GRICE ITALO A/Z V VAR

 Grice e Varisco: la ragione conversazionale, o l’implicatura conversazionale del sommario di criticismo – la scuola di Chiari – filosofia lombarda -- filosofia italiana – Luigi Speranza, pel Gruppo di Gioco di H. P. Grice, The Swimming-Pool Library (Chiari). Filosofo lombardo. Filosofo italiano. Chiari, Brescia, Lombardia. Essential Italian philosopher. Filosofo italiano. Grice: “We all learned about the ‘gnothi seauton’ at Clifton – Varisco composed a full tract about it! Calogero has analysed the implicatures! The idea is that you need a ‘thou’ to tell ‘thou’ ‘knowest THYself” – although the oracular mystique is still there!” – Insegna filosofia a Roma e senator. La sua formazione filosofica coincide con la crisi del positivismo.  Si laurea a Pavia. Partendo da posizioni solidamente scientifiche, V. avverte sollecitamente il limite di ogni conoscenza che voglia essere esclusivamente composto di ragione, e scopre insieme la concomitante componente fideistica di ogni affermazione di verità.  Questo ricorso alla fede come sentimento del sopra-naturale è utilizzato da V. sia per affermare la preminenza della filosofia come conoscenza concreta sui processi astrattivi della scienza -- “I massimi problemi” (Milano, Libreria Editrice Milanese) -- sia per approdare ad uno spiritualismo pluralistico con forti accentuazioni teistiche -- “Dall'uomo a Dio” (Padova, Milani).  Altre saggi: “Scienza ed opinione” (Roma, Alighieri); “La patria” (Roma, Provenzani), “Conosci te stesso” (Milano, Libreria Milanese); “La scuola per la vita” (Milano, Isis); “Linee di filosofia critica” (Roma, Signorelli); “Discorsi politici” (Roma, Alberti); “Sommario di filosofia” (Roma, Signorelli). Cavaliere dell'Ordine della Corona d'Italia nastrino per uniforme ordinaria cavaliere dell'Ordine della corona d'Italia, ufficiale dell'Ordine della Corona d'Italia nastrino per uniforme ordinaria Ufficiale dell'Ordine della Corona d'Italia, Commendatore dell'Ordine della Corona d'Italia nastrino per uniforme ordinaria Commendatore dell'Ordine della Corona d'Italia. Cavaliere di Gran Croce dell'Ordine della Corona d'Italia nastrino per uniforme ordinaria Cavaliere di Gran Croce dell'Ordine della Corona d'Italia. Senatori d'Italia, Senato della Repubblica. Varisco. Keywords: know theyself, oracular implicature, Calogero. Refs.: The H. P. Grice Papers, BANC MS, -- Luigi Speranza, “Grice e Varisco: per un sommario di filosofia critica” – The Swimming-Pool Library, Villa Speranza, Liguria. Varisco.

 

Grice e Varrone: la ragione conversazionale e l’implicatura conversazionale della semiotica filosofica – la scuola di Rieti – filosofia lazia -- filosofia italiana – Luigi Speranza, pel Gruppo di Gioco di H. P. Grice, The Swimming-Pool Library (Rieti). Filosofo lazio. Filosofo italiano. Rieti, Lazio. Grice: “I count Varrone as the first language philosopher. He woke up one day, and realised he was speaking ‘lingua latina,’ and dedicated 36 volumes to it!” --. Grice: “’Lingua latina’ has a nice Roman ring to it. In modern Italian, the ‘t’ has become an ‘z,’ as in “Lazio,  -- the calcio team from Latium – or a ‘d’ as in ‘ladino.’” Grice: “I know his Loeb edition by heart!” – Grice: “The Greeks never studied their lingo as Varro studied his! Of this Austin always reminded me: ‘We should be like Varro, analysing our tongue as a ‘fluid’ semiotic system!’”. Academic, Roman polymath, author of essays on language, agriculture, history and  philosophy, as well as satires, and principal conversationalist in CICERONE’s "Academica.” Questore della repubblica romana. Gens: Terentia. Questura in Illyricum. Pro-pretura in Spagna. Tu ci hai fatto luce su ogni epoca della patria, sulle fasi della sua cronologia, sulle norme dei suoi rituali, sulle sue cariche sacerdotali, sugli istituti civili e militari, sulla dislocazione dei suoi quartieri e vari punti, su nomi, generi, su doveri e cause dei nostri affari, sia divini che umani -- CICERONE, Academica Posteriora. Detto reatino, attributo che lo distingue da “Varrone Atacino,” vissuto nello stesso periodo. Nato da una famiglia di nobili origini, ha rilevanti proprietà terriere in Sabina, dove e educato con disciplina e severità dai familiari, integrate dall'acquisto di lussuose ville a Baia e fondi terrieri a Tusculum e Cassino. A Roma compe studi avanzati presso i migliori maestri del tempo. Lucio Elio Stilone PRECONINO (vedi) lo fa appassionare anche agli studi etimologici ed oratoria. Studia la lingua italiana con Lucio ACCIO (vedi), a cui dedica “De antiquitate litterarum.” Come molti romani, compe un grand tour in Grecia, dove ascolta filosofi accademici come Filone di Larissa e Antioco di Ascalona, da cui deduce una posizione filosofica di tipo eclettico. A differenza di molti altri filosofi del tempo, non si ritira dalla vita politica ma, anzi, vi prende parte attivamente accostandosi agl’optimates, forse anche influenzato dall'estrazione sociale. Dopo aver, infatti, percorso le prime tappe del cursus honorum – trium-viro capitale, questore, e legato -- e vicino a POMPEO, per il quale ricopre incarichi di grande importanza. Legato e pro-questore, combatte nella guerra contro i pirati difendendo la zona navale tra la Sicilia e Delo. Allo scoppio della guerra civile e propretore. In una guerra che vede i romani contro i romani, tenta un’incerta difesa del suo territorio che si concluse in una resa che GIULIO (vedi) CESARE (vedi), nei Commentarii de bello civili, define poco gloriosa. Dopo la disfatta dei pompeiani, si avvicina, comunque, a GIULIO CESARE, che apprezza il reatino soprattutto sul piano culturale, affidandogli la costituzione di una biblioteca. Dopo l’assassinio di GIULIO CESARE, anzi, e inserito nelle liste di proscrizione sia di MAR’ANTONIO che di OTTAVIANO -- interessati più alle sue ricchezze che a punire i congiuranti -- da cui si salva grazie all'intervento di Fufio CALENO (vedi) per poi avvicinarsi a OTTAVIANO a cui dedica il “De vita populi Romani” volto alla divinizzazione della figura di GIULIO CESARE. Ha una produzione di oltre 620 libri, suddivisi in circa settanta opere. Saggi: “De re rustica” (Varrone) e “De lingua Latina”. La sua vasta produzione è suddivisa da Girolamo in un catalogo. Le sue opere di sono verosimilmente 74, suddivise in 620 volumi, sebbene stesso egli rifere di aver scritto 490 saggi.  I suoi saggi  possono essere suddivise in vari gruppi, dalle opere di erudizione, filologia (filosofia del linguaggio, o semantica) e storia a quelle giuridiche e burocratiche, dalle opere di filosofia (filosofia del linguaggio, semantica, semiotica) e agricoltura alle opere di poesia, di linguistica e letteratura; di retorica e diritto, con ben 15 libri De iure civili; di filosofia. Di questa enorme produzione è pervenuta quasi integra solo un'opera, il “De re rustica”. Del “De lingua Latina” sono pervenuti solo 6 libri su 25. Probabilmente, causa del quasi completo naufragio della immane varroniana è che, avendo compulsato tanta parte della cultura romana precedente, divenne la fonte indispensabile per i filosofi successivi, perdendosi, per così dire, per assimilazione. Della sua attività filologica fa testimonianza il cosiddetto canone varroniano, elaborato a partire da due opere, le “Quaestiones Plautinae” e il “De comoediis Plautinis”, in cui riparte il corpus plautino, che include 130 fabulae. Di queste, 21 vengono definite autentiche, 19 di origine incerta (dette "pseudo-varroniane”);  le restanti, spurie.  Si occupa soprattutto di antiquaria, con i 41 libri di “Antiquitates”, il suo capolavoro, divisi in 25 di “res humanae” e 16 di “res divinae”, fonte precipua di AGOSTINO nel “De civitate Dei.” Proprio d’AGOSTINO si evidenzia l'attenzione di V. sulla religione civile, con una compiuta disamina su culti e tradizioni, pur con acute critiche alla teologia mitica dei poeti in nome di una theologia naturalis. A questo gruppo appartiene anche l'opera, non pervenuta, “De bibliothecis”, presumibilmente legata alle incombenze come bibliotecario affidategli da GIULIO CESARE. Nell'ambito filosofico, notevoli dovevano essere “I logistorici” -- dal greco “discorsi di storia” -- in 76 libri, composta in forma di dialogo in prosa, di argomento morale e antiquario, in cui ogni libro prende il nome di un personaggio storico e un tema di cui il personaggio costituiva un modello, come il “Mario”, “de fortuna” o il “Cato”, “de liberis educandis”. Questi dialoghi storico-filosofici sono tra i modelli espositivi del “Lelio”; “de amicitia” e del “Catone maggiore”, “de senectute” di CICERONE. Al suo interesse filosofico e divulgativo, probabilmente scritte lungo tutto il corso della sua parabola culturale, riconducevano le “Saturae Menippeae”, che prendeno come modello Menippo, esponente della filosofia cinica -- da cui il nome. Le “Saturae Menippeae” si componevano di 150 libri, in prosa e in versi, di cui però ci rimangono circa 600 frammenti e novanta titoli, di argomento soprattutto filosofico, ma anche di critica dei costumi, morale, con rimpianti sui tempi antichi in contrasto con la corruzione del presente. Ciascuna satira reca un titolo, desunto da proverbi (“Cave canem” -- con allusione alla mordacità dei filosofi cinici) o dalla mitologia (“Eumenide” contro la tesi stoico-cinica per cui gl’uomini sono folli, “Trikàranos”, il mostro a tre teste, con un mordace riferimento al primo triumvirate, ed era caratterizzata da lessico popolaresco, polimetria e, come in Menippo, uno stile tragi-comico. Valerio Massimo, Aulo Gellio. Ce ne parla lui stesso in “De lingua latina”. Cicerone, Academica posteriora, Appiano, Guerre civili. Varrone, De re rustica. Svetonio, Cesare, Appiano, Ausonio, Commemoratio professorum Burdigalensium, Chronicon, ann. Aulo Gellio, Gellio, I cui frammenti sono editi nell’edizione di Cardauns: “Antiquitates rerum divinarum” Cfr. Zucchelli, V. logistoricus. Studio letterario e prosopografico, Parma, Cfr., ad esempio, il Fr. XIX Riese: "Da ragazzo, avevo solo una tunica modesta e una toga, calzature senza fascette, un cavallo non sellato; bagno giornaliero, niente e, davvero di rado, una tinozza".  Horsfall, V., in Letteratura Latina (Milano, Mondadori). Cfr. Salanitro, Le Menippee di V.: contributi esegetici e linguistici (Roma, Ateneo). Sulla satira varroniana, cfr. Alfonsi, Le Menippee di V., in "ANRW". Atti del Congresso di studi varroniani. Rieti, CENTRO DI STUDI VARRONIANI. Cenderelli, “Varroniana” Istituti e terminologia giuridica nelle opere di V. (Milano, Giuffrè); Dahlmann, “V. e la teoria della lingua” (Napoli, Loffredo), Corte, “V., il terzo gran lume romano” (Genova, Istituto universitario di Magistero); “De vita populi Romani” Introduzione e commento, Pisa; Riposati, “V. De vita populi Romani”. Fonti, esegesi, edizione critica dei frammenti (Milano, Vita e pensiero), Riposati, “V.: l'uomo e il filosofo” (Roma Istituto di studi romani); Traglia, Introduzione a V., “Opere” (Torino, POMBA), Zucchelli, “V. logistoricus: prosopo-grafica”, Parma, Istituto di lingua e letteratura latina, Satira menippea Biblioteche romane Antiquitates rerum humanarum et divinarum Treccani Enciclopedie, Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana. Enciclopedia Italiana, Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana, Dizionario di storia, Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana. V. “De lingua Latina libri qui supersunt: cum fragmentis ejusdem” Biponti, ex typographia societatis. Biblioteca degli scrittori latini con traduzione e note: “V. quae supersunt opera” Venetiis, excudit Antonelli, “Grammaticae Romanae Fragmenta”, Gino Funaioli, Lipsiae, in aedibus Teubneri. “M. Terenti Varronis saturarum menippearum reliquiae” -- cur. Riese, Lipsiae, in aedibus Teubneri. In passing from Rome to Rieti we enter a different world. One rightly speaks of the Greco-Roman era as a period of unified civilisation around the Mediterranean area, but the respective roles of the Italotes and the Romns are dissimilar, if complementary. Without the other, the contribution of either would have been less significant and less productive. The Romans have for long enjoyed contact with Hellenic and Etrurian material culture and intellectual ideas, and further through the Greek settlements in the south of Italy: Sicily and Magna Grecia.The Romans learned to write from the western Greeks. But the Hellenic world fell progressively within the control of Rome, by now the mistress of the whole of Italia The expansion of Roman rule becomes complete, and the Roman Empire, as it now is, achieves a relatively permanent position, which, with fairly small-scale changes in Britain and on the northern and eastern frontiers, remains free of serious wars for years. The second half of this period earns Gibbon's encomium, 'If a man were called to fix the period in the history of the world during which the condition of the human race is most happy and prosperous, he would, without hesitation, name that which elapsed from the death of DOMIZIANO to the accession of COMMODO.' In taking over the Hellenic world, the Romans bring within their sway whatever they find on the way.The intellectual background of Etruria and the Hellenes and the polical unity and freedom of intercourse provided by Roman stability are the conditions in which the Roman Empire shines. To the Romans, Europe and much of the entire modern world owe the origins of their intellectual, moral, political and religious civilisation. From their earliest contacts, the Romans cheerfully acknowledge the superior pompousness of the Greeks – by which they included the Etrurians. Linguistically, this is reflected in the different languages of the eastern and the western provinces. In the western half of the Roman empire, where no contact had been made with a recognised civilization, Latin  -- which subsists in Italian – becomes he language of administration, business, law, learning, and social advancement. Ultimately, Latin displaces the former languages of most of the western provinces, and becomes in the course of linguistic evolution the modern Romance, or Neo-Latin, languages of contemporary Europe, notably French (Italian is no romance; Italian IS Latin!). In the east, however, already largely under Hellenic administration since the Hellenistic period, Greek retains the position it has already reached. Roman officials often complain about having to learn and use Greek in the course of their duties, and Hellenic philosophy was quite respected for its eccentricity. Ultimately this linguistic division is politically recognized in the splitting of the Roman Empire into the Western and the Eastern Empires, with the new eastern capital at COSTANTINO’s Constantinople enduring as the head of the Byzantine dominions through much trial and tribulation up to the beginning of the western Renaissance. The accepted view of the relation between Roman rule and Hellenic civilization is probably well represented in Vergil's summary of Rome's place and duty: let others (i.e. the Greeks) excel if they will in the arts, while Rome keeps the peace of the world. During the years in which Rome rules the western civilised world, there must have been contacts between speakers of Latin and speakers of other languages at all levels and in all places. Interpreters must have been in great demand, and the teaching and learning of Latin -- and, in the eastern provinces, of Greek --  must have been a concern for all manner of persons both in private households and in organized schools. Translations are numerous. Greek literature is systematically translated into Latin. So much did the prestige of Greek writing prevail, that Latin poetry abandons its native metres and was composed during the classical period and after in metres learned from the Greek poets. This adaptation to Latin of Greek metres find its culmination in the magnificent hexameters of VIRGILIO and the perfected elegiacs of OVIDIO. It is surprising that we know so little of the details of all this linguistic activity, and that so little writing on the various aspects of linguistic contacts is either preserved for us or known to have existed. The Romans are aware of multi-lingualism as an achievement. AULO GELLIO tells of the remarkable king Mithridates of Ponto who was able to converse with any of his subjects, who fell into more than twenty different speech communities. In linguistic science, the Roman experience is no exception to the general condition of their relations with Greek intellectual work. Roman linguistics is largely the application of Greek philosophy, Greek controversies, and Greek categories to the Latin language. The relatively similar basic structures of the two languages, together with the unity of civilization achieved in the Greco-Roman world, facilitate this meta-linguistic transfer. The introduction of linguistic studies into Rome is credited to one of those picturesque anecdotes that lighten the historian's narrative. CRATES, a philosopher of the Porch and grammarian, comes to Rome on a political delegation, and while sightseeing, falls on an open drain and is detained in bed with a broken leg. CRATES passes the time while recovering in giving lectures on literary themes to an appreciative audience. It is probable that Crates as a philosopher of the PORCH introduces mainly that doctrine in his teaching. But Greek philosophers and Greek philosophy enter the Roman world increasingly in this period, and by the time of V., both Alexandrian and Stoic opinions on language are known and discussed. V. is the first serious Latin philosopher on linguistic questions of whom we have any records. V. is a polymath, ranging in his interests through agriculture, senatorial procedure, and Roman antiquities. The number of his writings is celebrated by his contemporaries, and his "De lingua Latina", wherein he expounds his linguistic opinions, comprise XXV volumes, of which books V and VI and some fragments of the others survive. One major feature of V.’s linguistic philosophy is his lengthy exposition and formalization of the opposing views in the analogy-anomaly controversy, and a good deal of his description and analysis of Latin appears in his treatment of this problem. He is, in fact, one of the main sources for its details, and it has been claimed that he misrepresents it as a matter of permanent academic attack and counter-attack, rather than as the more probable co-existence of opposite tendencies or attitudes. V.'s style is criticised as unattractive, but on linguistic questions he is probably the most original of all the Latin philosophers. V. is much influenced by the philosophy of the Porch, including that of his own teacher STILONE. But V. is equally familiar with Alexandrian doctrine, and a fragment purporting to preserve his definition of grammar, 'the systematic knowledge of the usage of the majority of poets, historians, and orators' looks very much like a direct copy of Thrax's definition. On the other hand, V. appears to use his Greek predecessors and contemporaries rather than merely apply them with the minimum of change to Latin. His statements and conclusions are supported by argument and exposition, and by the independent investigation of earlier stages of the Latin language. V. is much admired and quoted by later philosophers, though in the main stream of linguistic theory his treatment of Latin grammar does not bring to bear the influence on the successors to antiquity that more derivative scholars such as PRISCIANO does, who set themselves to describe Latin within the framework already fixed for Greek by Thrax's Techne and the syntactic works of Apollonius. In the evaluation of V.'s work on language we are hampered by the fact that only two of the XXV books of the “De lingua Latina” survive. We have his threefold division of linguistic studies, into etymology, morphology, and syntax, and the material to judge the first and second.V. envisages language developing from an original set of primal words, imposed on things so as to refer to them, and acting productively as the source of large numbers of other words through subsequent changes in letters, or in phonetic form -- the two modes of description comes to the same thing for him.. These changes take place in the course of years. An earlier forms, such as "duellum" for classical "bellum", V. cites as an instance. At the same time, a *meaning* may change, as, for example, the meaning of “hostis”, once 'stranger', but in V.'s time, 'enemy.' These etymologico-semantic statements are supported by scholarship. But a great deal of V.’s etymology suffers from the same weakness and lack of comprehension that characterizes Hellenic work in this field. "Anas", from "nare", to swim, “vitis,” from “vis;” “cilra, “care, from “cor iirere,” are sadly typical both of V.’s philosophy and of Latin etymological studies in general. A fundamental ignorance of linguistic history is seen in V.'s references to Hellenism. A similarity in a form bearing comparable meanings in Latin and Greek is obvious. Take the first personal pronoun: 'ego.' Some similarities are the produ.ct of historical loans at various periods once the two communities made indirect and then direct contact. Other similarities are the joint descendants of an earlier common Aryan forms whose existence may be inferred and whose shape may to some extent be reconstructed by the methods of comparative and historical linguistics. But of this, V., like the rest of antiquity, has no conception. All such bunch is jointly regarded by him as a direct loan from the conquered Greek, whose place in the immediate history of Latin is misrepresented and exaggerated as a result of the Romans’ consciousness of their cultural debt to Greece and mythological associations of Greek heroes -- and their enemies, like Aeneas! -- in the story of the founding of Rome. In his conception of vocabulary growing from alterations made to the forms of primal words, V. unites two separate considerations: historical etymology and the synchronic formation of derivations and inflexions. Certain canonical members of paradigmatically associated word series are said to be primal -- all the others resulting from “declinatio”, the formal process of change. A derivational prefix is given particular attention. One must regret V.’s failure to distinguish two linguistic dimensions, because, as with other linguistic philosophers in antiquity, V.’s synchronic descriptive observations are much more informative and perceptive than his attempts at historical etymology. As an example of an apparent awareness of the distinction, one may note V.’s statement that, within Latin, "equitiittis" and "eques" -- stem "equit-" – may be associated with and descriptively referred back to "equus". But that no further explanation on the same lines is possible for "equus". Within Latin, ‘equus’ is primal. Any explanation of its form and its meaning involves a dia-chronic research into an earlier stages of the Indo-European family and cognate forms in languages other than Latin. In the field of word form variations from a single root, both derivational and inflexional, V. rehearses the arguments for and against analogy and anomaly, citing Latin examples of regularity and of irregularity. Sensibly enough, V. concludes that both the principle of analogy and the principle of anomaly must be recognized and accepted in the word formations of a language and in the meanings associated with them. In discussing the limits of strict regularity in the formation of words V. notices the pragmatic nature of language, with its vocabulary more differentiated in culturally important areas than in others. Thus "equus" and "equa" have separate forms for the male and female animal, because the sex difference is important to the Romans. But "corvus" does not, because in them the difference is not important to Romans. Once this is true of "columba" -- formerly all designated by the feminine noun. But since "columbae" are domesticated, a separate, analogical, masculine form "columbUS" is ‘coined.’ V. further recognises the possibilities open to the individual, particularly in poetic diction, of variations or anomalies beyond those sanctioned by majority usage or 'ordinary language', a conception not remote from the Saussurean interpretation of langue and parole. One of V.'s most penetrating observations in this context is the distinction between derivational and inflexional formation, a distinction not commonly made in antiquity. One of the characteristic features of inflexions is their very great generality. Inflexional paradigms contain few omissions and are mostly the same for all speakers of a single dialect or of an acknowledged standard language. This part of morphology V. calls 'declinatio naturalis’, because, given a word and its inflexional class, we can infer its other forms. By contrast, synchronic derivations vary in use and acceptability from person to person and from one word root to another. From "ovis" and "sus" are formed "ovile" and "suile.” But "bovile" is *not* acceptable to V. from "bos" -- although rustic CATONE is said to have used the form as opposed to the more standard "bubile.” The facultative and less ordered state of this part of morphology, which gives a language much of its flexibility, is distinguished by V. in what he dubs ‘declinatio VOLUNTARIA.’ V. shows himself likewise original in his proposed morphological classification of Latin words. His use in this of the morphological categories shows how V. understands and makes use of Greek sources without deliberately copying their conclusions. V. recognises, as the Greeks do, case and tense as the primary distinguishing categories of inflected words, and sets up a quadripartite system of FOUR inflexionally contrasting classes. Those with case inflexion. Those with tense inflexion. Those with case and tense inflexion. Those with neither. Noun (including Adjective). Verbs. Participle. Adverb. These IV classes are further categorised as a forms which, respectively, names, makes a statement, joins (i.e. shared in the syntax of nouns and verbs), and supports (constructed with verbs as their subordinate members). In the passages dealing with these IV classes, the adverbial examples are all morphologically derived forms -- like "docte" and "lecte". V.’s definition would apply equally well to the un-derived and mono-morphemic adverbs of Latin -- like "mox" and "eras". But these are referred to elsewhere among the uninflected, invariable or 'barren,’ sterile, words. A full classification of the invariable words of Latin would require the distinction of syntactically defined sub-classes such as Thrax used for Greek and the later Latin grammarians took over for Latin. But, from his examples, it seems clear that what was of prime interest to V. is the range of grammatically different words that may be formed on a single common root -- e.g. "lego" (VERB – CLASS II) , "lector" – NOUN, CLASS I --, "legens" – PARTICIPLE, CLASS III -- and "lecte" – ADVERB – CLASS IV. In his treatment of the verbal category of tense, Varro displays his sympathy with the doctrine of the Porch, in which two semantic functions are distinguished within the forms of the tense paradigms, time reference and ‘aspect.’ In his analysis of the VI INDICATIVE indicative tenses, active and passive, the *aspectual* division, incomplete-complete, is the more fundamental for V., as each aspect regularly shares the same stem form, and, in the passive voice the *completive* aspect tenses consists of *two* expressions, though V. claims that, erroneously, most people only consider the time reference dimension. IS Active Time past present future Aspect incomplete DISCIBAM  I was DISCO I learn DISCAM I shall learning learn complete DIDICERAM I had DIDICI I have DIDICERII I shall learned learned have learned Passive incomplete AMTIBAR I was AMOR I am AMITBOR  I shall be loved loved loved complete AMTITUS  I had AMTITUS I have AMIITUS I shall ERAM been sum been ERA have been loved loved loved The Latin future perfect is in more common use than the corresponding Greek (Attic) future perfect. V. puts the Latin perfect tense forms DIDICI, etc., in the present *completive* place, corresponding to the place of the Greek perfect tense forms. In what we have or know of his writings, V. does not appear to have allowed for one of the major differences between the Greek and Latin tense paradigms -- viz. that, in the Latin perfect tense, there is a syncretism of a simple past meaning ('I did'), and a perfect meaning ('I have done') -- corresponding to the Greek aorist and perfect respectively. The Latin perfect tense forms belong in *both* completive and non-completive aspectual categories, a point clearly made later by PRISCIANO in his exposition of a similar analysis of the Latin verbal tenses. If the difference in use and meaning between the Greek and Latin perfect tense forms seems to escape V.'s attention, the more obvious contrast between the V-term case system of Greek and the *VI*-term system of Latin forces itself on him, as it does on anyone else who learned both languages. Latin formally distinguished an ABLATIVE CASE. 'By whom an action is performed' is the gloss given by V.. THE ABLATIVE CASE shares a number of the meanings and syntactic functions of both the Greek GENITIVE and DATIVE case forms. V. takes the NOMINATIVE form not as a casus but as as the canonical word forms, from which the oblique forms -- cases -- are developed. Like his Greek colleagues across the pond, V. contents himself with fixing on one stereo-typical meaning or relationship as definitive for each case. V., who was no Cicero – ‘he is a Varro’ implicates ‘he is a know-it-all’ in Roman -- mistranslates ‘aitiatike ptosis’ by ACCUSATIVUS rather than the more correct, CAUSATIVUS. V. is probably the most independent and original philosopher on linguistic topics among the Romans. After V. we can follow discussions of existing questions by several philosophers with no great claim on our attention. Among others, GIULIO CESARE – the well-known general assassinated by the senators -- is reported to have turned his mind to the analogy-anomaly debate while crossing the Alps on a campaign. Thereafter, the controversy gradually fades away. PRISCIANO uses ‘analogia’ to mean the regular inflexion of an inflected word, without mentioning ‘anomalia’. ‘Anomalia’ appears occasionally among the late grammarians.V.'s ideas on the classification of Latin words have been noticed. But the word class system that is established in the Latin tradition enshrines in the ‘saggi’ of PRISCIANO and the late Latin ‘philosophical’ grammarians – cf. CAMPANELLA, ‘Grammatica filosofica’ -- is much closer to. the one given in Thrax's Techne. The number of classes remains now at VIII, with one change. A class of words corresponding to the Greek definite article ‘ho,’ ‘he,’ ‘to,’ does not exist in  Latin. The definite article of Italian develops later from weakened forms of the demonstrative pronoun ‘ille’ (il) and ‘illa’ (la). The Greek *relative* pronoun is morphologically similar to the article and classed with it by Thrax and Apollonius. In Latin, the relative pronoun – ‘qui’, ‘quae’, and ‘quod’ -- is morphologically akin to the interrogative pronoun – ‘quis’, ‘quid’ -- and both are classed together either with the noun or the pronoun class. In place of the article, Latin grammarians recognise the ‘interjection’ as a separate ‘pars orationis’, instead of treating it as a subclass of adverbs as Thrax and Apollonius do. PRISCIAN regards the separate status of the interjection as common practice among Latin scholars. But the first philosopher who is known to have dealt with it in this way is REMMIO PALEMONE, a grammatical and literary scholar who defines the interjection as having no statable meaning but merely indicating – via natural meaning, as H. P. Grice would have it – emotion, as in Aelfric he he versus ha ha (Roman versus English laughter). PRISCIANO lays more stress on the syntactic independence of the interjection in sentence structure. QUINTILIANO, a Spaniard, not a Roma, is PALEMONE’s pupil. This Spaniard writes extensively on education, and in his “Institutio aratoria”, wherein he expounds his opinions, he dealt briefly with ‘GRAMMATICA’ – the first of the trivial arts -- , regarding it as a propaedeutic to the full and proper appreciation of literature in a liberal education, in terms very similar to those used by Thrax at the beginning of the Techne. In a matter of detail, QUINTILIANO discusses the analysis of the Latin case system, a topic always prominent in the minds of Latin scholars who knew Greek by default (Who didn’t have a Greek slave?). QUINTILIANO suggests isolating the instrumental use of the ABLATIVE -- "gladiii" -- as case VII, since, as he notes, this instrumental use of the ablative case has nothing in common semantically with the other meanings of the ablative. A separate ‘instrumental’ case forms is found (but a Spaniard wouldn’t know) in Sanskrit, and may be inferred for unitary Indo-european, though the Greeks and Romans knew nothing of this. It was and is common practice to name the cases by reference to one of their meanings – DATIVUS,  'giving', ABLATIVUS, 'taking away', etc. -- but their formal identity as members of a VI-term paradigm rests on their meaning, or more generally, their meanings, and their syntactic functions being associated with a morphologically distinct form in at least some of the members of the case inflected word classes. PRISCIAN and DONATO see this, and in view of the absence of any morphological feature distinguishing an alleged instrumental use of the ablative case forms from their other uses, PRISCIANO explicitly reproves of such an addition to the descriptive grammar of Latin as redundant – or “supervacuum,” as he said for ‘otiose.’ The work of V., QUINTILIANO, shows the process of absorption of Greek linguistic theory, controversies, and categories, in their application to the Latin language. But Latin linguistic scholarship is best known for the formalization of descriptive Latin grammar, to become the basis of all education in later antiquity and the traditional schooling of the modern world. The Latin grammar of the present day is the direct descendants of the compilations of the later Latin grammarians, as the most cursory examination of PRISCIANO’s “Institutiones grammaticae” will show. PRISCIANO’s grammar, comprising XVIII books and running to nearly a thousand pages may be taken as representative of their work. Quite a number of writers of Latin grammars, working in different parts of the Roman Empire, are known to us. Of them DONATO and PRISCIANO are the best known. Though they differ on several points of detail, on the whole these philosopohical grammarians set out and follow the same basic system of grammatical description. For the most part, Roman philosophical grammarians show little originality, doing their best to apply the terminology and categories of the Greek grammarians to the Latin language. The Greek technical terms are given fixed translations with the nearest available Latin word. ‘onoma’, ‘NOMEN’ ‘anto-nymia,’ ‘PRO-NOMEN’ ‘syn-desmos,’ ‘CON-IUCTIO’ etc. In this procedure they had been encouraged by DIDIMO,  a voluminous scholar, who states that every feature of Greek grammar IS TO BE found in Latin. DIDIMO follows the word class system of the PORCH, which included the article (absent in Latin) and the personal pronouns in one class, so that the absence of a word form corresponding to the Greek article does not upset him or his classification. Among the Latin philosophical grammarians, MACROBIO gives an account of the 'differences and likenesses' of the Greek and the Latin verb, but it amounted to little more than a parallel listing of the forms, without any penetrating investigation of the verbal systems of the Latin language – his own, or Greek. The succession of Latin philosophical grammarians through whom the accepted grammatical description of the language is brought to completion and handed on to the Middle Ages spanned the centuries until the foundation of Oxford. This period covers the pax Romana and the unitary Greco-Roman civilization of the Mediterranean that lasts during the first two centuries, the breaking of the imperial peace in the third century, and the final shattering of the western provinces, including Italy, by invasion from beyond the earlier frontiers of the empire. Historically these centuries witness two events of permanent significance in the life of the civilized world. In the first place, Christianity – or the coming of the Galileans -- which, from a secular standpoint, starts as the religion of a small deviant sect of Jewish zealots, spread and extended its influence through the length and breadth of the empire, until, in the fourth century, after surviving repeated persecutions and attempts at its suppression, it is recognized as the official religion of the state! (Except Giuliano). Its subsequent dominance of European thought (except Luther) and of all branches of learning for the next thousand years is now assured, and neither doctrinal schisms nor heresies, nor the lapse of an emperor into apostasy could seriously check or halt its progress. As Christianity gains the upper hand and attracts to itself men of learning, the scholarship of the period shows the struggle between the old declining pagan standards of classical antiquity and the rising generations of Christian apologists, philosophers, and historians, interpreting and adapting the heritage of the past in the light of their own conceptions and requirements. The second event is a less gradual one, the splitting of the Roman world into two halves, east and west. After a century of civil turmoil and barbarian pressure, Rome ceases under DIOCLEZIANO to be the administrative capital of the empire, and his later successor COSTANTINO transfers his government to a new city, built on the old Byzantium and named Constantino-polis (literally: ‘my (kind of) town’). By the end of the fourth century, the Roman empire is formally divided into an eastern and a western realm, each governed by its own emperor (who often did not speak to each other – and for whom there was no lingua franca to be found). This division roughly corresponds to the separation of the old Hellenized area conquered by Rome but remaining Greek in culture and language, and the provinces raised from barbarism by Roman influence and Roman letters. Constantinople, assailed from the west and from the east, continues for a thousand years as the head of the Eastern Byzantine Empire, until it falls to the Turks. During and after the break-up of the Western Empire, Rome endures as the capital city of the Roman Church, while Christianity in the east gradually evolved in other directions to become the Eastern Orthodox Church. Culturally one sees as the years pass on from the so-called 'Silver Age' a decline in liberal attitudes, a gradual exhaustion of older themes, and a loss of vigour in developing new ones. Save only in the rising Christian communities, scholarship is backward-looking, taking the form of erudition devoted to the acknowledged standards of the past. This is an era of commentaries, epitomes, and dictionaries. The Latin grammarians, whose oudook is similar to that of the Alexandrian Greek scholars, like them directed their attention to the language of classical literature, for the study of which grammar serves as the introduction and foundation. The changes taking place in the spoken and the non-literary written Latin around them arise VERY little interest – ‘the plebs use it!’ --; their works are liberally exemplified with texts, all drawn from the prose and verse writers of classical Latin and their ante-classical predecessors Plautus and Terence. How different accepted written Latin is becoming may be seen by comparing the grammar and style of GIROLAMO's fourth translation of the Bible (the Vulgate), wherein several grammatical features of the Romance languages are anticipated, with the Latin preserved and described by the grammarians, one of whom, DONATO, second only to PRISCIANO in reputation, was in fact GIROLAMO’s teacher – and learned from him that God could be allowed a solecism or two! The nature and the achievement of the Latin philosophical grammarians can best be appreciated through a consideration of the work of their greatest representative, PRISCIANO, who teaches Latin grammar in Constantino-polis. Though PRISCIANO draws much from his Latin predecessors, his aim, like theirs, is to transfer as far as he could the grammatical system of Thrax's Techne and of Apollonius's writings to Latin. PRISCIANO’s admiration for Greek linguistic scholarship and his dependence on Apollonius and his son ERODIANO, in particular, 'the greatest authorities on grammar', are made clear in his introductory paragraphs and throughout his grammar. PRISCIANO works systematically through his subject, the description of the language of classical Latin literature. Pronunciation and syllable structure are covered by a description of the “littera’, defined as the smallest part of articulate speech, of which the properties are “nomen”, the name of the letter, “figura”, its written shape, and “potestas,” its phonetic value. All this had already been set out for Greek, and the phonetic descriptions of the letters as pronounced segments and of the syllable structures carry little of linguistic interest except for their partial evidence of the pronunciation of the Latin language. From phonetics PRISCIANO passes to morphology, defining the “dictio” and the “oratio” in the same terms that Thrax uses, as the minimum unit of sentence structure and the expression of a complete thought, respectively. As with the rest of western antiquity, PRISCIANO’s grammatical model is word and paradigm, and he expressly denies any linguistic significance to a division, in what would now be called morphemic analysis, *below* the word. On one of his rare entries into this field, PRISCIANO misrepresents the morphemic composition of words containing the negative prefix “in-“ -- “indoctus” -- by identifying it with the preposition “in.” These two morphemes, “in-“, negative, and “in-”, the prefixal use of the preposition, are in contrast in “invisus”, which may negate or strengthen the stem that follows (two words with two meanings, not a polysemous expression). After a review of earlier theories of Greek linguists, PRISCIANO sets out the classical system of VIII word classes laid down by Thrax and Apollonius, with the omission of the article but the separate recognition of the interjection. Each class of words is defined, and described by reference to its relevant formal category and “accidentia,” whence the later accidence for the morphology of a language, and all are copiously illustrated with examples from classical texts. All this takes up XVI of the XVIII books, the last II being devoted to syntax. PRISCIANO addresses himself (OBVIOUSLY) to readers already knowing Greek, as Greek examples are widely used and comparisons with Greek are drawn at various points, and the last hundred pages are wholly taken up with the comparison of different constructions in the two languages. Though Constantinopolis was a Greek-speaking city in a Greek-speaking area, Latin is decreed the official language when the new city was founded as the capital of the Eastern Empire. Great numbers of speakers of Greek as a first language needed Latin teaching from then on. The VIII parts of speech, or word classes, in PRISCIANO’s grammar may be compared with those in Dionysius Thrax's Techne. Reference to extant definitions in Apollonius and PRISCIANO’s expressed reliance on him allow us to infer that PRISICIANO’s definitions are substantially those of Apollonius, as is his statement that each separate class is known by its semantic content. “Nomen,” including adjectives. The property of the noun is to indicate a substance and a quality, and it assigns a common or a particular quality to every body or thing. The property of the VERBUM is to indicate an action or a being acted on; it has tense and mood forms, but is not case inflected. The PARTICIPIUM is a class of words always derivationally referable to a VERBUM, sharing the categories of verbs and a NOMEN (tenses and cases) -- and therefore distinct from both. This definition is in line with the Greek treatment of these words. The property of the PRONOMEN is its substitutability for a proper nouns and its specifiability as to person -- first, second, or third. The limitation to proper nouns, at least as far as third person pronouns are concerned, contradicts the facts of Latin. Elsewhere, PRISCIANO repeats Apollonius's statement that a specific property of the PRONOMEN is to indicate substance *without* quality, as a way of interpreting the lack of lexical restriction on the NOMEN which may be referred to anaphorically by a PRONOMEN. The property of the ADVERBIUM is to be used in construction with a VERBUM, to which it is syntactically and semantically subordinate. The property of the PRAE-POSITIO is to be used as a separate word before case inflected words and in composition before both case-inflected and non-case-inflected words. PRISCIANO, like Thrax, identifies the first part of words like “PRO-consul” and “INTER-currere”, as PRAE-POSITIO. INTER-IECTIO is a class of words syntactically independent of a VERBUM, and indicating a feeling or a state of mind. The property of the CON-IUCTIO is to join syntactically two or more members of any