Office
	Maximinus I CAESAR GAIVS JVLIVS VERVS MAXIMINVS AVGVSTVS	c.173 AD, Thrace or Moesia	Proclaimed emperor by German legions after the murder of Severus Alexander	March 20, 235 AD – April 238 AD	April 238 AD Assassinated by Praetorian Guard	3 years, 1 month
	Gordian I CAESAR MARCVS ANTONIVS GORDIANVS SEMPRONIANVS AFRICANVS AVGVSTVS	c. 159 AD, Phrygia?	Proclaimed emperor, whilst Pro-consul in Africa, during a revolt against Maximinus. Ruled jointly with his son Gordian II, and in opposition to Maximinus. Technically a usurper, but retrospectively legitimised by the accession of Gordian III	March 22, 238 AD – April 12, 238 AD	April 238 AD Committed suicide upon hearing of the death of Gordian II.	21 days
	Gordian II CAESAR MARCVS ANTONIVS GORDIANVS SEMPRONIANVS ROMANVS AFRICANVS AVGVSTVS	c. 192 AD, ?	Proclaimed emperor, alongside father Gordian I, in opposition to Maximinus by act of the Senate.	March 22, 238 AD – April 12, 238 AD	April 238 AD Killed during the Battle of Carthage, fighting a pro-Maximinus army	Not known
	Pupienus CAESAR MARCVS CLODIVS PVPIENVS MAXIMVS AVGVSTVS	c. 178 AD, ?	Proclaimed joint emperor with Balbinus by the Senate in opposition to Maximinus; later co-emperor with Balbinus.	April 22, 238 AD – July 29, 238 AD	July 29, 238 AD Assassinated by the Praetorian Guard
	Balbinus CAESAR DECIMVS CAELIVS CALVINVS BALBINVS PIVS AVGVSTVS	?	Proclaimed joint emperor with Pupienus by the Senate after death of Gordian I & II, in opposition to Maximinus; later co-emperor with Pupienus and Gordian III	April 22, 238 AD – July 29, 238 AD	July 29, 238 AD Assassinated by Praetorian Guard
	Gordian III CAESAR MARCVS ANTONIVS GORDIANVS AVGVSTVS	January 20, 225 AD, Rome	Proclaimed emperor by supporters of Gordian I & II, then by the Senate; joint emperor with Pupienus and Balbinus until July 238 AD.	April 22, 238 AD – February 11, 244 AD	February 11, 244 AD Unknown; possibly murdered on orders of Philip I
	Philip I CAESAR MARCVS IVLIVS PHILLIPVS AVGVSTVS with Philip II	c. 204 AD, Shahba, Syria	Praetorian Prefect to Gordian III, took power after his death; made his son Philip II co-emperor in summer 247 AD	February 244 AD – September/October 249 AD	September/October 249 AD Killed in battle against Trajan Decius, near Verona
	Trajan Decius CAESAR GAIVS MESSIVS QVINTVS TRAIANVS DECIVS AVGVSTVS with Herennius Etruscus	c. 201 AD, Budalia, Lower Pannonia	Governor under Philip I; proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions and defeated Philip in battle; made his son Herennius Etruscus co-emperor in early 251 AD	September/ October 249 AD – June 251 AD	June 251 AD Both killed in the Battle of Abrittus fighting against the Goths
	Hostilian CAESAR CAIVS VALENS HOSTILIANVS MESSIVS QVINTVS AVGVSTVS	Rome	Son of Trajan Decius, accepted as heir by the Senate	June 251 AD – late 251 AD	September/October 251 AD Natural causes (Plague)
	Trebonianus Gallus CAESAR GAIVS VIBIVS TREBONIANVS GALLVS AVGVSTVS with Volusianus	206 AD, Italia	Governor of Moesia Superior, proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions after Trajan Decius's death (and in opposition to Hostilian); made his son Volusianus co-emperor in late 251 AD.	June 251 AD – August 253 AD	August 253 AD Assassinated by their own troops, in favour of Aemilian