other word class, indicating a relationship between them. In reviewing PRISCIANO' s work as a whole, one notices that in the context in which he is writing and in the form in which he casts his description of Latin, no definition of grammar itself is found necessary. Where other late Latin grammarians do define the term, they do no more than abbreviate the definition given at the beginning of Thrax's Techne. It is clear that the place of grammar, and of linguistic studies in general, in education is the same as is precisely and deliberately set out by Thrax and summarily repeated by QUINTILIANO. PRISCIANO's omission is an indication of the long continuity of the conditions and objectives taken for granted during these centuries. PRISCIANO organises the morphological description of the forms of nouns and verbs, and of the other inflected words, by setting up canonical or basic forms, in nouns the nominative singular and in verbs the first person singular present indicative active. From these he proceeds to the other forms by a series of letter changes, the letter being for him, as for the rest of western antiquity, both the minimal graphic unit and the minimal phonological unit. The steps involved in these changes bear no relation to morphemic analysis, and are of the type that finds no favour at all in recent descriptive linguistics, though under the influence of the generative grammarians somewhat similar process terminologies are being suggested. The accidents or categories in which PRISCIANO classes the formally different word shapes of the inflected or variable words include both derivational and inflexional sets, PRISCIANO following the practice of the Greeks in not distinguishing between them. V.’s important insight is totally disregarded! But PRISCIANO is clearly informed on the theory of the establishment of categories and of the use of semantic labels to identify them. Verbs are defined by reference to action or being acted on. But PRISCIANO points out that on a deeper consideration – SI QUIS ALTIUS CONSIDERET --  such a definition would require considerable qualification; and case names are taken, for the most part, from just one relatively frequent use among a number of uses applicable to the particular case named. This is probably more prudent, if less exciting, than the insistent search for a common or basic meaning uniting all the semantic functions associated with each single set of morphologically identified case forms. The status of the VI cases of Latin nouns is shown to rest, not on the actually different case forms of any one noun or one declension of nouns, but on semantic and syntactic functions systematically correlated with differences in morphological shape at some point in the declensional paradigms of the noun class as a whole. The many-one relations found in Latin between forms and uses and between uses and forms are properly allowed for in the analysis. In describing the morphology of the Latin verb, PRISCIANO adopts the system set out by Thrax for the Greek verb, distinguishing present, past, and future, with a fourfold semantic division of the past into imperfect, perfect, plain past – aorist -- and pluperfect, and recognizing the syncretism (as V. does not) of perfect and aorist meanings in the Latin perfect tense forms. Except for the recognition of the full grammatical status of the Latin perfect tense forms, PRISCIANO’s analysis, based on that given in the Techne, is manifestly inferior to the one set out by V. under the influence of THE PORCH. The distinction between incomplete and complete aspect, correlating with differences in stem form, on which V. lays great stress, is concealed, although PRISCIANO recognises the morphological difference between the two stem forms underlying the VI tenses. Strangely, PRISCIANO seems to have misunderstood the use and meaning of the Latin future perfect, calling it the ‘future subjunctive’, though the first person singular form by which he cited it – “scripsero” -- is precisely the form which differentiates its paradigm from the perfect subjunctive paradigm – “scripserim” -- and, indeed, from any subjunctive verb form, none of which show a first person termination in -im. This seems all the more surprising because the corresponding forms in Greek --  “tetypsomai” -- are correctly identified. Possibly his reason was that his Greek predecessors had excluded the future perfect from their schematization of the tenses, in that this tense was not much used in Greek, and was felt to be an atticism. A like dependence on the Greek categorial framework probably leads Priscian to recognize both a subjunctive mood (subordinating) and an OPTATIVE mood (independent, expressing a wish) in the Latin verb, although Latin -- unlike Greek -- nowhere distinguishes these two mood forms morphologically, as PRISCIAN in fact admits, thus confounding his earlier explicit recognition of the status of a formal grammatical category. Despite such apparent misrepresentations, due primarily to an excessive trust in a point for point applicability of Thrax's and Apollonius's systematization of Greek to the Latin language, Priscian's morphology is detailed, orderly, and in most places definitive. His treatment of syntax in the last two books is much less so, and a number of the organizing features that we find in modern grammars of Latin are lacking in his account. They are added by later scholars on to the foundation of Priscianic morphology. Confidence in PRISCIANO’s syntactic theory is hardly increased by reading his assertion that the word order, most common in Latin, nominative case noun or pronoun (subject) followed by verb is the NATURAL one, because the substance (“homo”) is PRIOR to the action it performs (“currit”). Such are the dangers of philosophising on an inadequate basis of empirical fact. In the syntactic description of Latin, PRISCIANO classifies verbs on the same lines as had been worked out for Greek by the Greek grammarians, into active (transitive), passive, and neutral (intransitive), with due notice of the deponent verbs, passive in morphological form but active or intransitive in meaning and syntax and without corresponding passive tenses. Transitive verbs are those colligating with an oblique case -- “laudo te”, “noceo tibi,” “ego miserantis” -- and the absence of concord between oblique case forms and finite verbs is noted. But the terms subject and object were not in use in PRISCIANO’s time as grammatical terms, though the use of “subiectum” to designate the logical subject of a proposition is common. PRISCIANO makes mention of the ablative absolute construction, though the actual name of this construction is a later invention. PRISCIANO gives an account and examples of exactly this use of the ablative case -- me vidente puerum cecidisti -- and -- Augusto imperiitiire Alexandria provincia facta est. Of the systematic analysis of Latin syntactic structures PRISCIANO has little to say. The relation of subordination is recognized as the primary syntactic function of the relative pronoun -- qui, quae, quod -- and of similar words used to downgrade or relate a. verb or a whole clause to another, main, verb or clause. The concept of subordination is employed in distinguishing nouns (and pronouns used in their place) and verbs from all other words, in that these latter were generally used only in syntactically subordinate relations to nouns or verbs, these two classes of word being able by themselves to constitute complete sentences of the favourite, productive, type in Latin. But in the subclassification of the Latin conjunctions, the primary grammatical distinction between subordinating and coordinating conjunctions is left unmentioned, the co-ordinating “TAMEN”, being classed with the sub-ordinating “QUAMQUAM” and “QUAMSI”. – cf. Grice on ‘if’ as subordinating. Once again it must be said that it is all too easy to exercise hindsight and to point out the errors and omissions of one's predecessors. It is both more fair and more profitable to realise the extent of PRISCIANO’s achievement in compiling his extensive, detailed, and comprehensive description of the Latin language of the classical authors, which is to serve as the basis of grammatical theory for centuries and as the foundation of Latin teaching up to the present day. Such additions and corrections, particularly in the field of syntax, as later generations need to make could lie incorporated in the frame of reference that Priscian employs and expounds. Any division of linguistics (or of any other science) into sharply differentiated periods is a misrepresentation of the gradual passage of discoveries, theories, and attitudes that characterizes the greater part of man's intellectual history. But it is reasonable to close an account of Roman linguistic scholarship with PRISCIANO. In his detailed -- if in places misguided -- fitting of Greek theory and analysis to the Latin language he represents the culmination of the expressed intentions of most Roman scholars once Greek linguistic work had come to their notice. And this was wholly consonant with the general Roman attitude in intellectual and artistic fields towards 'captive Greece' who 'made captive her uncivilized captor and taught rustic Latium the finer arts. PRISCIANO’s work is more than the end of an era. It is also the bridge between antiquity and the Middle Ages in linguistic scholarship. By far the most widely used grammar, PRISCIANO’s “Institutiones grammaticae” runs to no fewer than one thousand manuscripts, and forms the basis of mediaeval Latin grammar and the foundation of mediaeval linguistic philosophy – i modisti or philosophical grammarians. PRISCIANO’s grammar is the fruit of a long period of Greco-Roman unity. This unity had already been broken by the time he writes, and in the centuries following, the Latin west is to be shattered beyond recognition. In the confusion of these times, the philosophical grammarians, their studies and their teaching, have been identified as one of the main defences of the classical heritage in the darkness of the Dark Ages. ARENS, Sprachwissenschaft: der Gang ihrer Entwicklung von der Antike bis zur Gegenwart, Freiburg. Bolgar, The classical heritage and its beneficiaries, Cambridge. J. Collart, V. grammairien latin, Paris. FEHLING, 'V. und die grammatische Lehre von der Analogie und der Flexion', Glotta, LERSCH, Die Sprachphilosophie der Alten, Bonn, H. NETTLESHIP, The study of grammar among the Romans, Journal of philology, ROBINS, Ancient and mediaeval grammatical theory in Europe, London, JSANDYS, History of classical scholarship, Cambridge, STEINTHAL, Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaft bei den Griechen und Romern, Berlin. GIBBON, The decline and fall of the Roman Empire (ed. BURY), London, VERGIL, Aeneid 6, Ssi-3: Tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento (hae tibi erunt artes), pacisque imponere morem, parcere subiectis et debellare superbos. Noctes Atticae GEHMAN, The interpreters of foreign languages among the ancients, Lancaster, Pa., FEHLING, FUNAIOLI, Grammaticorum Romanorum fragmenta, Leipzig. Ars grammatica scientia est eorum quae a poetis historicis oratoribusque dicuntur ex parte maiore. De lingua Latina CHARisrus, Ars grammaticae I (KEIL, Grammatici, Leipzig). On Varro's linguistic theory in relation to modern linguistics, cp. D. LANGENDOEN, 'A note on the linguistic "theory of V.', Foundations of language 2, SUETONIUS, Caesar, GELLIUS, Noctes Atticae  PRISCIANO, Institutio de nomine pronomine et verbo 38, Institutiones grammaticae PROBUS, Instituta artium (H. KEIL, Grammatici Latini), DIONYSIUS-THRAX, Techne BEKKER, Anecdota Graeca, Berlin, APOLLONIUS DYSCOLUS, Syntax As noun, PRISCIAN as pronoun,- PROBUS, Instituta (KEIL, Grammatici APOLLONIUS, De adverbio, BEKKER, Anecdota Graeca , CHARISIUS, Ars grammaticae KEIL, Grammatici -- Nihil docibile habent, significant tamen adfectum animi. QUINTILIAN, Institutio aratoria Their works are published in KEIL, Grammatici Latini, Leipzig, PRISCIAN De figuris numerorum  PRISCIAN De differentiis et societatibus Graeci Latinique verbi, KEIL, Grammatici 5, Leipzig, Artis grammaticae maximi auctores', dedicatory preface Dictio est pars minima orationis constructae; Oratio est ordinatio dictionum congrua, sententiam perfectam demonstrans. Proprium est nominis substantiam et qualitatem significare; Nomen est pars orationis, quae unicuique subiectorum corporum seu rerum communem vel propriam qualitatem distribuit. Proprium est verbi actionem sive passionem significate; Verbum est pars orationis cum temporibus et modis, sine casu, agendi vel patiendi significativum. Participium iure separatur a verbo, quod et casus habet, quibus caret verbum, et genera ad similitudinem nominum, nee modos habet, quos continet verbum; Participium est pars orationis, quae pro verba accipitur, ex quo et derivatur naturaliter, genus et casum habens ad similitudinem nominis et accidentia verba absque discretione personarum et modorum. The problems arising from the peculiar position of the participle among the word classes, under the classification system prevailing in antiquity, are discussed there. Proprium est pronominis pro ali quo nomine proprio poni et certas significare personas; Pronomen est pars orationis, quae pro nomine proprio uniuscuiusque accipitur personasque finitas recipit. Substantiam significat sine aliqua certa qualitate. Proprium est adverbii cum verbo poni nee s·ine eo perfectam significationem posse habere; Adverbium est pars orationis indeclinabilis, cuius.significatio verbis adicitur. Praepositionis proprium est separatim quidem per appositionem casualibus praeponi coniun~tim vero per compositionem tam cum hahentibus casus quam cum non habentibus; Est praepositio pars orationis indeclinabilis, quae praeponitur aliis partibus vel appositione vel compositione. 48. IS-7·40: Videtur affectum habere in se Yerbi et plenam motus animi significationem, etiamsi non addatur verbum, demonstrare. Proprium est coniunctionis diversa nomina vel quascumque dictiones casuales vel diversa verba vel adverbia coniungere; Coniunctio est pars orationis indeclinabilis, coniunctiva aliarum partium orationis, quibus consignificat, vim vel ordinationem demons trans. so. cp. MATTHEWS, 'The inflectional component of a word-and-paradigm grammar', :Journal of linguistics HORACE, Epistles 2.1.156-7: Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit et artes Intulit agresti Latio. .LOT, La fin du monde antique et le debut du moyen age, Paris.  Marco Terenzio Varrone. He led an active and sometimes risky political life. Although he backed the wrong side in the civil war, he survived. He was a pupil of Posidonio at Rome. He was influenced by Antioco d’Ascalon. He wrote hundreds of works, most of which have since been lost. Amongst them was an extended series of fictional philosophical dialgoues, the Logistorici, in wich assorted Romans debated a variety of toipics, illustrating the arguments with examples from history. Tertulliano calls him the Roman Cynargo, perhaps because of some satires he wrote but it is highly unlikely that he was a Cinargo. Better attested is his interest in Pythagoreanism, whose cult he followed to the letter.   THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY   FOUXDED BY JAMES LOEB, LL.D.   EDITED BY  t T. E. PAGE, C.H., UTT.D.   E. CAPPS, ph.d., ll.d. W. H. D. ROUSE, utt.d.     VAERO   ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE  I     VARRO   ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE   WITH AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION BY   ROLAND G. KENT, Ph.D.   PROFESSOR OF COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY IN THE  UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   IN TWO VOLUMES  I   BOOKS V.- VII.      LONDON   WILLIAM HEINEM ANN LTD   CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS   HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS   MCMXXXVIII     Printed in Great Britain     CONTENTS     Introduction* page   Varro's Life and Works vii   Varro's Grammatical Works . . . viii   Varro's De Lingua Latina ix   The Manuscripts of the De Lingua Latina . xii   The Laurentian Manuscript F . xv   The Orthography of the De Lingua Latina . xvii   The Editions of the De Lingua Latina . xxvii   Bibliography ..... .xxxiii   Our Text of the De Lingua Latina xliii  The Critical Apparatus .... xliv   The Translation of the De Lingua Latina . xlv   The Notes to the Translation . . , xlvi   Symbols and Abbreviations  . . . xlix   De Lingua Latina, Teat and Translation   Book V 2   Book VI. 172   Book VII 266     v     INTRODUCTION     VARRO'S LIFE AND WORKS   Marcus Terextius Varro was born in 116 B.C.,  probably at Reate in the Sabine country, where his  family, which was of equestrian rank, possessed large  estates. He was a student under L. Aelius Stilo  Praeconinus, a scholar of the equestrian order, widely  versed in Greek and Latin literature and especially  interested in the history and antiquities of the Roman  people. He studied philosophy at Athens, with Anti-  ochus of Ascalon. With his tastes thus formed for  scholarship, he none the less took part in public life,  and was in the campaign against the rebel Sertorius  in Spain, in 76. He was an officer with Pompey in the  war with the Cilician pirates in 67, and presumably  also in Pompey 's campaign against Mithradates. In  the Civil War he was on Pompey 's side, first in Spain  and then in Epirus and Thessaly.   He was pardoned by Caesar, and lived quietly at  Rome, being appointed librarian of the great collec-  tion of Greek and Latin books which Caesar planned  to make. After Caesar's assassination, he was pro-  scribed by Antony, and his villa at Casinum, with  his personal library, was destroyed. But he himself  escaped death by the devotion of friends, who con-  cealed him, and he secured the protection of Octavian.   vii     INTRODUCTION     He lived the remainder of his life in peace and quiet,  devoted to his -writings, and died in 27 B.C., in his  eighty-ninth year.   Throughout his life he wrote assiduously. His  works number seventy-four, amounting to about six  hundred and twenty books ; they cover virtually all  fields of human thought : agriculture, grammar, the  history and antiquities of Rome, geography, law,  rhetoric, philosophy, mathematics and astronomy,  education, the history of literature and the drama,  satires, poems, orations, letters.   Of all these only one, his De Re Rustica or Treatise  on Agriculture, in three books, has reached us complete.  His De Lingua Latina or On the Latin Language, in  twenty-five books, has come down to us as a torso.;  only Books V. to X. are extant, and there are serious  gaps in these. The other works are represented by  scattered fragments only.     VARRO'S GRAMMATICAL WORKS   The grammatical works of Varro, so far as we know  them, were the following :   De Lingua Latina, in twenty-five books, a fuller  account of which is given below.   De Antiquitate Litterarum, in two books, addressed  to the tragic poet L. Accius, who died about 86 b.c. ;  it was therefore one of Varro 's earliest writings.   De Origine Linguae Latinae, in three books, ad-  dressed to Pompey.   Ylzpl XapaKTrjpuv, in at least three books, on the  formation of words.   Quaestiones Plautinae, in five books, containing  viii     INTRODUCTION     interpretations of rare words found in the comedies  of Plautus.   De Similitudine Verborum, in three books, on re-  gularity in forms and words.   De Utilitate Sermonis, in at least four books, in  which he dealt with the principle of anomaly or  irregularity.   De Sermone Latino, in five books or more, addressed  to Marcellus, which treats of orthography and the  metres of poetry.   DiscipUnae, an encyclopaedia on the liberal arts,  in nine books, of which the first dealt with Grammatica.   The extant fragments of these works, apart from  those of the De Lingua Latina, may be found in the  Goetz and Schoell edition of the De Lingua Latina,  pages 199-242 ; in the collection of Wilmanns, pages  170-223 ; and in that of Funaioli, pages 179-371 (see  the Bibliography).     VARRO'S DE LINGUA LATINA   Varro's treatise On the Latin Language was a work  in twenty-five books, composed in 47 to 45 B.C., and  published before the death of Cicero in 43.   The first book was an introduction, containing at  the outset a dedication of the entire work to Cicero.  The remainder seems to have been divided into four  sections of six books each, each section being by its  subject matter further divisible into two halves of  three books each.   Books II.-VII. dealt with the impositio vocabulorum,  or how words were originated and applied to things   ix     INTRODUCTION     and ideas. Of this portion, Books II. -IV. were prob-  ably an earlier smaller work entitled De Etymologia  or the like ; it was separately dedicated to one  Septumius or Septimius, who had at some time,  which we cannot now identify, served Varro as  quaestor. Book II. presented the arguments which  were advanced against Etymology as a branch of  learning ; Book III. presented those in its favour as a  branch of learning, and useful ; Book IV. discussed  its nature.   Books V.- VI I. start with a new dedication to Cicero.  They treat of the origin of words, the sources from  which they come, and the manner in which new words  develop. Book V. is devoted to words which are the  names of places, and to the objects which are in the  places under discussion ; VI. treats words denoting  time-ideas, and those which contain some time-idea,  notably verbs ; VII. explains rare and difficult words  which are met in the writings of the poets.   Books VIII.-XIII. dealt with derivation of words  from other words, including stem-derivation, de-  clension of nouns, and conjugation of verbs. The first  three treated especially the conflict between the  principle of Anomaly, or Irregularity, based on con-  suetude* ' popular usage,' and that of Analogy, or  Regularity of a proportional character, based on ratio  ' relation ' of form to form. VIII. gives the arguments  against the existence of Analogy, IX. those in favour  of its existence, X. Varro 's own solution of the con-  flicting views, with his decision in favour of its exi-  stence. XI.-XIII. discussed Analogy in derivation, in  the wide sense given above : probably XI. dealt with  nouns of place and associated terms, XII. with time-  ideas, notably verbs, XIII. with poetic words,  x     INTRODUCTION     Books XIV.-XIX. treated of syntax. Books XX.-  XXV. seem to have continued the same theme,  but probably with special attention to stylistic and  rhetorical embellishments.   Of these twenty-five books, we have to-day, apart  from a few brief fragments, only Books V. to X., and  in these there are several extensive gaps where the  manuscript tradition fails.   The fragments of the De Lingua Latina, that is,  those quotations or paraphrases in other authors which  do not correspond to the extant text of Books V.-X.,  are not numerous nor long. The most considerable  of them are passages in the Nodes Atticae of Aulus  Gellius ii. 25 and xvi. 8. They may be found in the  edition of Goetz and Schoell, pages 3, 146, 192-198,  and in the Collections of Wilmanns and Funaioli (see  the Bibliography).   It is hardly possible to discuss here even summarily  Varro's linguistic theories, the sources upon which he  drew, and his degree of independence of thought and  procedure. He owed much to his teacher Aelius  Stilo, to whom he refers frequently, and he draws  heavily upon Greek predecessors, of course, but his  practice has much to commend it : he followed neither  the Anomalists nor the Analogists to the extreme of  their theories, and he preferred to derive Latin words  from Latin sources, rather than to refer practically  all to Greek origins. On such topics reference may  be made to the works of Barwick, Kowalski, Dam,  Dahlmann, Kriegshammer, and Frederik Muller, and  to the articles of Wolfflin in the eighth volume of the  Archiv fur lateinische Lexikographie, all listed in our  Bibliography.     INTRODUCTION     THE MANUSCRIPTS OF THE  DE LINGUA LATIN A   The text of the extant books of the De Lingua  Latina is believed by most scholars to rest on the  manuscript here first listed, from which (except for our  No. 4) all other known manuscripts have been copied,  directly or indirectly.   1. Codex Laurentianus li. 10, folios 2 to 34, parch-  ment, written in Langobardic characters in the  eleventh century, and now in the Laurentian Library  at Florence. It is known as F.   F was examined by Petrus Victorius and Iacobus  Diacetius in 1521 (see the next paragraph) ; by  Hieronymus Lagomarsini in 1740 ; by Heinrich Keil  in 1851 ; by Adolf Groth in 1877 ; by Georg Schoell  in 1906. Little doubt can remain as to its actual  readings.   2. In 1521, Petrus Victorius and Iacobus Diacetius  collated F with a copy of the editio princeps of the  De Lingua Latina, in which they entered the differences  which they observed. Their copy is preserved in  Munich, and despite demonstrable errors in other  portions, it has the value of a manuscript for v. 119 to  vi. 61, where a quaternion has since their time been  lost in F. For this portion, their recorded readings  are known as Fv ; and the readings of the editio  princeps, where they have recorded no variation, are  known as (Fv).   3. The Fragmentum Cassinense (called also Excerptum  and Epitome), one folio of Codex Cassinensis 361,  parchment, containing v. 41 Capitolium dictum to the  end of v. 56 ; of the eleventh century. It was  xii     INTRODUCTION     probably copied direct from F soon after F was  written, but may possibly have been copied from the  archetype of F. It is still at Monte Cassino, and was  transcribed by Keil in 1848. It was published in  facsimile as an appendix to Sexti Iulii Frontini de  aquaeductu Urbis Romae, a phototyped reproduction  of the entire manuscript, Monte Cassino, 1930.   4. The grammarian Priscian, who flourished about  a.d. 500, transcribed into his De Figuris Numerorum  Yarro's passage on coined money, beginning with  multa, last word of v. 168, and ending with Nummi  denarii decuma libella, at the beginning of v. 174.  The passage is given in H. Keil's Grammatici Latini  iii. 410-411. There are many manuscripts, the oldest  and most important being Codex Parisinus 7496, of  the ninth century.   5. Codex Laurentianus li. 5, written at Florence in  1427, where it still remains ; it was examined by Keil.  It is known as^*.   6. Codex Havniensis, of the fifteenth century; on  paper, small quarto, 108 folia ; now at Copenhagen.  It was examined by B. G. Niebuhr for Koeler, and his  records came into the hands of L. Spengel. It is  known as H.   7. Codex Gothanus, parchment, of the sixteenth  century, now at Gotha ; it was examined by Regel for  K. O. Mueller, who published its important variants  in his edition, pages 270-298. It is known as G.   8. Codex Parisinus 7489, paper, of the fifteenth  century, now at Paris ; this and the next two were  examined by Donndorf for L. Spengel, who gives  their different readings in his edition, pages 661-718.  It is known as a.   9- Codex Parisinus 6142, paper, of the fifteenth   xiii     INTRODUCTION     century ; it goes only to viii. 7 declinarentur. It is  known as b,   10. Codex Parisinus 7535, paper, of the sixteenth  century ; it contains only v. 1-122, ending with dictae.  It is known as c.   11. Codex Vindobonensis lxiii., of the fifteenth  century, at Vienna ; it was examined by L. Spengel  in 1835, and its important variants are recorded in  the apparatus of A. Spengel's edition. It is known  as V.   12. Codex Basiliensis F iv. 13, at Basel; examined  by L. Spengel in 1838. It is known as p.   13. Codex Guelferbytanus 896, of the sixteenth cen-  tury, at Wolfenbiittel ; examined by Schneidewin for  K. O. Mueller, and afterwards by L. Spengel. It is  known as M.   14. Codex B, probably of the fifteenth century, now  not identifiable ; its variants were noted by Petrus  Victorius in a copy of the Editio Gryphiana, and  either it or a very similar manuscript was used  by Antonius Augustinus in preparing the so-called  Editio Vulgata.   These are the manuscripts to which reference is  made in our critical notes ; there are many others,  some of greater authority than those placed at the  end of our list, but their readings are mostly not  available. In any case, as F alone has prime value,  the variants of other than the first four in our list can  be only the attempted improvements made by their  copyists, and have accordingly the same value as  that which attaches to the emendations of editors  of printed editions.   Fuller information with regard to the manuscripts  may be found in the following :  xiv     INTRODUCTION     Leonhard Spengel, edition of the De Lingua Latina   (1826), pages v-xviii.  K. O. Mueller, edition (1833), pages xii-xxxi.  Andreas Spengel, edition (1885), pages ii-xxviii.  Giulio Antonibon, Supplemento di Lezioni Varianti ai   libri de lingua Latina (1899) 3 pages 10-23.  G. Goetz et F. Schoell, edition (1910), pages xi-xxxv.   THE LAURENTIAN MANUSCRIPT F   Manuscript F contains all the extant continuous  text of the De Lingua Latina, except v. 119 trua quod  to vi. 61 dicendojinit ; this was contained in the second  quaternion, now lost, but still in place when the other  manuscripts were copied from it, and when Victorius  and Diacetius collated it in 1 521 . There are a number  of important lacunae, apart from omitted lines or  single words ; these are due to losses in its archetype.   Leonhard Spengel, from the notations in the  manuscript and the amount of text between the  gaps, calculated that the archetype of F consisted  of 16 quaternions, with these losses :   Quaternion 4 lacked folios 4 and 5, the gap after  v. 162.   Quaternion 7 lacked folio 2, the end of vi. and the  beginning of vii., and folio 7, the gap after vii. 23.   Quaternion 11 was missing entire, the end of viii. and  the beginning of ix.   Quaternion 15 lacked folios 1 to 3, the gap after x. 23,  and folios 6 to 8, the gap after x. 34.   The amount of text lost at each point can be cal-   ° tJber die Kritik der Varronischen Bucher de Lingua  Latina, pp. 5-12.   VOL. I 6 XV     INTRODUCTION     culated from the fact that one folio of the archetype  held about 50 lines of our text.   There is a serious transposition in F, in the text of  Book V. In § 23, near the end, after qui ad humum,  there follows id Sabini, now in § 32, and so on to Septi-  viontium, now in § 41 ; then comes demissior, now in  § 23 after humum, and so on to ab hominibus, now in  § 32, after which comes nominatum of § 41. Mueller,"  who identified the transposition and restored the text  to its true order in his edition, showed that the altera-  tion was due to the wrong folding of folios 4 and 5 in  the first quaternion of an archetype of F ; though  this was not the immediate archetype of F, since the  amount of text on each page was different.   This transposition is now always rectified in our  printed texts ; but there is probably another in the  later part of Book V., which has not been remedied  because the breaks do not fall inside the sentences,  thus making the text unintelligible. The sequence  of topics indicates that v. 115-128 should stand be-  tween v. 140 and v. 141 6 ; there is then the division  by topics :   General Heading v. 105   De Victu v. 105-112   De Vestitu v. 113-114, 129-133   De Instrument v. 134-140, 115-128, 141-183   a In the preface to his edition, pp. xvii-xviii. The dis-  order in the text had previously been noticed by G. Buchanan,  Turnebus, and Scaliger, and discussed by L. Spengel, Emen-  dationum Varronianarum Specimen I, pp. 17-19.   6 L. Spengel, Emendationum Varronianarum Specimen I,  pp. 13-19, identified this transposition, but considered the  transpositions to be much more complicated, with the follow-  ing order: §§105-114, §§ 129-140, § 128, §§ 166-168, §§118-  127, §§ 115-117, §§ 141-165, § 169 on.  xvi     INTRODUCTION     Then also vi. 49 and vi. 45 may have changed  places, but I have not introduced this into the  present text ; I have however adopted the transfer  of x. 18 from its manuscript position after x. 20, to  the position before x. 19, which the continuity of the  thought clearly demands.   The text of F is unfortunately very corrupt, and  while there are corrections both by the first hand and  by a second hand, it is not always certain that the  corrections are to be justified.     THE ORTHOGRAPHY OF THE  BE LINGUA LATIN A   The orthography of F contains not merely many  corrupted spellings which must be corrected, but  also many variant spellings which are within the  range of recognized Latin orthography, and these  must mostly be retained in any edition. For there  are many points on which we are uncertain of Varro's  own practice, and he even speaks of certain per-  missible variations : if we were to standardize his  orthography, we should do constant violence to the  best manuscript tradition, without any assurance  that we were in all respects restoring Varro's own  spelling. Moreover, as this work is on language,  Varro has intentionally varied some spellings to suit  his etymological argument ; any extensive normal-  ization might, and probably would, do him injustice  in some passages. Further, Varro quotes from earlier  authors who used an older orthography ; we do not  know whether Varro, in quoting from them, tried to   xvii     INTRODUCTION     use their original orthography, or merely used the  orthography which was his own habitual practice.   I have therefore retained for the most part the  spellings of F, or of the best authorities when F fails,  replacing only a few of the more misleading spellings  by the familiar ones, and allowing other variations  to remain. These variations mostly fall within the  following categories :   1. EI : Varro wrote EI for the long vowel I in the  nom. pi. of Decl. II (ix. 80) ; but he was probably not  consistent in writing EI everywhere. The manuscript  testifies to its use in the following : plebei (gen. ; cf.  plebis vi. 91> in a quotation) v. 40, 81, 158, vi. 87 ;  eidem (nom. sing.) vii. 17 (eadem F), x. 10 ; scirpeis vii.  44 ; Terentiei (nom.), vireis Terentieis (masc), Teren-  tieis (fem.) viii. 36 ; infeineiteis viii. 50 (changed to  infiniteis in our text, cf. (in)finitam viii. 52) ; i(e)is  viii. 51 (his F), ix. 5 ; iei (nom.) ix. 2, 35 ; hei re(e)i  fer(re)ei de(e)i viii. 70 ; hinnulei ix. 28 ; utrei (nom.  pi.) ix. 65 (utre.I. F ; cf. utri ix. 65) ; (B)a(e)biei,  B(a)ebieis x. 50 (alongside Caelii, Celiis).   2. AE and E : Varro, as a countryman, may in  some words have used E where residents of the city of  Rome used AE (cf. v. 97) ; but the standard ortho-  graphy has been introduced in our text, except that  E has been retained in seculum and sepio (and its  compounds : v. 141, 150, 157, 162, vii. 7, 13), which  always appear in this form.   3. OE and U : The writing OE is kept where it  appears in the manuscript or is supported by the  context : moerus and derivatives v. 50, 141 bis, 143,  vi. 87 ; moenere, moenitius v. 141 ; Poenicum v. 113,  viii. 65 bis ; poeniendo v. 177. OE in other words is  the standard orthography.   xviii     INTRODUCTION     4. VO UO and VU UU : Varro certainly wrote  only VO or UO, but the manuscript rarely shows  VO or UO in inflectional syllables. The examples  are novom ix. 20 (corrected from nouum in F) ; nomina-  tuom ix. 95, x. 30 (both -tiuom F) ; obliquom x. 50 ;  loquontur vi. 1, ix. 85 ; sequontur x. 71 ; clivos v. 158 ;  perhaps amburvom v. 127 (impurro Fv). In initial  syllables VO is almost regular : volt vi. 47, etc. ;  volpes v. 101 ; volgus v. 58, etc., but vulgo viii. 66 ;  Folcanus v. 70y etc. ; volsillis ix. 33. Examples of the  opposite practice are aequum vi. 71 ; duum x. 11 ;  antiquus vi. 68 ; sequuntur viii. 25 ; confiuunt x. 50.  Our text preserves the manuscript readings.   5. UV before a vowel : Varro probably wrote U and  not UV before a vowel, except initially, where his  practice may have been the other way. The examples  are : Pacuius v. 60, vi. 6 (catulus (Fv)), 94, vii. 18, 76,  and Pacuvius v. 17, 24, vii. 59 ; gen. Pacui v. 7, vi. 6,   vii. 22 ; Pacuium vii. 87, 88, 91 , 102 ; compluium,  impluium v. 161, and pluvia v. 161, compluvium v. 125 ;  simpuium v. 124 bis (simpulum codd.) ; cf. panuvellium  v. 114. Initially : uvidus v. 24 ; uvae, uvore v. 104 ;  uvidum v. 109-   6. U and I : Varro shows in medial syllables a  variation between U and I, before P or B or F or M  plus a vowel. The orthography of the manuscript  has been retained in our text, though it is likely  that Varro regularly used U in these types :   The superlative and similar words : albissumum   viii. 75 ; fnigalissumus viii. 77 ; c{a)esi(s)sumus viii.  76; intumus v. 154; maritumae v. 113; melissumum   viii. 76 ; optumum vii. 51 ; pauperrumus viii. 77 ;  proxuma etc. v. 36, 93, ix. 115, x. 4, 26 ; septuma etc.   ix. 30, x. 46 ler ; Septumio v. 1, vii. 109 5 superrumo   xix     INTRODUCTION     vii. 51 ; decuma vi. 54. Cf. proximo, optima maxima  v. 102, minimum vii. 101, and many in viii. 75-78.   Compounds of -fex and derivatives : pontufex v. 83,  pontufices v. 83 (F 2 for pontifices) ; artufices ix. 12 ;  sacrujiciis v. 98, 124. Cf. pontifices v. 23, vi. 54, etc. ;  artifex v. 93, ix. Ill, etc. ; sacrificium vii. 88, etc.   Miscellaneous words : monumentum v. 148, but  monimentum etc. v. 41 , vi. 49 bis ; mancupis v. 40, but  mancipium etc. v. 163, vi. 74, 85 ; quadrupes v. 34,  but quadripedem etc. vii. 39 bis, quadriplex etc. x. 46  etc., quadripertita etc. v. 12 etc.   7. LUBET and LIBET : Varro probably wrote  lubet, lubido, etc., but the orthography varies, and the  manuscript tradition is kept in our text : lubere  lubendo vi. 47, lubenter vii. 89, lubitum ix. 34, lubidine  x. 56 ; and libido vi. 47, x. 60, libidinosus Libentina  Libitina vi. 47, libidine x. 61.   8. H : Whether Varro used the initial H according  to the standard practice at Rome, is uncertain. In  the country it was likely to be dropped in pronuncia-  tion ; and the manuscript shows variation in its use.  We have restored the H in our text according to the  usual orthography, except that irpices, v. 136 bis, has  been left because of the attendant text. Examples  of its omission are Arpocrates v. 57 ; Ypsicrates v. 88 ;  aedus ircus v. 97 ; olus olera v. 108, x. 50 ; olitorium  v. 146 ; olitores vi. 20 ; ortis v. 103, ortorum v. 146 bis,  orti vi. 20 ; aruspex vii. 88. These are normalized in  our text, along with certain other related spellings :  sepulchrum vii. 24 is made to conform to the usual  sepulcrum, and the almost invariable nichil and  nichili have been changed to nihil and nihili.   9. X and CS : There are traces of a writing CS for  X, which has in these instances been kept in the text :  xx     INTRODUCTION     arcs vii. 44 {ares F) ; acsitiosae (ac sitiose F), acsitiosa  (ac sitio a- F) vi. 66 ; dues (duces F) x. 57.   10. Doubled Consonants : Varro's practice in this  matter is uncertain, in some words. F regularly  has littera (only Uteris v. 3 has one T), but obliterata  (ix. 16, -atae ix. 21, -at-trf v. 52), and these spellings  are kept in our text. Communis has been made  regular, though F usually has one M ; casus is in-  variable, except for de cassu in cassum viii. 39, which  has been retained as probably coming from Varro  himself. Iupiter, with one P, is retained, because  invariable in F ; the only exception is Iuppitri viii. 33  (iuppiti F), which has also been kept. Numo vi. 61,  for nummo, has been kept as perhaps an archaic  spelling. Decusis ix. 81 has for the same reason been  kept in the citation from Lucilius. In a few words  the normal orthography has been introduced in the  text : grallator vii. 69 bis for gralaior, grabatis viii. 32  for grabattis. For combinations resulting from pre-  fixes see the next paragraph.   11. Consonants of Prefixes : Varro's usage here  is quite uncertain, whether he kept the unassimilated  consonants in the compounds. Apparently in some  groups he made the assimilations, in others he did not.  The evidence is as follows, the variant orthography  being retained in our text :   Ad-c- : always acc-, except possibly adcensos vii.  58 (F 2 , for acensos F 1 ).   Ad-f- : always off-, except adfuerit vi. 40.   Ad-l- : always all-, except adlocutum vi. 57, adlucet  vi. 79, adlatis (ablatis F) ix. 21.   Ad-m- : always adm-, except ammonendum v. 6,  amministrat vi. 78, amminicula vii. 2, amminister vii. 34  (F2, for adm- F*).   xxi     INTRODUCTION     Ad-s- : regularly ass-, but also adserere vi. 64,  adsiet vi. 92, adsimus vii. 99? adsequi viii. 8, x. 9> a^-  significare often (always except assignificant vii. 80),  adsumi viii. 69, adsumat ix. 42, adsumere x. 58.   Ad-sc-, ad-sp-, ad-st- : always with loss of the D,  as in ascendere, ascribere, ascriptos (vii. 57), ascriptivi  (vii. 56), aspicere, aspectus, astans.   Ad-t- : always a#-, except adtributa v. 48, and  possibly adtinuit (F 1 , but a^- F 2 ) ix. 59-   Con-l-, con-b-, con-m-, con-r-: always coll-, comb-,  comm.-, corr-.   Con-p- : always comp-, except conpernis ix. 10.   Ex-f- : always eff-, except exfluit v. 29.   Ex-s- : exsolveret v. 176, exsuperet vi. 50, but  exuperantum vii. 18 (normalized in our text to  exsuperantum).   Ex-sc- : exculpserant v. 143.   Ex-sp- : always expecto etc. vi. 82, x. 40, etc.   Ex-sq- : regularly Esquiliis ; but Exquilias v. 25,  Exquiliis v. 159 (Fv)i normalized to Esq- in our text.   Ex-st : extol v. 8, vi. 78 ; but exstat v. 3, normalized  to extat in our text.   In-l- : usually ill-, but inlicium vi. 88 bis, 93 (illici-  tum F), 94, 95, inliceret vi. 90, inliciatur vi. 94 ; the  variation is kept in our text:   In-m- : always imm-, except in (i?i)mutatis vi. 38,  where the restored addition is unassimilated to indi-  cate the negative prefix and not the local in.   In-p- : always imp-, except inpos v. 4 bis (once  ineos F), inpotem v. 4 (inpotentem F), inplorat vi. 68.   Ob-c-, ob-f-, ob-p- : always occ-, off-, opp-.   Ob-t- : always opt-, as in optineo etc. vii. 17, 91 >  x. 19, optemperare ix. 6.   Per-l- : pellexit vi. 94, but perlucent v. 140.  xxii     INTRODUCTION     Sub-c-, sub-f-, sub-p- : always succ-, suff-, supp-,  except subcidit v. 116.   Subs- and subs- + consonant : regularly sus- + con-  sonant, except subscribunt vii. 107.   Sub-t- : only in suptilius x. 40.   Trans-l- : in tralatum vi. 77, vii. 23, 103, x. 71 ;  tralaticio vi. 55 (tranlatio Fv) and translaticio v. 32,  vi. 64- (translatio F, tranlatio Fv), translaticiis vi. 78.   Trans-v- : in travolat v. 118, and transversus vii. 81,  x. 22, 23, 43. '   Trans-d- : in traducere.   12. DE and DI : The manuscript has been followed  in the orthography of the following : directo vii. 15,  dirigi viii. 26, derecti x. 22 bis, deriguntur derectorum  x. 22, derecta directis x. 43, directas x. 44, derigitur  x. 74 ; deiunctum x. 45, deiunctae x. 47.   13. Second Declension : Nora. sing, and acc. sing,  in -uom and -uum, see 5.   Gen. sing, of nouns in -ius : Varro used the form  ending in a single I (cf. viii. 36), and a few such forms  stand in the manuscript : Muci v. 5 (muti F) ; Pacui  v. 7, vi. 6, vii. 22 ; Mani vi. 90 5 Quinti vi. 92, Ephesi   viii. 22 (ephesis F), Plauti et Marci viii. 36, dispendi   ix. 54 (quoted, metrical ; alongside dispendii ix. 54).  The gen. in II is much commoner ; both forms are  kept in our text.   Nom. pi., written by Varro with EI (cf. ix. 80) ;  examples are given in 1 , above.   Gen. pi. : The older form in -um for certain words  (denarium, centumvirum, etc.) is upheld viii. 71,  ix. 82, 85, and occurs occasionally elsewhere :  Velabrum v. 44, Querquetulanum v. 49, Sabinum v.  74, etc.   Dat.-abl. pi., written by Varro with EIS (cf. ix. 80) ;   xxiii     INTRODUCTION     examples are given in 1, above, but the manuscript  regularly has IS.   Dat.-abl. pi. of nouns ending in -ius, -ia, -turn, are  almost always written IIS ; there are a few for which  the manuscript has IS, which we have normalized to  IIS : Gabis v. 33, (Es)quilis v. 50, kostis v. 98, Publicis   v. 158, Faleris v. 162, praeverbis vi. 82 (cf. praeverbiis   vi. 38 bis), mysteris vii. 34- (cf. mysteriis vii. 19) 5 miliaris  ix. 85 (inilitaris F).   Deus shows the following variations : Nom. pi.  de{e)i viii. 70, dei v. 57, 58 bis, 66, 71, vii. 36, ix. 59,  dii v. 58, 144, vii. 16 ; dat.-abl. pi. deis v. 122, vii. 45,  diis v. 69, 71, 182, vi. 24, 34, vii. 34.   14. Third Declension : The abl. sing, varies  between E and I : supellectile viii. 30, 32, ix. 46, and  supellectili ix. 20 (-lis F) ; cf. also vesperi (uespert- F)  and vespere ix. 73.   Nom. pi., where ending in IS in the manuscript, is  altered to ES ; the examples are mediocris v. 5 ; partis   v. 21, 56; ambonis v. 115; urbis v. 143; aedis v. 160;  compluris vi. 15 ; Novendialis vi. 26 ; auris vi. 83 ; dis-  parilis viii. 67; lentis'vs.. 34; omnis ix. 81; dissimilis  ix. 92.   Gen. pi. in UM and IUM, see viii. 67. In view  of dentum viii. 67, expressly championed by Varro,  Veientum v. 30 (uenientum F), caelestum vi. 53, Quiritum   vi. 68 have been kept in our text.   Acc. pi. in ES and IS, see viii. 67. Varro 's dis-  tribution of the two endings seems to have been  purely empirical and arbitrary, and the manuscript  readings have been retained in our text.   15. Fourth Declension : Gen. sing. : Gellius,  Nodes Atticae iv. 16. 