	Aemilian CAESAR MARCVS AEMILIVS AEMILIANVS AVGVSTVS	c. 207 AD Africa	Governor of Moesia Superior, proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions after defeating the Goths; accepted as emperor after death of Gallus	August 253 AD – October 253 AD	September/October 253 AD Assassinated by his own troops, in favour of Valerian
	Valerian CAESAR PVBLIVS LICINIVS VALERIANVS AVGVSTVS	c. 195 AD	Governor of Noricum and Raetia, proclaimed emperor by Rhine legions after death of Gallus; accepted as emperor after death of Aemilian	October 253 AD – 260 AD	After 260 AD Captured in Battle of Edessa against Persians, died in captivity
	Gallienus CAESAR PVBLIVS LICINIVS EGNATIVS GALLIENVS AVGVSTVS with Saloninus	218 AD	Son of Valerian, made co-emperor in 253 AD; his son Saloninus is very briefly co-emperor in c. July before assassination by Postumus.	October 253 AD – September 268 AD	September 268 AD Murdered at Aquileia by his own commanders.
	Claudius Gothicus CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS CLAVDIVS AVGVSTVS	May 10, 213 AD/214 AD, Sirmium	Victorious general at Battle of Naissus, seized power after Gallienus's death	September 268 AD – January 270 AD	January 270 AD Natural causes (Plague)
	Quintillus CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS CLAVDIVS QVINTILLVS AVGVSTVS	?, Sirmium	Brother of Claudius Gothicus, seized power after his death	January 270 AD – 270 AD	270 AD Unclear; possibly suicide or murder
	Aurelian CAESAR LVCIVS DOMITIVS AVRELIANVS AVGVSTVS	September 9, 214 AD/215 AD, Sirmium	Proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions after Claudius II's death, in opposition to Quintillus	September(?) 270 AD – September 275 AD	September 275 AD Assassinated by Praetorian Guard
	Tacitus CAESAR MARCVS CLAVDIVS TACITVS AVGVSTVS	c. 200, Interamna	Elected by the Senate to replace Aurelian, after a short interregnum	September 25, 275 AD – June 276 AD	June 276 AD Natural causes (possibly assassinated)
	Florian CAESAR MARCVS ANNIVS FLORIANVS AVGVSTVS	?	Brother of Tacitus, elected by the army in the west to replace him	June 276 AD – September? 276 AD	September? 276 AD Assassinated by his own troops, in favour of Probus
	Probus CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS PROBVS AVGVSTVS	232 AD, Sirmium	Governor of the eastern provinces, proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions in opposition to Florian	September? 276 AD – September/ October 282 AD	September/ October 282 AD Assassinated by his own troops, in favour of Carus
	Carus CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS CARVS AVGVSTVS	c. 230 AD, Narbo	Praetorian Prefect to Probus; seized power either before or after Probus was murdered	September/ October 282 AD – late July/ early August 283 AD	Late July/early August 283 AD Natural causes? (Possibly killed by lightning)
	Numerian CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS NVMERIVS NVMERIANVS AVGVSTVS	?	Son of Carus, succeeded him jointly with his brother Carinus	Late July/early August 283 AD – 284 AD?	284 AD Unclear; possibly assassinated
	Carinus CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS CARINVS AVGVSTVS	?	Son of Carus, succeeded him jointly with his brother Numerian	Late July/early August 283 AD – 285 AD	285 AD Died in battle against Diocletian?