1, tells us that Varro always used  UIS in this form. Nonius Marcellus 483-494 M. cites  xxiv     INTRODUCTION     eleven such forms from Varro, but also sumpti. The  De Lingua Latina gives the following partial examples  of this ending : usuis ix. 4 (suis F), x. 73 (usui F), casuis  x. 50 {casuum F), x. 62 (casus his F). Examples of  this form ending in US are kept in our text : fructus   v. 34, 134, senatus v. 87, exercitus v. 88, panus v. 105,  domus v. 162, census v. 181, mofws vi. 3, sonitus vi. 67   sensus vi. 80, wjms viii. 28, 30 c, except as noted below.   Letters changed from the manuscript reading are  printed in italics.   Some obvious additions, and the following changes,  are sometimes not further explained by critical notes :   ae with italic a, for manuscript e.  oe, with italic o, for manuscript ae or e.  italic b and v, for manuscript u and b.  italic f andpA, for manuscript ph andf.  italic i and y, for manuscript y and i.  italic h, for an h omitted in the manuscript.   The manuscripts are referred to as follows ; read-  ings without specification of the manuscript are  from F :   F=Laurentianus li. 10 ; No. 1 in our list.   F 1 or m 1 , the original writer of F, or the first  hand.   F 2 or m 2 , the corrector of F, or the second hand.  Fv = readings from the lost quaternion of F, as  recorded by Victorius ; our No. 2.   xlix     INTRODUCTION     Frag. Cass. = Cassinensis 361 ; our No. 3.  f= Laurentianus li. 5 ; our No. 5.  H= Havniensis ; our No. 6.  G = Gothanus ; our No. 7.   a = Parisinus 7489 ; our No. 8.   6 = Parisinus 6142 ; our No. 9-   c=Parisinus 7535 ; our No. 10.  V= Vindobonensis lxiii. ; our No. 1 1 .  p = Basiliensis F iv. 13 ; our No. 12.  M= Guelferbytanus 896 ; our No. 13.  B = that used by Augustinus ; our No. 14.   The following abbreviations are used for editors  and editions (others are referred to by their full  names) :   Laetus = editio princeps of Pomponius Laetus.  Rhol. = Rholandellus, whose first edition was in  1475.   Pius = Baptista Pius, edition of 1510.  Aug. = Antonius Augustinus, editor of the Vul-  gate edition 1554, reprinted 1557.  Sciop. = Gaspar Scioppius, edition of 1602, re-  printed 1605.  L. Sp. = Leonhard Spengel, edition of 1826 (and  articles).   Mue. = Karl Ottfried Mueller, edition of 1833.  A. Sp. = Andreas Spengel, edition of 1885 (and  articles).   GS. = G. Goetz and F. Schoell, edition of 1910.     1     M. TERENTI VARRONIS  DE LINGUA LATINA     De Disciplina Originum Verborum ad   ClCERONEM  LIBER II1I EXPLICIT ; INCIPIT   LIBER V   I. 1. Quemadmodum vocabula essent imposita rebus  in lingua Latina, sex libris exponere institui. De  his tris ante hunc feci quos Septumio misi : in quibus  est de disciplina, quam vocant eri'/ioAoyi/ojv 1 : quae  contra ea(m) 2 dicerentur, volumine primo, quae pro  ea, secundo, quae de ea, tertio. In his ad te scribam,  a quibus rebus vocabula imposita sint in lingua  Latina, et ea quae sunt in consuetudine apud (popu-  lum et ea quae inveniuntur apud) 3 poetas.   2. Cuwz 1 unius cuiusque verbi naturae sint duae,  a qua re et in qua re vocabulum sit impositum (itaque   § 1. 1 For ethimologicen. 2 Rhol., for ea. 3 Added  by A. Sp.   §2. 1 Rhol., for cui.   §1. "Books II. -VII. ; Book I. was introductory.  * Books II.-IV. e Quaestor to Varro, cf. vii. 109 ; but  when or where is not known. Possibly he was the writer  on architecture mentioned by Vitruvius, de Arch. vii. praef.  1 4, and even the composer of the Libri Observationttm men-   2     MARCUS TERENTIUS VARRCTS  ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE   Ox THE SciEXCE OF THE ORIGIN OF WORDS,  ADDRESSED TO ClCERO   BOOK IV EXDS HERE, AND HERE BEGINS   BOOK V   I. 1. In what way names were applied to things  in Latin, I have undertaken to expound, in six books."  Of these, I have already composed three b before this  one, and have addressed them to Septumius c ; in  them I treat of the branch of learning which is called  Etymology. The considerations whichmight be raised  against it, I have put in the first book ; those adduced  in its favour, in the second ; those merely describing  it, in the third. In the following books, addressed  to you, d I shall discuss the problem from what things  names were applied in Latin, both those which are  habitual with the ordinary folk, and those which are  found in the poets.   2. Inasmuch as each and every word has two  innate features, from what thing and to what thing   tioned by Quintilian, Inst. Orat. iv. 1. 19. d Cicero, to  whom Varro addresses the balance of the work, Books  V.-XXV., written apparently in 47-45 b.c.   3     VARRO     a qua re sit pertinacia cum requi(ri)tur, 2 ostenditur 3  esse a perten(den)do 4 ; in qua re sit impositum  dicitur cum demonstratur, in quo non debet pertendi  et pertendit, pertinaciam esse, quod in quo oporteat  manere, si in eo perstet, perseverantia sit), priorem  illam partem, ubi cur et unde sint verba scrutantur,  Graeci vocant £Tu//oAoyiav, 5 illam alteram Trtp(}) °" r l-  /xcuvo/xevwi'. De quibus duabus rebus in his libris  promiscue dicam, sed exilius de posteriore.   3. Quae ideo sunt obscuriora, quod neque omnis  impositio verborum extat, 1 quod vetustas quasdam  delevit, nec quae extat sine mendo omnis imposita,  nec quae recte est imposita, cuncta manet (multa  enim verba li(t)teris commutatis sunt interpolata),  neque omnis origo est nostrae linguae e vernaculis  verbis, et multa verba aliud nunc ostendunt, aliud  ante significabant, ut hostis : nam turn eo verbo  dicebant peregrinum qui suis legibus uteretur, nunc  dicunt eum quern turn dicebant perduellem.   4. In quo genere verborum aut casu erit illustrius  unde videri possit origo, inde repetam. Ita fieri  oportere apparet, quod recto casu quom 1 dicimus  inpos, 2 obscurius est esse a potentia qua(m> 3 cum   2 OS., for sequitur. 3 For hostenditur. 4 Rhol., for  pertendo. 5 For ethimologiam.   § 3. 1 For exstat.   § 4. 1 Aug., with B, for quem. 2 p, Laetus, for ineos.   3 For qua.   § 2. ° Properly an abstract formed from pertinax, itself a  compound of tenax ' tenacious,' derived from tenere ' to hold.'  § 3. ° Cf. vii. 49.   § 4. Not from potentia ; but both from radical pot-.   4     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 2-4     the name is applied (therefore, when the question is  raised from what thing pertinacia ' obstinacy ' is,° it  is shown to be from pertendere ' to persist ' : to what  thing it is applied, is told when it is explained that it  is pertinacia ' obstinacy ' in a matter in which there  ought not to be persistence but there is, because it  is perseverantia ' steadfastness ' if a person persists in  that in which he ought to hold firm), that former  part, where they examine why and whence words are,  the Greeks call Etymology, that other part they call  Semantics. Of these two matters I shall speak in the  following books, not keeping them apart, but giving  less attention to the second.   3. These relations are often rather obscure for the  following reasons : Not every word that has been  applied, still exists, because lapse of time has blotted  out some. Not every word that is in use, has been  applied without inaccuracy of some kind, nor does  every word which has been applied correctly remain  as it originally was ; for many words are disguised by  change of the letters. There are some whose origin  is not from native words of our own language. Many  words indicate one thing now, but formerly meant  something else, as is the case with hostis ' enemy ' :  for in olden times by this word they meant a foreigner  from a country independent of Roman laws, but now  they give the name to him whom they then called  perduellis ' enemy.' a   4. I shall take as starting-point of my discussion  that derivative or case-form of the words in which the  origin can be more clearly seen. It is evident that we  ought to operate in this way, because when we say  inpos ' lacking power ' in the nominative, it is less  clear that it is from potentia a ' power ' than when we   5     VARRO     dicimus inpotem 4 ; et eo obscurius fit, si dicas pos  quam 5 inpos : videtur enim pos significare potius  pontem quam potentem.   5. Vetustas pauca non depravat, multa tollit.  Quem puerum vidisti formosum, hunc vides defor-  mem in senecta. Tertium seculum non videt eum  homincm quem vidit primum. Quare ilia quae iam  maioribus nostris ademit oblivio, fugitiva secuta  sedulitas Muci 1 et Bruti retrahere nequit. Non, si  non potuero indagare, eo ero tardior, sed velocior  ideo, si quivero. Non mediocres 2 enim tenebrae in  silva ubi haec captanda neque eo quo pervenire  volumus semitae tritae, neque non in tramitibus  quaedam obz'ecta 3 quae euntem retinere possent.   6. Quorum verborum novorum ac veterum dis-  cordia omnis in consuetudine com(m)uni, quot modis 1  commutatio sit facta qui animadverterit, facilius  scrutari origines patietur verborum : reperiet enim  esse commutata, ut in superioribus libris ostendi,  maxime propter bis quaternas causas. Litterarum  enim fit demptione aut additione et propter earum  tra(ie)ctionem 2 aut commutationem, item syllabarum  productione (aut correptione, denique adiectione aut   4 Aug., for inpotentem. 5 Aug., with B, for postquam.   § 5. 1 For muti. 2 For mediocris. 3 For oblecta.   § 6. 1 After modis, Fr. Fritzsche deleted litterarum.  2 Scaliger and Popma,for tractationem.     * Avoided in practice, in favour of dissyllabic potis. " Be-  cause the nasal was almost or quite lost before s ; cf. the  regular inscriptional spelling cosol= consul.   § 5. ° P. Mucius Scaevola and M. Junius Brutus, distin-  guished jurists and writers on law in the period 150-130 b.c.  Mucius, as pontifex maximus, seems to have collected and  6     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. e(n)ta'fodinae 2 et viocurus ? Secundus quo  grammatica escendit 3 antiqua, quae ostendit, quem-  admodum quodque poeta finxerit verbum, quod  confinxerit, quod declinarit ; hie Pacui :   Rudentum sibilus,   hie :   Incwrvicervicum 4 pecus,   hie :   Clamide clupeat bacchium. s   8. Tertius gradus, quo philosophia ascendens per-  venit atque ea quae in consuetudine communi essent  aperire coepit, 1 ut a quo dictum esset oppidum, vicus,  via. Quartus, ubi est adytum 2 et initia regis : quo  si non perveniam (ad) 3 scientiam, at* opinionem  aucupabor, quod etiam in salute nostra nonnunquam  facit 5 cum aegrotamus medicus.   3 Added by Kent, after Scaliger, Mite., OS. ; cf. Quintilian,  hist. Orat. i. 6. 32. 4 After libris, Aug. deleted qui.   §7. 1 After infimus, Sciop. deleted in. 2 Canal, for  aretofodine. 3 Sciop., for descendit. 4 O, Aldus, for  inceruice ruicum. 8 For bacchium.   §8. 1 For caepit. 2 Sciop., for aditum. 3 Added by  L. Sp. 4 Sciop., for ad. 5 Aldus, with p, for fecit.     § 7. ° Cf. viii. 62. 6 Teucer, Trag. Rom. Frag. 336  Ilibbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 296-297 Warmington. c Ex inc. fab.  xliv, verse 408, Trag. Rom. Frag. Ribbeck 3 , R.O.L. ii. 292-293  Warmington, referring to the dolphins of Nereus ; the entire   8     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. &-8     by examples, in the preceding books, of what sort  these phenomena are, I have thought that here I  need only set a reminder of that previous discussion.   7. Now I shall set forth the origins of the indivi-  dual words, of which there are four levels of explana-  tion. The lowest is that to which even the common  folk has come ; who does not see the sources of  argentifodinae a ' silver-mines ' and of viocurus ' road-  overseer ' ? The second is that to which old-time  grammar has mounted, which shows how the poet has  made each word which he has fashioned and derived.  Here belongs Pacuvius's 6   The whistling of the ropes,   here his c   Incurvate-necked flock,   here his d   With his mantle he beshields his arm.   8. The third level is that to which philosophy  ascended, and on arrival began to reveal the nature of  those words which are in common use, as, for example,  from what oppidum ' town ' was named, and vicus ' row  of houses,' a and via ' street.' The fourth is that  where the sanctuary is, and the mysteries of the high-  priest : if I shall not arrive at full knowledge there, at  any rate I shall cast about for a conjecture, which  even in matters of our health the physician sometimes  does when we are ill.   verse in Quintilian, Inst. Orat. i. 5. 67, Nerei repandirostrum  incurvicervicum pecus. d Hermiona, Trag. Rom. Frag. 186  Ribbeck 3 , R.O.L. ii. 232-233 Warmington ; the entire verse in  Nonius Marcellus, 87. 23 M. : currum liquit, clamide contorta  astu clipeat braccium.   § 8. ° From this meaning, either an entire small ' village '  or a ' street ' in a large city.   9     VARRO     9. Quodsi summum gradum non attigero, tamen  secundum praeteribo, quod non solum ad Aris-  tophanis lucernam, sed etiam ad CleantAis lucubravi.  Volui praeterire eos, qui poetarum modo verba ut  sint ficta expediunt. Non enim videbatur consen-  taneum qua(e>re 1 me in eo verbo quod finxisset  Ennius causam, neglegere quod ante rex Latinus  finxisset, cum poeticis multis verbis magis delecter  quam utar, antiquis magis utar quam delecter. An  non potius mea verba ilia quae hereditate a Romulo  rege venerunt quam quae a poeta Livio relicta ?   10. Igitur quoniam in haec sunt tripertita verba,  quae sunt aut nostra aut aliena aut oblivia, de nostris  dicam cur sint, de alienis unde sint, de obliviis re-  linquam : quorum partim quid ta(men) invenerim  aut opiner 1 scribam. In hoc libro dicam de vocabulis  locorum et quae in his sunt, in secundo de temporum  et quae in his fiunt, in tertio de utraque re a poetis  comprehensa.   11. Pythagoras Samius ait omnium rerum initia  esse bina ut finitum et infinitum, bonum et malum,   §9. 1 Aug., for quare.   § 10. 1 After A. Sp., with tamen from Fay's quo loco  tamen ; for quo ita inuenerim ita opiner.   §9. Aristophanes of Byzantium, 262-185 b.c, pupil of  Zenodotus and Callimachus at Alexandria, and himself one  of the greatest of the Alexandrian grammarians, who busied  himself especially with the textual correction and editing of  the Greek authors, notably Homer, Hesiod, and the lyric  poets. 6 Frag. 485 von Arnim ; Cleanthes of Assos, 331-  232 b.c, pupil and successor of Zeno, founder of the Stoic  school of philosophy (died 264), as head of the school, at  Athens, and author of many works on all phases of the Stoic  teaching. e L. Livius Andronicus, c. 284-202 b.c, born at  Tarentum ; first epic and dramatic poet of the Romans.   §11. Pythagoras, born probably in Samos about 567 b.c,   10     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. $-11     9. But if I have not reached the highest level, I  shall none the less go farther up than the second,  because I have studied not only by the lamp of Aris-  tophanes, but also by that of Cleanthes. 6 I have  desired to go farther than those who expound only  how the words of the poets are made up. For it did  not seem meet that I seek the source in the case of  the word which Ennius had made, and neglect that  which long before King Latinus had made, in view of  the fact that I get pleasure rather than utility from  many words of the poets, and more utility than  pleasure from the ancient words. And in fact are  not those words mine which have come to me by  inheritance from King Romulus, rather than those  which were left behind by the poet Livius ? c   10. Therefore since words are divided into these  three groups, those which are our own, those which  are of foreign origin, and those which are obsolete and  of forgotten sources, I shall set forth about our own  why they are, about those of foreign origin whence  they are, and as to the obsolete I shall let them alone :  except that concerning some of them I shall none the  less write what I have found or myself conjecture. In  this book I shall tell about the words denoting places  and those things which are in them ; in the follow-  ing book I shall tell of the words denoting times and  those things which take place in them : in the third  I shall tell of both these as expressed by the poets.   11. Pythagoras the Samian says that the primal  elements of all things are in pairs, as finite and infinite,   removed to Croton in South Italy about 529 and was there the  founder of the philosophic-political school of belief which  attaches to his name. His teachings were oral only, and  were reduced to writing by his followers.   11     VARRO     vitam et mortem, diem et noctem. Quare item duo  status et motus, (utrumque quadripertitum) 1 : quod  stat aut agitatur, corpus, ubi agitatur, locus, dum  agitatur, tempus, quod est in agitatu, actio. Quadri-  pertitio magis sic apparebit : corpus est ut cursor,  locus stadium qua currit, tempus hora qua currit,  actio cursio.   12. Quare fit, ut ideo fere omnia sint quadri-  pertita et ea aeterna, quod neque unquam tempus,  quin fuerit 1 motus : eius enim 2 intervallum tempus ;  ncque motus, ubi non locus et corpus, quod alterum  est quod movetur, alterum ubi ; neque ubi is agitatus,  non actio ibi. Igitur initiorum quadrigae locus et  corpus, tempus et actio.   13. Quare quod quattuor genera prima rerum,  totidem verborum : e quis (de) locis et ns 1 rebus quae  in his videntur in hoc libro summatim ponam. Sed  qua cognatio eius erit verbi quae radices egerit extra  fines suas, persequemur. Saepe enim ad limitem  arboris radices sub vicini prodierunt segetem. Quare  non, cum de locis dicam, si ab agro ad agrarium 2  hominem, ad agricolam pervenero, aberraro. Multa   §11. 1 Added by L. Sp.   §12. 1 For fuerint. 2 A ug., for animi.   § 13. 1 L. Sp., for uerborum enim horum dequis locis et   his. 2 L. Sp., for agrosium.     § 13. ° Celebrated on April 23 and August 19, when an  offering of new wine was made to Jupiter ; cf. vi. 16 and  vi. 20.  12     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 11-13     good and bad, life and death, day and night. There-  fore likewise there are the two fundamentals, station  and motion, each divided into four kinds : what is  stationary or is in motion, is body ; where it is in  motion, is place ; while it is in motion, is time ; what  is inherent in the motion, is action. The fourfold  division will be clearer in this way : body is, so to  speak, the runner, place is the race-course where he  runs, time is the period during which he runs, action is  the running.   12. Therefore it comes about that for this reason  all things, in general, are divided into four phases,  and these universal ; because there is never time  without there being motion — for even an intermission  of motion is time — ; nor is there motion where  there is not place and body, because the latter is  that which is moved, and the former is where ; nor  where this motion is, does there fail to be action.  Therefore place and body, time and action are the  four-horse team of the elements.   13. Therefore because the primal classes of things  are four in number, so many are the primal classes of  words. From among these, concerning places and  those things which are seen in them, I shall put a  summary account in this book ; but we shall follow  them up wherever the kin of the word under discus-  sion is, even if it has driven its roots beyond its own  territory. For often the roots of a tree which is close  to the line of the property have gone out under the  neighbour's cornfield. Wherefore, when I speak of  places, I shall not have gone astray, if from ager  ' field ' I pass to an agrarius ' agrarian ' man, and to  an agricola ' farmer.' The partnership of words is one  of many members : the Wine Festival a cannot be set   13     VARRO     societas verborum, nec Vinalia sine vino expediri nec  Curia Calabra sine calatione potest aperiri.   II. 14. Incipiam de locis ob 1 ipsius loci origine.  Locus est, ubi locatum quid esse potest, ut nunc  dicunt, collocatum. Veteres id dicere solitos apparet  apud Plautum :   Filiam habeo grandem dote cassa(m> atque   inlocabile 3  Neque earn queo locare cuiquam.   Apud Ennium :   O Terra T/jraeca, ubi Liberi fanum incZutfum 3  Maro 4 locavi. 5   15. Ubi quidque consistit, locus. Ab eo praeco  dicitur locare, quod usque idem it, 1 quoad in aliquo  constitit pretium. In(de) 2 locarium quod datur in  stabulo et taberna, ubi consistant. Sic loci muliebres,  ubi nascendi initia consistunt.   III. 16. Loca natura(e) 1 secundum antiquam  divisionem prima duo, terra et caelum, deinde par-  ticulatim utriusque multa. Caeli dicuntur loca su-   § 14. 1 Sciop., for sub. 2 So Plautus, for cassa dote  atque inlocabili F ; Plautus also has virginem for filiam.  3 Wilhelm, for inciuium. 4 For miro F 2 , maro F 1 .  6 Ribbeck, for locaui.   § 15. 1 Turnebus, for id emit. 2 Laetus,for in.   § 16. 1 Aug., for natura.     6 A place on the Capitoline Hill, near the cottage of  Romulus, and also the meeting held there on the Kalends,  when the priests announced the number of days until the  Nones ; cf. vi. 27, and Macrobius, Saturnalia, i. 15. 7.   § 14. a Theuncompounded word; which, like its compound,  meant both ' established in a fixed position ' and ' established  in a marriage.' b Aulularia, 191-192. e That is, in  marriage. d Trag. Rom. Frag. 347-348 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L.   14     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 13-16     on its way without wine, nor can the Curia Calabra  ' Announcement Hall ' b be opened without the  calatio ' proclamation.'   II. 14. Among places, I shall begin with the  origin of the word locus ' place ' itself. Locus is where  something can be locatum a ' placed,' or as they say  nowadays, colhcatum ' established.' That the ancients  were wont to use the word in this meaning, is clear in  Plautus 6 :   I have a grown-up daughter, lacking dower,   unplaceable,'  Nor can I place her now with anyone.   In Ennius we find d :   O Thracian Land, where Bacchus' fane renowned  Did Maro place.   15. Where anything comes to a standstill, is a locus  ' place.' From this the auctioneer is said locare 1 to  place ' because he is all the time likewise going on  until the price comes to a standstill on someone.  Thence also is locarium ' place-rent,' which is given  for a lodging or a shop, where the payers take their  stand. So also loci muliebres ' woman's places,' where  the beginnings of birth are situated.   III. 16. The primal places of the universe, accord-  ing to the ancient division, are two, terra ' earth ' and  caelum ' sky,' and then, according to the division into  items, there are many places in each. The places of  the sky are called loca super a ' upper places,' and   i. 376-377 Warmington. Maro, son of Euanthes and priest  of Apollo in the Thracian Ismaros, in thanks for protection  for himself and his followers, gave Ulysses a present of  excellent wine (Odyssey, ix. 197 ff.). Because of this, later  legend drew him into the Dionysiac circle, as son or grandson  of Bacchus, or otherwise. There were even cults of Maro  himself in Maroneia, Samothrace, and elsewhere.   15     VARRO     pera et ea deorum, terrae loca infcra et ea hominum.  Ut Asia sic caelum dicitur modis duobus. Nam et  Asia, quae non Europa, in quo etiam Syria, et Asia  dicitur prioris pars Asiae, in qua est Ionia ac provincia  nostra.   17. Sic caelum et pars eius, summum ubi stellae,  et id quod Pacuvius cum demonstrat dicit :   Hoc vide circum supraque quod complexu continet  Terram.   Cui subiungit :   Id quod nostri caelum memorant.   A qua bipertita divisione Lua'Zius 1 suorum un(i)us 2  et viginti librorum initium fecit hoc :   Aetheris et terrae genitabile quaerere tempus.   18. Caelum dictum scribit Aelius, quod est  ccelatum, aut contrario nomine, celatum quod aper-  tum est ; non male, quod (im)positor 1 multo potius  (caelare) 2 a caelo quam caelum a caelando. Sed non   § 17. 1 Scaliger, for lucretius. 2 Laetus, for unum.  § 18. 1 GS.,for posterior. 2 Added by Scaliger.   § 16. ° Asia originally designated probably only a town or  small district in Lydia, and then came to be what we now call  Asia Minor, and finally the entire continent. 6 Ionia was  a coastal region of Asia Minor, including Smyrna, Ephesus,  Miletus, etc., and was included within provincia nostra. But  ' our province ' ran much farther inland, comprising Phrygia,  Mysia, Lydia, Caria (Cicero, Pro Flacco, 27. 65), which explains  the ' and.'   § 17. ° Chryses, Tray. Rom. Fray. 87-88 and 90 Ribbeck 3 ;  R.O.L. 2. 202-203, lines 107-108, 1 1 1 Warmington. 6 Satirae,  verse 1 Marx. As there were thirty books of Lucilius's  Satires, the limitation to twenty-one by Varro must be based  on another division (for which there is evidence), thus : Books  XXVI.-XXX. were written first, in various metres; I.-XXI.,   16     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 16-18   these belong to the gods ; the places of the earth are  loca infer a ' lower places,' and these belong to man-  kind. Caelum ' sky ' is used in two ways, just as is  Asia. For Asia means the Asia, which is not Europe,  wherein is even Syria ; and Asia means also that  part a of the aforementioned Asia, in which is Ionia 6  and our province.   17. So caelum ' sky ' is both a part of itself, the top  where the stars are, and that which Pacuvius means  when he points it out :   See this around and above, which holds in its embrace  The earth.   To which he adds :   .That which the men of our days call the sky.   From this division into two, Lucilius set this as the  start of his twenty-one books 6 :   Seeking the time when the ether above and the  earth were created.   18. Caelum, Aelius writes," was so called because  it is caelatum ' raised above the surface,' or from the  opposite of its idea, 6 celatum ' hidden ' because it is  exposed ; not ill the remark, that the one who applied  the term took caelare ' to raise ' much rather from  caelum than caelum from caelare. But that second   to which Varro here alludes, were a second volume, in dactylic  hexameters, which Lucilius had found to be the best vehicle  for his work; XXII.-XXV. were a third part, in elegiacs,  probably not published until after their author's death.   § 18. ° Page 59 Funaioli. Caelum is probably connected  with a root seen in German heiter ' bright,' and not with the  words mentioned by Varro. 6 Derivation by the contrary  of the meaning, as in ludus, in quo minime luditur ' school, in  which there is very little playing ' (Fesrus, 122. 16 M.).   vol. I c 17     VARRO     minus illud alterum de celando ab eo potuit dici, quod  interdiu celatur, quam quod noctu non celatur.   19. Omnino epk(ap). 3 A  puteis oppidum ut Puteoli, quod incircum eum locum  aquae frigidae et caldae multae, nisi a putore potius,  quod putidus odoribus soepe ex sulphure et alumine.  Extra oppida a puteis puticuli, quod ibi in puteis  obruebantur homines, nisi potius, ut Aelius scribit,  puticuli 4 quod putescebant ibi cadavera proiecta, qui  locus publicus ultra Esquilias. 5 Itaque eum Afranius  /mti/ucos 6 in Togata appellat, quod inde suspiciunt  per p?*teos 7 lumen.   26. Lacus lacuna magna, ubi aqua contineri potest.  Palus paululum aquae in altitudinem et palam latius  diffusae. Stagnum a Graeco, quod ii 1 o-reyvov quod  non habet rimam. 2 Hinc ad villas rutunda 3 stagna,  quod rutundum facillime continet, anguli maxime  laborant.   § 25. 1 For summi. 2 Buttmann, for potamon sic po  tura potu. 3 Victorius, for pe. 4 Mue.,for puticulae.  5 For exquilias. 6 Scaliger, for cuticulos. 7 Canal, for  perpetuos.   § 26. 1 For 11. 2 Scaliger, for nomen habet primam.  3 B, for rutundas.   § 25. Or ' pit ' ; derivative of root in pidare ' to cut,  think,' cf. amputare ' to cut off.' 6 Aeolis, nom. pi. = Greek  AloXeis. " This and ttvtcos are unknown in the extant  remains of Aeolic Greek, but a number of Aeolic words show  the change : anv for a-no, vfioCcos for ofiotcos. d The modern  Pozzuoli, on the Bay of Naples, in a locality characterized  by volcanic springs and exhalations ; Varro's derivation is  correct. * Page 65 Funaioli. ' The Roman ' potters'  field,' for the poor and the slaves. * Com. Rom. Frag.  430 Ribbeck 3 ; with a jesting transposition of the consonants.  Cf. for a similar effect ' pit-lets ' and ' pit-lights.' The  description suggests that they were constructed like the  Catacombs.     24-     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 25-26     25. If this moisture is in the ground no matter  how far down, in a place from which it pote ' can ' be  taken, it is a puteus ' well ' ° ; unless rather because  the Aeolians 6 used to say, like 7ruTa/zos c for Trorafios  ' river,' so also Trvreos ' well ' for iroreos ' drinkable,'  from pohis ' act of drinking,' and not (f>peap ' well ' as  they do now. From patei ' wells ' comes the town-  name, such as Puteoli, d because around this place there  are many hot and cold spring-waters ; unless rather  from putor ' stench,' because the place is often putidus  ' stinking ' with smells of sulphur and alum. Outside  the towns there are puticuli ' little pits,' named from  putei ' pits,' because there the people used to be buried  in putei ' pits ' ; unless rather, as Aelius e writes, the  puticuli are so called because the corpses which had  been thrown out putescebant ' used to rot ' there, in  the public burial-place f which is beyond the Esqui-  line. This place Afranius 9 in a comedy of Roman life  calls the Putiluci ' pit-lights,' for the reason that from  it they look up through putei ' pits ' to the lumen  ' light.*   26. A lacus ' lake ' is a large lacuna a ' hollow,'  where water can be confined. A palus b ' swamp ' is  a paululum ' small amount ' of water as to depth,  but spread quite widely palam ' in plain sight.' A  stagnum c ' pool ' is from Greek, because they gave the  name o-reyvos d ' waterproof ' to that which has no  fissure. From this, at farmhouses the stagna ' pools '  are round, because a round shape most easily holds  water in, but corners are extremely troublesome.   §26. ° Lacuna is a derivative of lacus. 6 Palus, paulu-  lum, palam are all etymologically distinct. e Properly, a  pool without an outlet ; perhaps akin to Greek arayuv ' drop  (of liquid).' d Original meaning, ' covered.'   25     VARRO     27. Fluvius, quod fluit, item flumen : a quo lege  praediorum urbanorum scribitur 1 :   Stillicidia fluminaque 2 ut ita 3 cadant  fluantque ;   inter haec hoc inter(est), quod stillicidium eo quod  stillatim cadit, 4 flumen quod fluit continue.   28. Amnis id flumen quod circuit aliquod : nam  ab ambitu amnis. Ab hoc qui circum Aternum 1  habitant, Amiternini appellati. Ab eo qui popu-  lum candidatus circum it, 2 ambit, et qui aliter facit,  indagabili ex ambitu causam dicit. Itaque Tiberis  amnis, quod ambit Martium Campum et urbem ; op-  pidum Interamna dictum, quod inter amnis est  constitutum ; item Antemnae, quod ante amnis,  qu(a> Anto 3 influit in Tiberim, quod bello male ac-  ceptum consenuit.   29. Tiberis quod caput extra Latium, si inde  nomen quoque exfluit in linguam nostram, nihil (ad) 1  eTv/ioAoyov Latinum, ut, quod oritur ex Samnio,   § 27. 1 For scribitur scribitur. 2 For flumina quae.  8 L. Sp., after Gothofredus, for ut ita. 4 a, Pape, for  cadet.   §28. 1 Aug., with B, for alterunum. 2 For id.  3 Canal, for quanto.   § 29. 1 Added by Thiersch.     § 27. a Cf. Digest, viii. 2. 17. * That is, rain-waters  dripping from roofs and streams resulting from rain shall in  city properties not be diverted from their present courses.  Such supplies of water were in early days a real asset.   § 28. " Probably to be associated with English Avon (from  Celtic word for ' river '), and not with ambire ' to go around.'  b Good etymology ; Amiternum was an old city in the Sabine  country, on the Aternus River ; with ambi- ' around ' in the  form am-, as in amicire ' to place (a garment) around.'     26     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 27-29     27. Fluvhis ' river ' is so named because it jiuit  ' flows,' and likewise jiumen ' river ' : from which is  written, according to the law of city estates,"   Stillicidia ' rain-waters ' and flumina ' rivers ' shall  be allowed to fall and to flow without interference. 6   Between these there is this difference, that stillicidium  ' rain-water ' is so named because it cadit ' falls '  stillatim ' drop by drop,' and Jiumen ' river ' because it  jiuit ' flows ' uninterruptedly.   28. An amnis a is that river which goes around  something ; for amnis is named from ambitus ' circuit.'  From this, those who dwell around the Aternus are  called Amiternini ' men of Amiternum.' 6 From this,  he who circum it ' goes around ' the people as a candi-  date, ambit ' canvasses,' and he who does otherwise  than he should, pleads his case in court as a result  of his investigable ambitus ' canvassing.'" Therefore  the Tiber is called an amnis, because it ambit ' goes  around ' the Campus Martius and the City d ; the  town Interamna ' gets its name from its position  inter amnis ' between rivers ' ; likewise Antemnae,  because it lies ante amnis ' in front of the rivers,' where  the Anio flows into the Tiber — a town which suffered  in war and wasted away until it perished.   29. The Tiber, because its source is outside  Latium, if the name as well flows forth from there  into our language, does not concern the Latin ety-  mologist ; just as the Volturnus, because it starts from   e That is, for corrupt electioneering methods. d The Tiber  swings to the west at Rome, forming a virtual semicircle.  * A city in Umbria, almost encircled by the river Nar.   § 29. Adjective from voltur ' vulture ' ; there was a Mt.  Voltur farther south, on the boundary between Samnium and  Apulia.   27     VARRO     Volturnus nihil ad Latinam linguam : at 2 quod proxi-  mum oppidum ab eo secundum mare Volturnum, ad  nos, iam 3 Latinum vocabulum, ut Tiberinus no(me)n.'  Et colonia enim nostra Volturnu?/? 5 et deus Tiberinus.   30. Sed de Tiberis nomine anceps historia. Nam  et suum Etruria et Latium suum esse credit, quod  fuerunt qui ab Thebri vicino regulo Veientum 1 dixe-  rint appellat?fimam 4 Novam  Viam locus sacellum (Ve>labrum. 5   44. Velabrum a vehendo. Velaturam facere  etiam nunc dicuntur qui id mercede faciunt. Merces  (dicitur a mcrendo et aere) huic vecturae qui ratibus  transibant quadrans. Ab eo Lucilius scripsit :   Quadrantis ratiti.  VIII. 45. Reliqua urbis loca olim discreta, cum  Argeorum sacraria septem et viginti in (quattuor)   §43. x Added by Laetus. 2 Mue., with M, for auen-  tinum. 3 Added by L. Sp. 4 Turnebus, for fimam.  5 Mue., for labrum.     § 43. ° Page 115 Funaioli. Etymologies of place-names  are particularly treacherous ; none of those given here ex-  plains Aventinus. Varro elsewhere (de gente populi Romani,  quoted by Servius in Aen. vii. 657) says that some Sabines  established here by Romulus called it Aventinus from the  Avens, a river of the district from which they had come.  6 Frag. Poet. Rom. 27 Baehrens; R.O.L. ii. 56-57 Warming-  ton. c The spelling with d is required by the sense.  d Varro says that a ferry-raft was called a velabrum, and  that this name was transferred to the passage on which the  rafts had plied, when it was filled in and had become a street ;  but that there survived a chapel in honour of the ferry-rafts.   § 44. ° Correct etymology. 6 Incorrect etymology.   40     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 43-±5     several origins. Naevius b says that it is from the  aves ' birds,' because the birds went thither from  the Tiber ; others, that it is from King Aventinus  the Alban, because he is buried there ; others that it  is the Adventine c Hill, from the adventus ' coming ' of  people, because there a temple of Diana was estab-  lished in which all the Latins had rights in common.  I am decidedly of the opinion, that it is from advectus  ' transport by water ' ; for of old the hill was cut off  from everything else by swampy pools and streams.  Therefore they advehebaniur ' were conveyed ' thither  by rafts ; and traces of this survive, in that the way  by which they were then transported is now called  Velabrum ' fern",' and the place from which they  landed at the bottom of New Street is a chapel of the  Velabra. "   44. Velabrum ° is from vehere ' to convey.' Even  now, those persons are said to do velatura ' ferrying,'  who do this for pay. The merces 6 ' pay ' (so called  from merere ' to earn ' and aes ' copper money ') for  this ferrying of those who crossed by rafts was a  farthing. From this Lucilius wrote c :   Of a raft-marked farthing. 1 *   VIII. 45. The remaining localities of the City  were long' ago divided off, when the twenty-seven   c 1272 Marx. d The quadrans or fourth of an as was  marked with the figure of a raft.   § 45. ° It would seem simpler if the shrines numbered  twenty-four, six in each of the four sections of Rome. But  both here and in vii. 44 the number is driven as twenty-seven.  It is hardly likely that in both places XXUII ( =XXVII) has  been miswritten for XXIIII ; yet this supposition must be  made by those who think that the correct number is twenty-  four.     41     VARRO     partis 1 urbi(s) 2 sunt disposita. Argeos dictos putant  a principibus, qui cum /fercule Argivo venerunt  Romam et in Saturnia subsederunt. E quis prima  scripta est regio Suburana, 3 secunda' Esquilina, tertia  Collina, quarta Palatina.   46. In Suburanae 1 regionis parte princeps est  Caelius mons a C#ele Vibenna, 2 Tusco duce nobili, qui  cum sua manu dicitur Romulo venisse auxilio contra  7atium 3 regem. Hinc post Caelis 4 obitum, quod  nimis munita loca tenerent neque sine suspicione  essent, deducti dicuntur in planum. Ab eis dictus  Vicus Tuscus, et ideo ibi Vortumnum stare, quod is  deus Etruriae princeps ; de Caelianis qui a suspicione  liberi essent, traductos in eum locum qui vocatur  Cfleliolum.   4-7. Cum Cflelio 1 coniunctum Carinae et inter eas  quern locum Caer(i)o/ensem 2 appellatum apparet,   § 45. 1 L. Sp., for sacraria in septem et uiginti partis.  2 Ijaetus, for urbi. 3 Aug., for suburbana F 1 , subura F 2 .   § 46. 1 Aug., with B,for suburbanae. 2 Frag. Cass.,  for uibenno / cf. Tacitus, Ann. iv. 65. 3 Puccius, \oith  Servius in Aen. v. 560, for latinum. 4 Coelis Aug., for  celii.   § 47. 1 Laetus, for celion. 2 Kent ; Caeliolensem ten  Brink {and similarly through the section) ; for ceroniensem.     * Puppets or dolls made of rushes, thrown into the Tiber  from the Pons Sublicius every year on May 14, as a sacrifice  of purification ; the distribution of the shrines from which  they were brought was to enable them to take up the pollu-  tion of the entire city. Possibly the dolls were a substitute  for human victims. The name Argei clearly indicates that  the ceremony was brought from Greece.   § 46. Comparison with § 47, § 50, § 52, § 54, shows that   42     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 45-47     shrines of the Argei 6 were distributed among the four  sections of the City. The Argei, they think, were  named from the chieftains who came to Rome with  Hercules the Argive, and settled down in Saturnia.  Of these sections, the first is recorded as the Suburan  region, the second the Esquiline, the third the Colline,  the fourth the Palatine.   46. In the section of the Suburan region, the first  shrine ° is located on the Caelian Hill, named from  Caeles Yibenna, a Tuscan leader of distinction, who is  said to have come with his followers to help Romulus  against King Tatius. From this hill the followers of  Caeles are said, after his death, to have been brought  down into the level ground, because they were in  possession of a location which was too strongly forti-  fied and their loyalty was somewhat under suspicion.  From them was named the Vicus Tuscus ' Tuscan  Row,' and therefore, they say, the statue of  Vertumnus stands there, because he is the chief god  of Etruria ; but those of the Caelians who were free  from suspicion were removed to that place which is  called Caeliohim ' the little Caelian.' 6   47. Joined to the Caelian is Cannae ' the Keels ' ;  and between them is the place which is called Caerio-   the sacra Argeorum (§ 50) used princeps, terticeps, etc., to  designate numerically the shrines in each pars ; and that the  place-name was set in the nominative alongside the neuter  numeral : therefore " the first is the Caelian Hill " means that  the first shrine is located on that hill. Cf. K. O. Mueller, Zur  Topographle Horns : ilber die Fragmenta der Sacra Argeorum  bei Varro, de Lingua Latlna,v. 8 (pp. 69-94 in C. A. Bottiger,  Archaohgle und Kunst, vol. i., Breslau, 1828). * The  Caeliolum, spoken of also as the Caeliculus (or -um) by  Cicero, De liar. Resp. 15. 32, and as the Caelius Minor by  Martial, xii. 18. 6, seems to have been a smaller and less im-  portant section of the Caelian Hill.   43     VARRO   quod primae regionis quartum sacrarium scriptum sic  est :   Caer(i)olensis 3 : quarticeps 4 circa Minerviuin qua in  Caeli?/(m> monte(m) B itur : in tabernola est.   Cflcrolensis s a Carinarum 7 iunctu dictus ; Carinae  pote a 8 caeri(m)onia, 9 quod hinc oritur caput Sacrae  Viae ab Streniae sacello quae pertinet in arce(m), 10  qua sacra quotquot mensibus feruntur in arcem et  per quam augures ex arce profecti solent inaugurare.  Huius Sacrae Viae pars haec sola volgo nota, quae  est a Foro eunti primore 11 clivo.   48. Eidem regioni adtributa Subura, quod sub  muro terreo Carinarum ; in eo est Argeorum sacel-  lum sextum. Subura(m) 1 Iunius scribit ab eo, quod  fuerit sub antiqua urbc ; cui testimonium potest esse,  quod subest ei 2 loco qui terreus murus vocatur. Sed  (ego a) 3 pago potius Succusano dictam puto Suc-  cusam : (quod in nota etiam) 4 nunc scribitur (SVC) 5   3 Kent, for cerolienses. 4 Aug., for quae triceps.  5 Aug., for celio monte. 6 Kent, for cerulensis. 7 For  carinaernm. 8 Jordan, for postea. 9 cerimonia Bek-  ker, for cerionia. 10 Aug., and Frag. Cass., for arce.  11 Aldus, for primoro.   § 48. 1 Wissowa, for subura. 2 Victorius, for et.  3 Added by Laetus (a Frag. Cass.). 4 Added by Mae.,  after Quintilian, Inst. Orat. i. 7. 29. 5 Added by Merck-  lin, to fill a gap capable of holding three letters, in F ; cf.  Quintilian, loc. cit.     § 47. ° That is, Caeliolensis ' pertaining to the Caeliolus.''  Through separation in meaning from the primitive, the r has  been subject to regular dissimilation as in caerulus for *catlu-  44     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 47-48     lensis, a obviously because the fourth shrine of the first  region is thus written in the records :   Coeriolensis : fourth 6 shrine, near the temple of Minerva,  in the street by which you go up the Caelian Hill ; it is in a  booth.'   Caeriolensis is so called from the joining of the Carinae  with the Caelian. Carinae is perhaps from caerimonia  ' ceremony,' because from here starts the beginning  of the Sacred Way, which extends from the Chapel  of Strenia d to the citadel, by which the offerings are  brought ever)' year to the citadel, and by which the  augurs regularly set out from the citadel for the  observation of the birds. Of this Sacred Way, this  is the only part commonly known, namely the part  which is at the beginning of the Ascent as you go  from the Forum.   48. To the same region is assigned the Subura,  which is beneath the earth-wall of the Cannae ; in it  is the sixth chapel of the Argei. Junius 6 writes that  Subura is so named because it was at the foot of the  old city (sub urbe) ; proof of which may be in the fact  that it is under that place which is called the earth-  wall. But I rather think that from the Succusan dis-  trict it was called Succusa ; for even now when abbre-  viated it is written SVC, with C and not B as third   his, Parilia for Palilia ; possibly association with Carinae  furthered the change. * Cf. § 46, note a. e The words  sinistra via or dexteriore via may have been lost before in  tabernola ; cf. ten Brink's note. d A goddess of health  and physical well-being.   § 48. " Etymology entirely uncertain. The neuters quod  and in eo, referring to Subura, mutually support each other.  6 M. Junius Gracchanus, contemporary and partisan of the  Gracchi ; page 1 1 Huschke. He wrote an antiquarian work  Be Potestatibus.   45     VARRO   tertia littera C, non B. Pagus Succusanus, quod  succurrit Carinis.   49. Sccundac rcgionis Esquiliae. 1 Alii has scrip-  serunt ab excubiis regis dictas, alii ab eo quod (aes-  culis} 2 excultae a rege Tullio essent. Huic origini  magis concinunt loca vicina, 3 quod ibi lucus dicitur  Facutalis et Larum Querquetulanum sacellum et  l?*cus 4 Mefitis et Iunonis Lucinae, quorum angusti  fines. Non mirum : iam diu enim late avaritia una  (domina) 5 est.   50. Esquiliae duo montes habiti, quod pars (Op-  pius pars) 1 Cespzus 2 mons suo antiquo nomine etiam  nunc in sacris appellatur. In Sacris Argeorum  scriptum sic est :   Oppius Mons : princeps quili(i>s 3 u/s 4 l?. 4 Sunt qui,  quod ibi vimineta 5 fuerint. Coin's 6 Quirinalis, (quod  ibi) 7 Quirini fanum. Sunt qui a Quiritibus, qui cum  Tatio Curibus venerunt ad Roma(m), 8 quod ibi  habuerint castra.   52. Quod vocabulum coniunctarum regionum  nomina obliteravit. Dictos enim collis pluris apparet  ex Argeorum Sacrificiis, in quibus scriptum sic est :   Collis Quirinalis : terticeps cis 1 aedem Quirini.  Collis Salutaris : quarticeps adversum est polinar  cis 2 aedem Salutis.   