[edit] The Dominate Period

Main article: Dominate

[edit] Tetrarchy and Constantinian dynasty

Main article: Tetrarchy

Main article: Constantinian dynasty

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Death	Time in Office
	Diocletian CAESAR GAIVS AVRELIVS VALERIVS DIOCLETIANVS AVGVSTVS	c. December 22, 244 AD, Salona	Proclaimed emperor by army after death of Numerian, and in opposition to Carinus; adopted Maximian as senior co-emperor in 286 AD	November 20, 284 AD – May 1, 305 AD	3 December 311 AD Abdicated; died of natural causes in Aspalatos	21 years
	Maximian CAESAR GAIVS AVRELIVS VALERIVS MAXIMIANVS AVGVSTVS	c. 250 AD, near Sirmium, Pannonia	Adopted as senior co-emperor ('Augustus') in the west by Diocletian in 286 AD	April 1, 286 AD – May 1, 305 AD	310 AD Abdicated with Diocletian; twice tried to regain throne with, and then from Maxentius; captured by Constantine I and committed suicide at his behest	19 years
	Constantius I Chlorus CAESAR GAIVS FLAVIVS VALERIVS CONSTANTIVS AVGVSTVS	March 31 c. 250 AD, Dardania, Moesia	Adopted as junior co-emperor ('Caesar') and heir by Maximian in 293 AD	May 1, 305 AD – July 25, 306 AD	306 AD Natural causes	1 year and 2 moths
	Galerius CAESAR GALERIVS VALERIVS MAXIMIANVS AVGVSTVS	c. 260 AD, Felix Romuliana, Moesia Superior	Adopted as junior co-emperor ('Caesar') and heir by Diocletian in 293 AD	May 1, 305 AD – May 311 AD	311 AD Natural causes	6 years
	Severus II FLAVIVS VALERIVS SEVERVS AVGVSTVS	?	Adopted as junior co-emperor ('Caesar') and heir by Constantius I Chlorus in 305 AD; succeeded as Augustus in 306; opposed by Maxentius and Constantine I	Summer 306 AD – March/ April 307 AD	September 16, 307 AD Captured by Maxentius and forced to commit suicide (or murdered)	1 year
	Constantine I CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTINVS VALERIVS AVGVSTVS	February 27 c. 272 AD, Naissus, Moesia Superior	Son of Constantius I Chlorus, proclaimed emperor by his father's troops; accepted as Caesar (west) by Galerius in 306 AD; promoted to Augustus (west) in 307 AD by Maximian after death of Severus II; refused relegation to Caesar in 309 AD	25 July 306 AD – May 22, 337 AD	May 22, 337 AD Natural causes	31 years
	Maxentius MARCVS AVRELIVS VALERIVS MAXENTIVS AVGVSTVS	c. 278 AD, ?	Son of Maximian, seized power in 306 after death of Constantius I Chlorus, in opposition to Severus and Constantine I; made Caesar (west) by Maximian in 307 AD after the death of Severus	28 October 306 AD – October 28, 312 AD	October 28, 312 AD Died at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, against Constantine I	6 years
	Maximinus II CAESAR GALERIVS VALERIVS MAXIMINVS AVGVSTVS	November 20 c. 270 AD, Dacia Aureliana	Nephew of Galerius, adopted as Caesar and his heir in 305 AD; succeeded as Augustus (shared with Licinius I) in 311 AD	May 1, 311 AD – July/August 313 AD	July/August 313 AD Defeated in civil war against Licinius I; probably committed suicide thereafter	2 years
	Licinius I CAESAR GAIVS VALERIVS LICINIVS AVGVSTVS with Valerius Valens Martinian	c. 250 AD, Felix Romuliana, Moesia Superior	Appointed Augustus in the west by Galerius in 308 AD, in opposition to Maxentius; became Augustus in the east in 311 AD after the death of Galerius (shared with Maximinus II); defeated Maximinus in civil war to become sole eastern Augustus in 313 AD; appointed Valerius Valens in 317 AD, and Martinian in 324 AD as western Augustus, in opposition to Constantine, both being executed within weeks.	November 11, 308 AD – September 18, 324 AD	325 AD Defeated in civil war against Constantine I in 324 AD and captured; executed on the orders of Constantine the next year	16 years
	Constantine II CAESAR FLAVIVS CLAVDIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS	316 AD, Arles	Son of Constantine I; appointed Caesar in 317 AD, succeeded as joint Augustus with his brothers Constantius II and Constans I	May 22, 337 AD – 340 AD	340 AD Died in battle against Constans I	3 years
	Constantius II CAESAR FLAVIVS IVLIVS CONSTANTIVS AVGVSTVS	August 7, 317 AD, Sirmium, Pannonia	Son of Constantine I; succeeded as joint Augustus with his brothers Constantine II and Constans I; sole emperor from 350 AD	May 22, 337 AD – November 3, 361 AD	361 AD Natural causes
	Constans I CAESAR FLAVIVS IVLIVS CONSTANS AVGVSTVS	320 AD, ?	Son of Constantine I; succeeded as joint Augustus with his brothers Constantine II and Constantius II	May 22, 337 AD – 350 AD	350 AD Assassinated on the orders of the usurper Magnentius
	Vetranio	?, Moesia	General of Constans I, proclaimed Caesar against Magnentius and temporarily accepted as Augustus of the west by Constantius II.	March 1 – December 25, 350 AD	c. 356 As a private citizen, after abdication.
	Julian II CAESAR FLAVIVS CLAVDIVS IVLIANVS AVGVSTVS	331 AD/332 AD, Constantinople, Thracia	Cousin of Constantius II; made Caesar of the west in 355 AD; proclaimed Augustus by his troops in 360; sole emperor after the death of Constantius	February 360 AD – June 26, 363 AD	June 26, 363 AD Mortally wounded in battle
	Jovian CAESAR FLAVIVS IOVIANVS AVGVSTVS	331 AD, Singidunum, Moesia	General of Julian's army; proclaimed emperor by the troops on Julian's death	June 26, 363 AD – February 17, 364 AD	February 17, 364 AD Natural causes (suffocated on fumes)

[edit] Valentinian dynasty

Main article: Valentinian dynasty

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Death	Time in Office
	Valentinian I FLAVIVS VALENTINIANVS AVGVSTVS	321 AD, Cibalae, Pannonia	Elected to replace Jovian by the army	February 26, 364 AD – November 17, 375 AD	November 17, 375 AD Natural causes
	Valens FLAVIVS IVLIVS VALENS AVGVSTVS	328 AD, Cibalae, Pannonia	Brother of Valentinian I, appointed co-augustus (for the east) by him	March 28, 364 AD – August 9, 378 AD	August 9, 378 AD Killed in Battle of Adrianople against the Goths
	Gratian FLAVIVS GRATIANVS AVGVSTVS	April 18/May 23, 359 AD, Sirmium, Pannonia	Son of Valentinian I, appointed 'junior' Augustus by him in 367, became 'senior' augustus (for the west) after Valentinian's death.	August 4, 367 AD – August 25, 383 AD	August 25, 383 AD Murdered by rebellious army faction
	Valentinian II FLAVIVS VALENTINIANVS INVICTVS AVGVSTVS	371 AD, Milan, Italia	Son of Valentinian I, proclaimed emperor by Pannonian army after Valentinian's death; accepted as co-Augustus for the west by Gratian	November 17, 375 AD – May 15, 392 AD	May 15, 392 AD Unclear; possibly murdered or committed suicide