13 Mue., for sceptius. 14 Mue., for quinticepsois.  15 Laetus, for lacum. 16 Scaliger, for esquilinis.   § 51. 1 L. Sp., for colles. 2 Laetus, for uiminales.  3 Aug., with B, for uimino / cf Festus, 376 a 10 M. 4 L.  Sp., after ten Brink (arae eius), for arae. 6 O, Aug., for  uiminata. 6 Laetus, for colles. 7 Added by L. Sp.  8 Ten Brink ; Romam Laetus ; for ab Roma.   § 52. 1 Mue., for terticepsois. 2 Apollinar cis Mue.,  for pilonarois.     c Apparently to be associated with putidus ' stinking,'  because of the mention of Mefitis a few lines before ; but if  so, the oe is a false archaic spelling, out of place in putidus  and its kin. Another possibility is that it is to be connected  with the plebeian gens Poetelia ; one of this name was a  member of the Second Decemvirate, 450 b.c. d That is,  adjacent to the sacristan's dwelling.  48     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 50-52     Cespian Hill : fifth shrine, this side of the Poetelian "  Grove ; it is on the Esquiline.   Cespian Hill : sixth shrine, at the temple of Juno Lucina,  where the sacristan customarily dwells.*   51. To the third region belong five hills, named  from sanctuaries of gods ; among these hills are two  that are well-known. The .Viminal Hill got its name  from Jupiter Viminius ' of the Osiers,' because there  was his altar ; ■ but there are some a who assign its  name to the fact that there were vimineta ' willow-  copses ' there. The Quirinal Hill was so named  because there was the sanctuary of Quirinus 6 ;  others c say that it is derived from the Quirites, who  came with Tatius from Cures d to the vicinity of  Rome, because there they established their camp.   52. This name has caused the names of the  adjacent localities to be forgotten. For that there  were other hills with their own names, is clear from  the Sacrifices of the Argei, in which there is a record  to this effect ° :   Quirinal Hill : third shrine, this side of the temple of  Quirinus.   Salutary Hill * : fourth shrine, opposite the temple of  Apollo, this side of the temple of Salus.   §51. "Page 118 Funaioli. b Quirinalis, Quirinus,  Quirites belong together ; but Cures is probably to be kept  apart. c Page 116 Funaioli. d An ancient city of the  Sabines, about twenty-four miles from Rome, the city of  Tatius and the birthplace of Xnma Pompilius, successor of  Romulus; cf. Livy, i. 13, 18.   § 53. ° Page 6 Preibisch. 6 Sal u tar is, from salus  ' preservation ' ; the temple perhaps marked the place of a  victory in a critical battle, or commemorated the end of a  pestilence. We do not know whether this Salus was the  same as Iuppiter Salutaris. mentioned by Cicero, De Finibus,  iii. 20. 66 ; cf. the Greek Zevs aarrqp ' Zeus the Saviour.'   vol. l E 49     VARRO   Collis Mucialis : quinticeps apud aedem Dei Fidi 3 ; in  delubro, ubi aeditumus habere solet.   Colli's 4 Latiaris 5 : sexticeps in Vico Instef'ano 6 summo,  apud au(gu)raculum' ; aedificium solum est.   Horum deorum arae, a quibus cognomina habent, in  cius regionis partibus sunt.   53. Quartae regionis Palatium, quod Pallantes  cum Euandro venerunt, qui et Palatini ; (alii quod  Palatini), 1 aborigines ex agro Reatino, qui appeliatur  Palatium, ibi conse(de)runt 2 ; sed hoc alii a Palanto 3  uxore Latini putarunt. Eundem hunc locum a pecore  dictum putant quidam ; itaque Naevius Balatium  appellat.   5 1. Huic Cermalum et Velias 1 coniunxerunt, quod  in hac rcgione 2 scriptum est :   Germalense : quinticeps apud aedem Romuli.   Et   Veliense 3 : sexticeps in Velia apud aedem deum Penatium.   3 For de i de fidi. 4 For colles. 5 M, Laetus, for  latioris. 6 Jordan, for instelano ; cf Livy, xxiv. 10. 8,  in vico Insteio. 7 Turtiebus,for auraculum.   § 53. 1 Added by A. Sp. 2 Fray. Cass., M, Laetus,  for conserunt. 3 Mite., (Palantho L. Sp.), for palantio /  cf Fest. 220. 6 M.   § 54. 1 For uellias. 2 M, Laetus, for religione.  3 Bentlnus, for uelienses.   c 3Ivcialis, apparently from the gens Mucia ; the first known  Mucius was the one who on failing to assassinate Porsenna,  the Etruscan king who was besieging Pome, burned his right  hand over the altar-fire and thus gained the cognomen Scae-  vola ' Lefty.' Several Mucii with the cognomen Scaevola  were prominent in the political and legal life of Rome from  215 to 82 b.c. d Detts Fidivs was an aspect of Jupiter;  cf. Greek Zev? marios. e Latiaris 'pertaining to Latium';  Iuppiter Latiaris was the guardian deity of the Latin Con-  federation, cf. Cicero, Pro Milone, 31. 85.   50     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 52-54-     Mucial Hill e : fifth shrine, at the temple of the God of  Faith, 4 in the chapel where the sacristan customarily dwells.   Latiary Hill * : sixth shrine, at the top of Insteian Row, at  the augurs' place of observation ; it is the only building.   The altars of these gods, from which they have their  surnames, are in the various parts of this region.   53. To the fourth region belongs the Palatine, so  called because the Pallantes came there* with Evan-  der, and they were called also Palatines ; others think  that it was because Palatines, aboriginal inhabitants  of a Reatine district called Palatium, 6 settled there ;  but others c thought that it was from Palanto, d wife  of Latinus. This same place certain authorities  think was named from the pecus ' flocks ' ; therefore  Naevius e calls it the Balalium f ' Bleat-ine.'   54. To this they joined the Cermalus ° and the  Veliae, 6 because in the account of this region it is thus  recorded c :   Germalian : fifth shrine, at the temple of Romulus,   and   Velian : sixth shrine, on the Velia, at the temple of the  deified Penates.   § 53. ° For Palatium, there is no convincing etymology.  6 An ancient city of the Sabines, on the Via Salaria, forty-  eight miles from Rome, on the banks of the river Velinus.  ' Page 116 Funaioli. 4 According to Festus, 220. 5 M.,  Palanto was the mother of Latinus ; she is called Pallantia  by Servius in Jen. viii. 51. e Frag. Poet. Rom. 28 Baeh-  rens; R.O.L. ii. 56-57 Warmington. 'As though from  balare ' to bleat.'   § 54. "There is no etymology for Cermalus ; the word  began with C, but for etymological purposes Varro begins it  with G, relying on the fact that in older Latin C represented  two sounds, c and g. 6 Apparently used both in the  singular, Velia, and in the plural, Veliae; there is no ety-  mology. e Page 7 Preibisch.   51     VARRO     Germalum a germanis Romulo et Remo, quod ad  ficum ruminalem, et ii ibi inventi, quo aqua hiberna  Tiberis eos detulerat in alveolo expositos. Veliae  unde essent plures accepi causas, in quis quod ibi  pastores Palatini ex ovibus 4 ante tonsuram inventam  vellere lanam sint soliti, a quo vellera 5 dieuntur.   IX. 55. Ager Romanus primum divisus in partis  tris, a quo tribus appellata Tztiensium, 1 Ramnium,  Lueerum. Nominatae, ut ait Ennius, Titienses ab  Tatio, Ramnenses ab Romulo, Lueeres, ut Iunius,  ab Lueumone ; sed omnia haee voeabula Tusca, ut  Volnius, qui tragoedias 2 Tuscas seripsit, dicebat.   56. Ab hoe partes 1 quoque quattuor urbis tribus  dietae,ab loeis Suburana, Palatina, Esquilina, Collina ;  quinta, quod sub Roma, Romilia ; sic reliquae 2  tri(gin)ta 3 ab his rebus quibus in Tribu(u)m Libro 4  scripsi.   X. 57. Quod ad loca quaeque his coniuneta fuerunt,   4 Victorius, for quibus. 5 Laetvs, for uelleinera (uellaera  Frag. Cass.).   § 55. 1 Groth, for tatiensium. 2 For tragaedias.   § 56. 1 For partis. 2 For reliqna, altered from re-  liquae. 3 Turnebus, for trita. 4 Frag. Cass., L. Sp.,  for libros.     d Page 118 Funaioli.   § 55. ° Roman possessions in land, both state property  and private estates ; as opposed to ager peregrinus ' foreign  land.' 6 None of the etymologies is probable, which is  not surprising, as they were of non-Latin origin, whether or  not they were Etruscan. e Ann. i. frag. lix. Vahlen 2 ;  R.O.L. i. 38-39 Warmington. d Page 121 Funaioli ;  page 11 Huschke. e Page 126 Funaioli ; Volnius is not  mentioned elsewhere.   § 56. ° The four vrbanae tribus ' city tribes.' 6 The   52     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 5±-57     Germalus, they say, is from the germani ' brothers '  Romulus and Remus, because it is beside the Fig-tree  of the Suckling, and they were found there, where the  Tiber's winter flood had brought them when they had  been put out in a basket. For the source of the name  Veliae I have found several reasons/* among them,  that there the shepherds of the Palatine, before the  invention of shearing, used to vellere ' pluck ' the wool  from the sheep, from which the vellera ' fleeces ' were  named.   IX. 55. The Roman field-land a was at first  divided into tris ' three ' parts, from which they called  the Titienses, the Ramnes, and the Luceres each a  tribus ' tribe.' These tribes were named, 6 as Ennius  says," the Titienses from Tatius, the Ramnenses from  Romulus, the Luceres, according to Junius/* from  Lucumo ; but all these words are Etruscan, as Vol-  nius, e who wrote tragedies in Etruscan, stated.   56. From this, four parts of the City also were  used as names of tribes, the Suburan, the Palatine,  the Esquiline, the Colline, a from the places ; a fifth,  because it was sub Roma ' beneath the walls of Rome,'  M as called Romilian 6 ; so also the remaining thirty c  from those causes which ris. 1 A qua vi natis dicta vita  et illud a Lucilio :   Vis est vita, vides, vis nos facere omnia cogit.   64. Quare quod caelum principium, ab satu est  dictus Saturnus, et quod ignis, Saturnalibus cerei  superioribus mittuntur. Terra Ops, quod hie omne  opus et hac opus ad vivendum, et ideo dicitur Ops  mater, quod terra mater. Haec enim   Terris gentis omnis peperit et resumit denuo,   quae   Dat cibaria,   8 Sciop.,/or uiere est uincere. 4 Scaliger, for palmam.   § 63. 1 L. Sp. ; significantes Veneris Laetus ; for signi-  ficantes se ueris.     ' Vincire is in fact derived from an extension of the root  seen in viere. 3 25 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 404-405 Warming-  ton. h Palma and paria are etymologically separate.   § 63. A Greek legend, invented to connect the name of  Aphrodite with dpos ' foam ' ; cf. Hesiod, Theogony, 188-  198. The name Aphrodite is probably of Semitic origin.   60     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 62-64-     itself, from vinctura ' binding,' said vieri ' to be plaited,'  that is, vinciri ' to be bound ' f ; whence there is the  line in Ennius's Sota 9 :   The lustful pair were going, to plait the Love-god's  garland.   Palma ' palm ' is so named because, being naturally  bound on both sides, it has paria ' equal * leaves.^   63. The poets, in that they say that the fiery seed  fell from the Sky into the sea and Venus was born  "from the foam-masses," ° through the conjunction  of fire and moisture, are indicating that the vis ' force'  which they have is that of Venus. Those born of this  vis have what is called vita 6 ' life,' and that was meant  by Lucilius c :   Life is force, you see ; to do everything force doth  compel us.   64. Wherefore because the Sky is the beginning,  Saturn was named from satus a ' sowing ' ; and  because fire is a beginning, waxlights are presented to  patrons at the Saturnalia. 6 Ops c is the Earth, be-  cause in it is every opus ' work ' and there is opus  ' need ' of it for living, and therefore Ops is called  mother, because the Earth is the. mother. For she d   All men hath produced in all the lands, and takes  them back again,   she who   Gives the rations,   * Vis and vita are not connected etymological ly. e 1340  Marx.   § 64. ° This etymology is unlikely. * Confirmed by  Festus, 54. 16 M. e Ops and opus are connected ety-  mologically. d Ennius, Varia, 48 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 412-  413 Warmington.   61     VARRO   ut ait Ennius, quae   Quod gerit fruges, Ceres ;   antiquis enim quod nunc G C. 1   65. Idem hi dei Caelum et Terra Iupiter et Iuno,  quod ut ait Ennius :   Istic est is Iupiter quem dico, quern Grneci vocant  Aerem, qui ventus est et nubes, imber postea,  Atque ex imbre frigus, verities 1 post fit, aer denuo.  Hacc(e) 2 propter Iupiter sunt ista quae dico tibi,  Qui 3 mortalis, (arva) 4 atque urbes beluasque omnis  iuvat.   Quod hi(n)c 5 omnes et sub hoc, eundem appellans  dicit :   Divumque hominumque pater rex.   Pater, quod patefacit semen : nam turn esse 8 con-  ceptual (pat)et, 7 inde cum exit quod oritur.   66. Hoc idem magis ostendit antiquius Iovis  nomen : nam olim Diovis et Di(e)spiter 1 dictus, id  est dies pater ; a quo dei dicti qui inde, et diws 2 et   § 64. 1 Lachmann ; C quod nunc G Mite. ; for quod  nunc et.   § 65. 1 Laetus, for uentis. 2 Mor. Jlaupt ; haecce  Mae. ; for haec. 3 Aug., with B, for qua. 4 Added  by Schoell. 5 L. Sp., for hie. 6 Mue., for est.  7 Mue., for et.   § 66. 1 Laetus, for dispiter. 2 Bentinus, for dies.     'Varia, 49-50 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 412-413 Warmington ;  gerit and Ceres are not connected. / There was a time  when C had its original value g (as in Greek, where the  third letter is gamma) and had taken over also the value of  K. The use of the symbol G for the sound g was later. C  in the value g survived in C. = Gaius, Cn. = Gnaeus.   § 65. Varia, 54-58 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 414-415 Warm-  ington. * Iupiter and iuvare are not related. c An-   62     OX THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 64-66   as Ennius says, e who   Is Ceres, since she brings (gerit) the fruits.  For with the ancients, what is now G, was written C/   65. These same gods Sky and Earth are Jupiter  and Juno, because, as Ennius says,°   That one is the Jupiter of whom I speak, whom  Grecians call   Air ; who is the windy blast and cloud, and after-  wards the rain ;   After rain, the cold ; he then becomes again the  wind and air.   This is why those things of which I speak to you  are Jupiter :   Help he gives * to men, to fields and cities, and  to beasties all.   Because all come from him and are under him, he  addresses him with the words c :   O father and king of the gods and the mortals.   Pater ' father ' because he patefacit d ' makes evident '  the seed ; for then it patet ' is evident ' that concep-  tion has taken place, when that which is born comes  out from it.   66. This same thing the more ancient name of  J upiter a shows even better : for of old he was called  Diovis and Diespiter, that is, dies pater ' Father Day " b ;  from which they who come from him are called dei  ' deities,' and dius ' god ' and divum ' sky,' whence  sub divo ' under the sky,' and Dius Fidius ' god of   nates, 5S0 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 168-169 Warmington.  d Pater and patere are not related.   § 66. ° Iu- in Iupiter, Diovis, Dies, deus, Dius, divum  belong together by etymology. b K. O. Mueller thought  that Yarro meant dies as the old genitive, ' father of the day,'  instead of as a nominative in apposition ; but this is hardly  likely.   63     VARRO     divum, unde sub divo, Dius Fidius. Itaque inde eius  perforatum tectum, ut ea videatur divum, id est  caelum. Quidam negant sub tecto per hunc deierare  oportere. Aelius Dium Fid(i)um dicebat Diovis  filium, ut Grceci Aiocr/vopoi' Castorem, et putabat 3  hunc esse Sancum 4 ab Safeina lingua et Herculem a  Graeca. Idem hie Dis 5 pater dicitur infimus, qui est  coniunctus terrae, ubi omnia (ut) 6 oriuntur ita? abori-  untur ; quorum quod finis ortu(u)m, Orcus 8 dictus.   67. Quod Iovis Iuno coniunx et is Caelum, haec  Terra, quae eadem Tellus, et ca dicta, quod una iuvat  cum love, Iuno, et Regina, quod huius omnia ter-  restria.   68. Sol 1 vel quod ita Sa&ini, vel (quod) 2 solus 3 ita  lucet, ut ex eo dco dies sit. Luna, vel quod sola lucet  noctu. Itaque ea dicta Noctiluca in Palatio : nam  i.bi noctu lucet templum. Hanc ut Solem Apollinem  quidam Dianam vocant (Apollinis vocabulum Grae-  cum alterum, altcrum Latinum), et hinc quod luna in  altitudinem et latitudinem simul it, 4 Diviana appel-  lata. Hinc Epicharmus Ennii Proserpinam quoque   3 Puccius, for putabant. 4 Scaliger, for sanctum.  6 Mm., for dies. 6 Added by Miie. 7 Mue., for ui.  8 Tnrnebus, for ortus.   § 68. 1 Laetus, with M, for sola. 2 Added by Aug.,  with B. 3 Sclop., for solum. 4 L. Sp., for et.     c Page 60 Funaioli. d Sabine Sancus and the Umbrian  divine epithet Sangio- are connected with Latin sanclre ' to  make sacred,' sacer 'sacred.' ' Dis is the short form of  dives ' rich,' cf. the genitive divitis or ditis, and is not con-  nected with dies ; it is a translation of the Greek ITAoutoji'  ' Pluto,' as 'the rich one,' from -ttXoCtos 'wealth.' f The  Italic god of death, not connected with ortus, but perhaps  with arcere ' to hem in,' as ' the one who restrains the dead.'  § 67. a Not connected either with Iupiter or with iitvare.   64     OX THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 6&-68     faith.' Thus from this reason the roof of his temple  is pierced with holes, that in this way the divum,  which is the caelum ' sky,' may be seen. Some say  that it is improper to take an oath by his name, when  you are under a roof. Aelius c said that Dins Fidius  was a son of Diovis, just as the Greeks call Castor the  son of Zeus, and he thought that he was Sancus in the  Sabine tongue, d and Hercules in Greek. He is like-  wise called Dispater e in his lowest capacity, when he  is joined to the earth, where all things vanish away  even as they originate ; and because he is the end of  these ortus ' creations,' he is called OrcusJ   67. Because Juno is Jupiter's wife, and he is Sky,  she Terra ' Earth,' the same as Tellus ' Earth,' she  also, because she iuvat ' helps ' una ' along ' with  Jupiter, is called Juno,° and Regina ' Queen,' because  all earthly things are hers.   68. Sol a ' Sun ' is so named either because the  Sabines called him thus, or because he solus ' alone '  shines in such a way that from this god there is the  daylight. Luna ' Moon ' is so named certainly be-  cause she alone ' lucet ' shines at night. Therefore  she is called Noctiluca ' Night-Shiner ' on the Pala-  tine ; for there her temple noctu lucet ' shines by  night.' 6 Certain persons call her Diana, just as they  call the Sun Apollo (the one name, that of Apollo, is  Greek, the other Latin) ; and from the fact that the  Moon goes both high and widely , she is called Diviana. c  From the fact that the Moon is wont to be under the   § 6S. " Not connected with solus. * Either because  the white marble gleams in the moonlight, or because a light  was kept burning there all night. 'An artificially pro-  longed form of Diana ; Varro seems to have had in mind  deviare ' to go aside ' as its basis.   vol. if 65     VARRO     appellat, quod solet esse sub terris. Dicta Proserpina,  quod haec ut serpens modo in dexteram modo in  sinisteram partem late movetur. Serpere et proser-  pere idem dicebant, ut Plautus quod scribit :   Quasi proserpens bestia.   69. Quae ideo quoque videtur ab Latinis Iuno  Lucina dicta vel quod est e(t) 1 Terra, ut physici  dicunt, et lucet ; vel quod 2 ab luce eius qua quis  conceptus est usque ad earn, qua partus quis in lucem,  (l)una 3 iuvat, donee mensibus actis produxit in lucem,  ficta ab iuvando et luce Iuno Lucina. A quo parientes  earn invocant : luna enim nascentium dux quod  menses huius. Hoc vidisse antiquas apparet, quod  mulieres potissimum supercilia sua attribuerunt ei  deae. Hie enim debuit maxime collocari Iuno Lucina,  ubi ab diis lux datur oculis.   70. Ignis a (g)nascendo, 1 quod hinc nascitur et  omne quod nascitur ignis s(uc)cendit 2 ; ideo calet, ut  qui denascitur eum amittit ac frigescit. Ab ignis iam  maiore vi ac violentia Volcanus dictus. Ab eo quod   § 69. 1 L. Sp., for e . 2 For quod uel. 3 Sciop.,  for una.   § 70. 1 Mue., for nascendo. 2 OS., for scindit.   d Ennius, Varia, 59 Vahlen 2 . Proserpina is really borrowed  from Greek Hepoe6vri, but transformed in popular speech  into a word seemingly of Latin antecedents. e Poenulus  1034, Stichus 724 ; in both passages meaning a snake.   § 69. ° Lucina, from lux ' light,' indicates Juno as goddess  of child-birth. 6 Equal to ' full moon,' or ' month.'  66     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 68-70     lands as -well as over them, Ennius's Epicharmus calls  her Proserpina.* Proserpina received her name  because she, like a serpens ' creeper,' moves widely  now to the right, now to the left. Serpere ' to creep '  and proserpere ' to creep forward ' meant the same  thing, as Plautus means in what he writes e :   Like a forward-creeping beast.   69. She appears therefore to be called by the  Latins also Juno Lucina, either because she is also  the Earth, as the natural scientists say, and lucet  ' shines ' ; or because from that light of hers 6 in  which a conception takes place until that one in which  there is a birth into the light, the Moon continues to  help, until she has brought it forth into the light when  the months are past, the name Juno Lucina was made  from iuvare ' to help ' and lux ' light.' From this fact  women in child-birth invoke her ; for the Moon is the  guide of those that are born, since the months belong  to her. It is clear that the women of olden times  observed this, because women have given this goddess  credit notably for their eyebrows." For Juno Lucina  ought especially to be established in places where the  gods give light to our eyes.   70. Ignis ' fire ' is named from gnasci a 'to be  born,' because from it there is birth, and everything  which is born the fire enkindles ; therefore it is hot,  just as he who dies loses the fire and becomes cold.  From the fire's vis ac violentia ' force and violence,'  now in greater measure, Vulcan was named." From  the fact that fire on account of its brightness fulget   e Because the eyebrows protect the eyes by which we enjoy  the light (Festus, 305 b 10 M.).  § 70. a False etymologies.   67     VARRO   ignis propter splendoreni fulget, fulgwr 3 et fulmen, et  fulgur(itum) 4 quod fulmine ictum.   71. (In) 1 contrariis diis, ab aquae lapsu lubrico  lt/mpha. Lympha Iuturna quae iuvaret : itaque  multi aegroti propter id nomen hinc aquam petere  solent. A fontibus et fluminibus ac ceteris aqm's 2 dei,  ut Tiberinus ab Tiberi, et ab lacu Velini Velinia, et  Lymphae Com(m)otiZ(e)s 3 ad lacum Cutiliensem a  commotu, quod ibi insula in aqua commovetur.   72. Neptunus, quod mare terras obnubit ut nubes  caelum, ab nuptu, id est opertione, ut antiqui, a quo  nuptiae, nuptus dictus. Salacia Neptuni ab salo.  Vem'lia 1 a veniendo ac vento illo, quern Plautus dicit :   Quod ille 2 dixit qui secundo vento vectus est  Tranquillo mari, 3 ventum gaudeo.   