[edit] Theodosian dynasty

Main article: Theodosian dynasty

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Death	Time in Office
	Theodosius I FLAVIVS THEODOSIVS AVGVSTVS	January 11, 347 AD, Cauca, Hispania	Appointed as Augustus for the east by Gratian after the death of Valens; became sole 'senior' Augustus after death of Valentinian II	January 1, 379 AD – January 17, 395 AD	January 17, 395 AD Natural causes
	Arcadius FLAVIVS ARCADIVS AVGVSTVS EAST	c. 377 AD, Hispania	Son of Theodosius I; appointed as 'junior' Augustus for the east by Theodosius in 383 (after the death of Gratian); became 'senior' Augustus for the east after his father's death	January 383 AD – May 1, 408 AD	May 1, 408 AD Natural causes
	Honorius FLAVIVS HONORIVS AVGVSTVS WEST	September 9, 384 AD, ?	Son of Theodosius I; appointed as 'junior' Augustus for the west by Theodosius in 393 (after the death of Valentinian II); became 'senior' Augustus for the west after his father's death	January 23, 393 AD – August 15, 423 AD	August 15, 423 AD Natural causes
	Theodosius II FLAVIVS THEODOSIVS AVGVSTVS EAST	April 10, 401 AD, Constantinople?	Son of Arcadius; appointed as 'junior' Augustus for the east by Arcadius in 402; became 'senior' Augustus for the east after his father's death	January 402 AD – July 28, 450 AD	July 28, 450 AD Natural causes
	Constantius III FLAVIVS CONSTANTIVS AVGVSTVS WEST	?, Naissus, Moesia Superior	Married to Theodosius I's daughter Galla Placidia, elevated to co-Augustus for the west by Honorius	February 8, 421 AD – September 2, 421 AD	September 2, 421 AD Natural causes
	Joannes WEST	?	A senior civil servant under Honorius, proclaimed emperor by Castinus; initially undisputed	August 27, 423 AD – May 425 AD	June or July 425 AD Defeated in battle by Theodosius II and Valentinian III, captured and executed
	Valentinian III FLAVIVS PLACIDIVS VALENTINIANVS AVGVSTVS WEST	July 2, 419 AD, Ravenna, Italia	Son of Constantius III, appointed Caesar for the west by Theodosius II after the death of Honorius, in opposition to the Johannes; became Augustus for the west after the defeat of Johannes	October 23, 424 AD – March 16, 455 AD	March 16, 455 AD Assassinated, possibly at the behest of Petronius Maximus
	Marcian FLAVIVS MARCIANIVS AVGVSTVS EAST	396, Thrace or Illyria	Nominated as successor (and husband) by Pulcheria, sister of Theodosius II	Summer 450 AD – January 457 AD	January 457 AD Natural causes

[edit] The last emperors of the Western Empire

Main article: Western Roman Empire

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Death	Time in Office
	Petronius Maximus FLAVIVS ANICIVS PETRONIVS MAXIMVS AVGVSTVS	c. 396 AD, ?	Proclaimed himself emperor with the support of the army, after the death of Valentinian III	March 17, 455 AD – May 31, 455 AD	May 31, 455 AD Murdered, probably stoned to death by the Roman mob
	Avitus EPARCHIVS AVITVS AVGVSTVS	c. 385 AD, ?	Magister militum under Petronius Maximus, proclaimed emperor by the Visigoth king Theoderic II after Petronius's death	July 9, 455 AD – October 17, 456 AD	after 17 October 456 AD Deposed by his Magister militum, Ricimer; became bishop of Placentia; murdered at some point afterwards
	Majorian IVLIVS VALERIVS MAIORIANVS AVGVSTVS	November 420 AD, ?	Appointed emperor by Ricimer	April 457 AD – August 2, 461 AD	August 7, 461 AD Deposed by his troops (probably at the behest of Ricimer); died shortly afterwards in unclear circumstances
	Libius Severus LIBIVS SEVERVS AVGVSTVS	?, Lucania, Italia	Appointed emperor by Ricimer	November 461 AD – August 465 AD	August 465 AD Probably assassinated by Ricimer
	Anthemius PROCOPIVS ANTHEMIVS AVGVSTVS	c. 420 AD	Appointed emperor by Ricimer, with the backing of the eastern emperor Leo I	April 12, 467 AD – July 11, 472 AD	July 11, 472 AD Executed by Ricimer
	Olybrius FLAVIVS ANICIVS OLYBRIVS AVGVSTVS	c. 420 AD	Son-in-law of Valentinian III; appointed emperor by Ricimer	July 11, 472 AD – November 2, 472 AD	November 2, 472 AD Natural causes
	Glycerius FLAVIVS(?) GLYCERIVS AVGVSTVS	?	Appointed emperor by Gundobad (Ricimer's successor)	March 473 AD – June 474 AD	after 480 AD Deposed by Julius Nepos, became Bishop of Salona, time and manner of death unknown
	Julius Nepos FLAVIVS IVLIVS NEPOS AVGVSTVS	c. 430 AD - 480 AD	Nephew-in-law of the eastern emperor Leo I, appointed emperor in opposition to Glycerius	June 474 AD – August 28, 475 AD (in Italy); – Spring 480 AD (in Gaul and Dalmatia)	480 AD Deposed in Italy by Flavius Orestes, ruled in balance of Western Empire until assassination in 480. Maintained as figurehead in Italy by Odoacer though his death in 480.
	Romulus Augustus FLAVIVS ROMVLVS AVGVSTVS	?	Appointed by his father, Flavius Orestes	October 31, 475 AD – September 4, 476 AD (in Italy)	Unknown. Regarded as emperor more from historical convention than accuracy, his rule never extended beyond portions of Italian peninsular and was not recognized by Eastern Emperor Zeno. Deposed by Odoacer, who then ruled in the name of Julius Nepos until the latter's death in 480, which formally ended the separate western empire; most likely lived out his life on a private villa in obscurity.

[edit] Leonid Dynasty

Main article: House of Leo

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Death	Time in Office
	Leo I FLAVIVS VALERIVS LEO AVGVSTVS	401 AD, ?	Proclaimed emperor by the Magister militum Aspar after Marcian's death	February 7, 457 AD – January 18, 474 AD	January 18, 474 AD Natural causes
	Leo II FLAVIVS LEO IVNIOR AVGVSTVS	467 AD, Constantinople?	Grandson of Leo I by his daughter Ariadne	January 18, 474 AD – November 17, 474 AD	November 17, 474 AD Unclear, possibly assassinated
	Zeno FLAVIVS ZENO PERPETVVS AVGVSTVS	425 AD, Isauria	Father of Leo II	February 9, 474 AD – January 9, 475 AD & August 476 AD – April 9, 491 AD	April 9, 491 AD Natural causes
	Basiliscus FLAVIVS BASILISCVS AVGVSTVS	?	Brother-in-law of Leo I, seized power during a plot against Zeno by Verina (Leo I's widow and Basiliscus's sister)	January 9, 475 AD – August 476 AD	August 476 AD Defeated, captured and executed by Zeno
	Anastasius I FLAVIVS ANASTASIVS AVGVSTVS	c. 430 AD, Dyrrachium	Selected by Ariadne as successor to Zeno (as both emperor and husband)	April 9, 491 AD – July 9, 518 AD	July 9, 518 Natural causes

[edit] Justinian Dynasty

Main article: Justinian Dynasty

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Death	Time in Office
	Justin I FLAVIVS IVSTINVS AVGVSTVS	c. 450 AD, Naissus	Commander of the palace guard under Anastasius I); elected as emperor with support of army	July 9, 518 AD – August 1, 527 AD	August 1, 527 AD Natural causes
	Justinian I FLAVIVS PETRVS SABBATIVS IVSTINIANVS AVGVSTVS	c. 482 AD, Tauresium, Dardania	Nephew and nominated heir of Justin I	August 1, 527 AD – 13/14 November 565 AD	13/14 November 565 AD Natural causes
	Justin II FLAVIVS IVSTINIVS IVNIOR AVGVSTVS	c. 520 AD, ?	Nephew of Justinian I	13/14 November 565 AD – 5 October 578 AD	578 AD Became insane; Tiberius II Constantine ruled as regent from December 574 and became emperor on Justin's death in 578
	Tiberius II Constantine FLAVIVS TIBERIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS	c. 535 AD, ?	Adoptive son of Justin II	5 October 578 AD – 14 August 582 AD	14 August 578 AD Natural causes
	Maurice FLAVIVS MAVRICIVS TIBERIVS AVGVSTVS	539 AD, Arabissus	Son-in-law of Tiberius II Constantine	13 August 582 AD – 27 November 602 AD	27 November 602 AD Executed

[edit] Byzantine emperors

Main articles: Eastern Roman Empire and List of Byzantine Emperors

Continue to List of Byzantine Emperors

[edit] Timeline

Timeline indicating the chronological life-spans of the Roman Emperors

[edit] See also

• List of Roman dictators (501 – 44 BC)
• List of Roman usurpers
• Roman Emperors family tree

[edit] References

• Chris Scarre,Brandon Shaw, Chronicle of the Roman Emperors, Thames & Hudson, 1995, Reprinted 2001, ISBN 0-500-05077-5
• Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome, Penguin Classics, Michael Grant Publications Ltd, 1971, Reprinted 1985, ISBN 0-14-044060-7
• Martha Ross, Rulers and Governments of the World, Vol.1 Earliest Times to 1491, Bowker, 1978, ISBN 0-85935-021-5
• Clive Carpenter, The Guinness Book of Kings Rulers & Statesmen, Guinness Superlatives Ltd, 1978, ISBN 0-900424-46-X
• R.F.Tapsell, Monarchs Rulers Dynasties and Kingdoms of The World, Thames & Hudson, 1981, Reprinted 1987, ISBN 0-500-27337-5

1. ^ ^{a b} Rubicon. Holland, T. Abacus, 978-0349115634
2. ^ Chester G. Starr, A History of the Ancient World, Second Edition. Oxford University Press, 1974. pp. 670–678.
3. ^ Asimov, [title?], p. 198.
4. ^ http://www.byzantium.xronikon.com/statfirst.html
5. ^ The other claimants for the throne in the Year of the Five Emperors were Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus, supported by the Syrian and British legions respectively. Although not completely defeated until 197 AD, they were not formally accepted by the senate and were therefore not technically reigning emperors.

[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Roman Emperors

• Biographies of Roman Emperors.
• List of the Roman Emperors 27 BC – 395 AD
• Portraits and fact files
• The Roman Law Library by Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev.
• Timeline of Roman Emperors and Empresses

[show] v t e Roman emperors by epoch List of Roman emperors · Concise list · Roman Empire · Family tree Principate Crisis of the 3rd century Dominate Division Successors Julio-Claudian dynasty (27 BC – 68 AD) Four Emperors (68–69) Flavian dynasty (69–96) Nerva–Antonine dynasty (96–192) Five Emperors (192–193) Severan dynasty (193–235) Barracks emperors (235–284) Illyrian emperors (268–284) Gallic Emperors (260–274) Britannic Emperors (286–297) Tetrarchies (293–313) Constantinian dynasty (305–363) Valentinian dynasty (364–392) Theodosian dynasty (378–455) Western Roman Emperors (395–476) Eastern Roman/Byzantine Emperors (395–1453) Barbarian kings of Italy Latin emperors Holy Roman Emperors Ottoman Sultans

[show] v t e Roman emperors Principate 27 BC – 235 AD Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius with Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus with Diadumenian Elagabalus Alexander Severus Crisis 235–284 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I and Gordian II Pupienus and Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Decius with Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus with Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus with Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Tacitus Florianus Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Constantius Chlorus Galerius Severus Maxentius Maximinus Daia Licinius with Valerius Valens and Martinianus Constantine the Great Constantine II Constans I Constantius II with Vetranio Julian the Apostate Jovian Valentinian I Valens Gratian Valentinian II Theodosius I Western Empire 395–480 Honorius with Constantine III Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I the Thracian Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Anastasius I Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV Justinian II Leontios Tiberios III Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosios III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe Leo V the Armenian Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoe Romanos III Argyros Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Constantine IX Monomachos Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos Michael IX Palaiologos Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos Matthew Kantakouzenos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos

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Categories:

• Roman emperors
• Lists of monarchs
• Roman Empire
• Lists of office-holders in Ancient Rome