73. Bellona ab bello nunc, quae Duellona a duello.   3 Canal, for fulgor. 4 Turnebus, for fulgur.   § 71. 1 Added by Madvig, who began the sentence here  instead of after diis. 2 V, p,for ceteras aquas. 3 GS„  for comitiis.   § 72. 1 Aug., for uenelia. 2 mss. of Plautus, for  ibi F. 3 mss. of Plautus have mare.     6 The three words are from fulgere ' to flash ' ; but the -Hum  of fulguritum is suflixal only, and is not connected with  ictum.   § 71. ° Properly from the Greek vu^ij, with dissimilative  change of the first consonant. 6 The first part may be the  same element seen in Iupiter, but is certainly not connected  with iuvare. e A lake in the Sabine country, formed by  the spreading out of the Avens River a few miles southeast of  Interamna. d A lake in the Sabine country, a few miles  east of Reate, in which there was a floating island which  drifted with the wind.   § 72. ° Neptunus is not connected with the other words,  though nubes may perhaps be related to nubere and its   68     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 70-73     ' flashes,' come fulgur ' lightning-flash ' and fulmen  ' thunderbolt,' and what has been fulmine ictum ' hit  by a thunderbolt ' is catted fulguritum. b   71. Among deities of an opposite kind, Lympha a  ' water-nymph ' is derived from the water's lapsus  lubricits ' slippery gliding.' Juturna 6 was a nymph  whose function was ittvare ' to give help ' ; therefore  many sick persons, on account of this name, are wont  to seek water from her spring. From springs and  rivers and the other waters gods are named, as  Tiberinus from the river Tiber, and Yelinia from the  lake of the Velinus, c and the Commotiles ' Restless '  Nymphs at the Cutilian Lake, d from the commotus  ' motion,' because there an island commovetar ' moves  about ' in the water.   72. Neptune, because the sea veils the lands as  the clouds veil the sky, gets his name from nuptus  ' veiling,' that is, opertio ' covering,' as the ancients  said ; from which nupiiae ' wedding,' nuptus ' wed-  lock ' are derived. Salacia, 6 wife of Neptune, got  her name from salum ' the surging sea.' Venilia c was  named from venire ' to come ' and that ventus ' wind '  which Plautus mentions d :   As that one said who with a favouring wind was borne  Over a placid sea : I'm glad I went.*   73. Bellona ' Goddess of War ' is said now, from  helium a ' war,' which formerly was Duellona, from   derivatives. 6 Almost certainly an abstract substantive to  salax ' fond of leaping, lustful, provoking lust * ; though  popularly associated with salum. c There is a Venilia in  the Aeneid, x. 76, a sea-nymph who is the mother of Turnns.  d Cistellaria, 14-15. * Punning on ventum. : the last  phrase may mean also " I'm glad there was a wind."  § 73. ' Correct.   69     VARRO     Mars ab eo quod maribus in bello praeest, aut quod  Sabinis acceptus ibi est Mamers. Quirinus a Quiri-  tibus. Virtus ut viri^us 1 a virilitate. Honos ab 2  onere : itaque honestum dicitur quod oneratum, et  dictum :   Onus est honos qui sustinet rem publicam.   Castoris nomen Graecum, Pollucis a Graecis ; in  Latinis litteris veteribus nomen quod est, inscribitur  ut IloXvSevK-qs 3 Polluces, non ut nunc 4 Pollux. Con-  cordia a corde congruente.   74. Feronia, Minerva, Novensides a Sa&inis. Paulo  aliter ab eisdem dicimus haec : Palem, 1 Vestam,  Salutem, Fortunam, Fontem, Fidem. E(t> arae 2  Sabinum linguam olent, quae Tati regis voto sunt  Romae dedicatae : nam, ut annales dicunt, vovit Opi,  Florae, Vediovi 3 Saturnoque, Soli, Lunae, Volcano  ct Summano, itemque Larundae, Termino, Quirino,  Vortumno, Laribus, Dianae Lucinaeque ; e quis non-  nulla nomina in utraque lingua habent radices, ut  arbores quae in confinio natae in utroque agro ser-   § 73. 1 Scaliger, for uiri ius. 2 After ab, Woelfflin  deleted honesto. 3 For pollideuces. 4 For nuns.   § 74. 1 Scaliger, for hecralem. 2 Mue., for ea re.  3 Mue., for floreue dioioui.     6 Mars and Mamers go together, but mares ' males ' is  quite distinct. c Virtus is in fact from vir. d Honos  and onus are quite distinct. * Com. Rom. Frag., page 147  Ribbeck 3 . 'As in inscriptions, where such spellings are  found. 9 Essentially correct.   § 74. ° An old Italian goddess, later identified with Juno.  6 Apparently ' new settlers,' from novus and insidere, used of  the gods brought from elsewhere as distinct from the indigetes  or native gods. c It is unlikely that all the deities of the   70     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 73-74     duellum. Mars is named from the fact that he com-  mands the mares ' males ' in war, or that he is called  Mamers 6 among the Sabines, with whom he is a  favourite. Quirinus is from Quirites. Virtus ' valour,'  as viritus, is from virilitas ' manhood.' e Honos ' honour,  office ' is said from onus d ' burden ' ; therefore hones-  turn ' honourable ' is said of that which is oneratum  ' loaded with burdens,' and it has been said :   Full onerous is the honour which maintains the state/   The name of Castor is Greek, that of Pollux likewise  from the Greeks ; the form of the name which is  found in old Latin literature 1 is Polluces, like Greek  lloXvSevKijs, not Pollux as it is now. Concordia ' Con-  cord ' is from the cor congruens ' harmonious heart.' 9  74. Feronia, a Minerva, the Novensides 6 are from  the Sabines. With slight changes, we say the follow-  ing, also from the same people c : Pales, d Vesta, Salus,  Fortune, Fons, e Fides ' Faith.' There is scent of the  speech of the Sabines about the altars also, which by  the vow of King Tatius were dedicated at Rome :  for, as the Annals tell, he vowed altars to Ops, Flora,  Vediovis and Saturn, Sun, Moon, Vulcan and Summa-  nus, f &nd likewise to Larunda, 9 Terminus, Quirinus, V er-  tumnus, the Lares, Diana and Lucina ; some of these  names have roots in both languages,* like trees which  have sprung up on the boundary line and creep about   next two lists were brought in from elsewhere ; many of the  names are perfectly Roman. d Goddess of the shepherds,  who protected them and their flocks. ' God of Springs ;  cf. vi. 22. 1 A mysterious deity who was considered  responsible for lightning at night. * Called also Lara, a  tale-bearing nymph whom Jupiter deprived of the power of  speech. * Quite possible, but very unlikely in the cases  of Saturn and Diana.   71     VARRO     pwnt* : potest enim Saturnus hie de alia causa esse  dictus atque in Sabinis, et sic Diana, 5 de quibus supra  dictum est.   XL 75. Quod ad immortalis attinet, haec ; de-  inceps quod ad mortalis attinet videamus. De his  animalia in tribus locis quod sunt, in aere, in aqua,  in terra, a summa parte (ad) 1 infimam descendam.  Primum nomm(a) omm'wm 2 : alites (ab) alis, 3 volucres  a volatu. Deinde generatim : de his pleraeque ab  suis vocibus ut haec : upupa, cuculus, corvus, Airundo,  ulula,bubo ; item haec : pavo, anser,gallina,columba.   76. Sunt quae aliis de causis appellatae, ut noctua,  quod noctu canit et vigilat, lusci(ni)ola, 1 quod luctuose  canere existimatur atque esse ex Attica Progne in  luctu facta avis. Sic galeritfus 2 et motacilla, altera  quod in capite habet plumam elatam, altera quod  semper movet caudam. Merula, quod mera, id est  sola, volitat ; contra ab eo graguli, quod gregatim,   * For serpent. 5 Aldus, for dianae.   §75. 1 Added by O, II. 2 Fay ; nomen omnium  Mite. ; for nomen nominem. 3 Aug., for alii.   §76. 1 Victorius, for lusciola. 2 Aug., with B, for  galericus.     * Saturn in § 64, Diana in § 68.   §75. "The first six, except hirvndo (of unknown ety-  mology), are onomatopoeic. Of the last four, pavo is  borrowed from an Oriental language ; anser is an old Indo-  European word ; gallina is ' the Gallic bird ' ; cohimba is  named from its colour.   §76. "Perhaps correct, if from luges-cania 'sorrow-  singer.' * Procne, daughter of Pandion king of Athens  and wife of Tereus king of Thrace, killed her son Itys and  served him to his father for food, in revenge for his ill-treat-  ment and infidelity ; see Ovid, Metamorphoses, vi. 424-674.  c Literally ' hooded,' wearing a galerum or hood-like helmet.  d If not correct, then a very reasonable popular etymology.   72     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 7^-76     in both fields : for Saturn might be used as the god's  name from one source here, and from another among  the Sabines, and so also Diana ; these names I have  discussed above.*   XL 75. This is what has to do with the immortals ;  next let us look at that which has to do with mortal  creatures. Amongst these are the animals, and  because they abide in three places — in the air, in the  water, and on the land — I shall start from the highest  place and come down to the lowest. First the names  of them all, collectively : alites ' winged birds ' from  their alae ' wings,' volucres ' fliers ' from volaius ' flight.'  Next by kinds : of these, very many are named from  their cries, as are these : upupa ' hoopoe,' cuculus  ' cuckoo,' corvus ' raven,' hirundo ' swallow,' ulula  ' screech-owl,' bubo ' horned owl ' ; likewise these :  pavo ' peacock,' anser ' goose,' gallina ' hen,' columba  ' dove.' °   76. Some got their names from other reasons,  such as the noctua ' night-owl,' because it stays awake  and hoots noctu ' by night,' and the lusciniola ' night-  ingale,' because it is thought to canere ' sing ' luctuose  ' sorrowfully ' ° and to have been transformed from  the Athenian Procne 6 in her luctus ' sorrow,' into a  bird. Likewise the galeritus c ' crested lark ' and the  motacilla ' wagtail,' the one because it has a feather  standing up on its head, the other because it is always  moving its tail."* The merula ' blackbird ' is so named  because it flies mera ' unmixed,' that is, alone e ; on  the other hand, the graguli f 'jackdaws ' got their  names because they fly gregatim ' in flocks,' as certain   e That is, without other birds, like wine without water : an  absurd etymology. f Properly graculi ; not connected with  greges.   73     VARRO     ut quidam Graeci greges yepyepa. Ficedula(e) 3 et  miliariae a cibo, quod alterae fico, alterae milio fiunt  pingues.   XII. 77. Aquatilium vocabula animalium partim  sunt vernacula, partim peregrina. Foris muraena,  quod p.vpa.iva Gracce, cybium 1 et thynnus, cuius item  partes Graecis vocabulis omnes, ut melander atque  uraeon. Vocabula piscium pleraque translata a ter-  restribus ex aliqua parte similibus rebus, ut anguilla,  lingulaca, sudis 2 ; alia a coloribus, ut haec : asellus,  umbra, turdus ; alia a vi quadam, ut haec : lupus,  canicula, torpedo. Item in conchyliis aliqua ex  Graecis, ut peloris, ostrea, echinus. Vernacula ad  similitudinem, ut surenae, 3 pectunculi, ungues.   XIII. 78. Sunt etiam animalia in aqua, quae in  terram interdum exeant : alia Graecis vocabulis, ut  pohypus, hzppo(s) potamios, 1 crocodilos, 3 alia Latinis,   3 Ed. Veneta, for ficedula.   §77. 1 Aldus, for cytybium. 2 Aldus, for lingula  casudis. 3 For syrenae.   § 78. 1 L. Sp., for yppo potamios. 2 For crocodillos.     9 Correct ; Varro, De Re Rustica, iii. 5. 2, speaks of miliariae  as prized delicacies, raised and fattened for the table.   § 77. The identification of many animals and fishes is  quite uncertain, and the translation is therefore tentative. But  the etymological views in § 77 and § 78 are approximately  correct. 6 More precisely, the flesh of the young tunny  salted in cubes. " Seemingly a variant form for melan-  dryon, Greek fie\dv8pvoi> ' slice of the large tunny called  He\dv8pvs or black-oak.' d From Greek ovpatos 'pertain-  ing to the tail (oi)pa).' 'Diminutive of anguis 'snake.'  / Because flat like a lingua ' tongue ' ; lingulaca means also   74     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 76-78     Greeks call greges ' flocks ' yepytpa. Ficedulae ' fig-  peckers ' and miliariae ' ortolans ' are named from  their food, 9 because the ones become fat on the Jicus  ' fig,' the others on milium ' millet.'   XII. 77. The names of water animals are some  native, some foreign." From abroad come muraena  ' moray,' because it is pvpaiva in Greek, cybium ' young  tunny ' 6 and thunnus ' tunny,' all whose parts likewise  go by Greek names, as melander ' black-oak-piece ' and  uraeon d ' tail-piece.' Very many names of fishes are  transferred from land objects which are like them in  some respect, as anguilla e ' eel,' lingulaca f ' sole,'  sudis 9 ' pike.' Others come from their colours, like  these : asellus ' cod,' umbra ' grayling,' turdus ' sea-  carp.' h Others come from some physical power, like  these : lupus ' wolf-fish,' canicula ' dogfish,' torpedo  1 electric ray.' * Likewise among the shellfish there  are some from Greek, as peloris ' mussel,' ostrea  ' oyster,' echinus ' sea-urchin ' ; and also native words  that point out a likeness, as surenaej pectunculi k  ' scallops,' ungues 1 ' razor-clams.'   XIII. 78. There are also animals in the water,  which at times come out on the land : some with  Greek names, like the octopus, the hippopotamus, the  crocodile ; others with Latin names, like rana ' frog,'   ' chatter-box, talkative woman.* ' On land, a ' stake.'  * On land, respectively ' little ass,' ' shadow,' * thrush.'  ' On land, respectively ' wolf,' ' little dog,' ' numbness.'  1 Of unknown meaning, and perhaps a corrupt reading ;  Groth, De Codice Florentino, 27 (105), suggests pernae from  Pliny, Nat. Hist, xxxii. 11. 54. 154, who mentions the  perna as a sea-mussel standing on a high foot or stalk, like a  haunch of ham with the leg. * On land, ' little combs,'  diminutive of pecten. 1 ' Finger-nails ' ; perhaps not the  razor-clam, but a small clam shaped like the finger-nail.   75     VARRO   ut rana, (anas), 3 mergus ; a quo Graeci ea quae in  aqua et terra possunt vivere vocant dfufiifiia. E quis  rana ab sua dicta voce, anas a nando, mergus quod  mergendo in aquam captat escam.   79. Item alia 1 in hoc genere a Graecis, ut quer-  quedula, (quod) 2 K€pK?yS?;s, 3 alcedo, 4 quod ea (xAkcwv;  Latina, ut testudo, quod testa tectum hoc animal,  lolligo, quod subvolat, littera commutata, primo vol-  ligo. Ut ^4egypti in flumine quadrupes sic in Latio,  nominati lw(t)ra 5 et fiber. Lw(t)ra, 5 quod succidere  dicitur arborum radices in ripa atque eas dissolvere :  ab (luere) ktra. 6 Fiber, ab extrema ora fluminis  dextra et sinistra maxime quod solet videri, et antiqui  februm dicebant extremum, a quo in sagis fimbr(i)ae  ct in iecore extremum fibra, fiber dictus.   XIV. 80. De animalibus in locis terrestribus quae  sunt hominum propria primum, deinde de pecore,  tertio de feris scribam. Incipiam ab honore publico.   3 Added by Aug.   § 79. 1 L. Sp., with B, for aliae. 2 Added by Kent.  3 OS., for cerceris. 4 Groth ; halcedo Laettis ; for  algedo. 5 GS. ; lytra Turnebus ; for lira. 6 Stroux ;  ab luere Scaliger ; for ab litra.   § 78. Of. § 77, note a.   § 79. Conjectural purely. * An absurd etymology.  c Originally udra ' water-animal,' with I from association with  lutum ' mud ' or lutor ' washer.' Varro attributes to the  otter the tree-felling habit of the beaver. d Properly ' the  brown animal.' e Fiber, fimbriae, fibra have no etymologi-  cal connexion.   76     ON THE L ATI NT LANGUAGE, V. 78-80     anas ' duck,' mergus ' diver.' Whence the Greeks  give the name amphibia to those which can live both  in the water and on the land. Of these, the rana is  named from its voice, the anas from nare ' to swim,'  the mergus because it catches its food by mergendo  ' diving ' into the water.   79. Likewise there are other names in this class,  that are from the Greeks, as querquedula ' teal,' because  it is Ke/DK/}S?;?,° and alcedo ' kingfisher,' because this is  olXkvcjv : and Latin names, such as testudo ' tortoise,'  because this animal is covered with a testa ' shell,' and  lolligo ' cuttle-fish,' because it volat ' flies ' up from  under, 6 originally volligo, but now with one letter  changed. Just as in Egypt there is a quadruped  living in the river, so there are river quadrupeds in  Latium, named Intra ' otter ' and fiber ' beaver.' The  lutra c is so named because it is said to cut off the roots  of trees on the bank and set the trees loose : from  luere ' to loose,' lutra. The beaver d was called fiber  because it is usually seen very far off on the bank of  the river to right or to left, and the ancients called a  thing that was very far off afebrum ; from which in  blankets the last part is called fimbriae ' fringe ' and  the last part in the liver is the fibra ' fibre.' 6   XIV. 80. Among the living beings on the land, I  shall speak first of terms which apply to human beings,  then of domestic animals, third of wild beasts. I shall  start from the offices of the state. The Consul was   § 80. Properly, consulere is derived from consul. Of  consul, at least four reasonable etymologies are proposed, the  simplest being that it is from com+sed ' those who sit to-  gether,' as there were two consuls from the beginning ; the  I for d being a peculiarity taken from the dialect of the Sabines  (cf. lingua for older dingua).   77     VARRO     Consu Jnominatus qui consuleret populum et senatum,  nisi illinc potius uiide Accius 1 ait in Bruto :   Qui recte consulat, consul /iat. 2  Praetor dictus qui praeiret iure et exercitu ; a quo id  Lucilius :   Ergo praetorum est ante et praeire.   81. Censor ad cuius censionem, id est arbitrium,  censeretur populus. Aedilis qui aedis sacras et  privatas procuraret. Quaestores a quaerendo, qui  conquirerent publicas pecunias et maleficia, quae  triumviri capitales nunc conquirunt ; ab his postea  qui quaestionum iudicia exercent quaes^tores 1  dicti. Tribuni militum, quod terni tribus tribubus  Ramnium, Lucerum, Titium olim ad exercitum mitte-  bantur. Tribuni plebei, quod ex tribunis militum  primum tribuni plebei facti, qui plebem defenderent,  in secessione Crustumerina.   82. Dictator, quod a consule dicebatur, cui dicto  audientes omnes essent. Magister equitum, quod   § 80. 1 Later codices, for tatius F 1 , p*, taccius F 2 , V, a.  2 Laetus, for consulciat.   § 81. 1 Mommsen, for quaestores.     * Trag. Rom. Frag. 39 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 561-565 War-  mington. c lure is dative. d 1160 Marx.   § 81. ° The tribunus was by etymology merely the ' man  of the tribus or tribe,' and therefore did not derive his name  from the word for ' three,' except indirectly ; cf. § 55.  6 That is, elected by the plebeians from among their military  tribunes whom they had chosen to lead them in their Seces-  sion to the Sacred Mount (which may have lain in the terri-  tory of Crustumerium), in 494 B.C. Their persons were   78     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 80-82     so named as the one who should consulere ' ask the  advice of ' people and senate, unless rather from this  fact whence Accius takes it when he says in the  Brutus b :   Let him who counsels right, become the Consul.   The Praetor was so named as the one who should  praeire ' go before ' the law c and the army ; whence  Lucilius said this d :   Then to go out in front and before is the duty of  praetors.   81. The Censor was so named as the one at whose  censio ' rating,' that is, arbitrium ' judgement,' the  people should be rated. The Aedile, as the one who  was to look after aedes ' buildings ' sacred and private.  The Quaestors, from quaerere' to seek,' who conquirerent  ' should seek into ' the public moneys and illegal  doings, which the triumviri capitales ' the prison board '  now investigate ; from these, afterwards, those who  pronounce judgement on the matters of investigation  were named quaesitores ' inquisitors.' The Tribuni a  Militum ' tribunes of the soldiers,' because of old there  were sent to the army three each on behalf of the three  tribes of Ramnes, Luceres, and Tities. The Tribuni  Plebei ' tribunes of the plebs,' because from among the  tribunes of the soldiers tribunes of the plebs were first  created, 6 in the Secession to Crustumerium, for the  purpose of defending the plebs ' populace.'   82. The Dictator, because he was named by the  consul as the one to whose dictum ' order * all should  be obedient. The Magister Equitum ' master of the   sacrosanct, enabling them to carry out their duty of protect-  ing the plebeians against the injustice of the patrician officials.  § 82. ° Rather, because he dictat ' gives orders.'   79     VARRO     summa potestas huius in equites et acccnsos, ut est  summa populi dictator, a quo is quoque magister  populi appellatus. Reliqui, quod minorcs quam hi  magistri, dicti magistratus, ut ab albo albatus.   XV. 83. Sacerdotes universi a sacris dicti. Pontu-  fices, ut 1 Scaevola Quintus pontufex maximus dicebat,  a posse et facere, ut po(te)ntifices. 2 Ego a ponte  arbitror : nam ab his Sublicius est factus primum ut  restitutus saepe, cum ideo sacra et uls 3 et cis Tiberim  non mediocri ritu fiant. Curiones dicti a curiis, qui  fiunt ut in his sacra faciant.   84. Flamines, quod in Latio capite velato erant  semper ac caput cinctum habebant filo, flamines 1  dicti. Horum singuli cognomina habent ab eo deo  cui sacra faciunt ; sed partim sunt aperta, partim  obscura : aperta ut Martialis, Volcanalis ; obscura  Dialis et Furinalis, cum Dialis ab love sit (Diovis  enim), Furi(n)alis a Furriwa, 2 cuius etiam in fastis   §83. 1 After ut, Ed. Veneta deleted a. 2 OS., for  pontifices, cf. v. 4. 3 For uis.   § 84. 1 Canal, for flamines, cf. Festus, 87. 15 M. 2 L.  Sp. ; Furina Aldus ; for furrida.     6 Not quite ; for magistratus is a fourth declension sub-  stantive, ' office of magister,' then ' holder of such an office,'  while albatus is a second declension adjective.   § 83. ° Q. Mucius Scaevola, consul 95 b.c, and subse-  quently Pontifex Maximus ; proscribed and killed by the  Marian party in 82. He was a man of the highest character  and abilities, and made the first systematic compilation of the  ius civile ; see i. 1 9 Huschke. 6 Varro may be right, though  perhaps it was the ' bridges ' between this world and the next  which originally the pontifices were to keep in repair ; cf.  Class. Philol. viii. 317-326 (1913). "The wooden bridge  on piles, traditionally built by Ancns Marcius. d The curia   80     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 82-84     cavalry,' because he has supreme power over the  cavalry and the replacement troops, just as the dictator  is the highest authority over the people, from which  he also is called magister, but of the people and not of  the cavalry. The remaining officials, because they  are inferior to these magistri ' masters,' are called  magistratus ' magistrates,' derived just as albatus  ' whitened, white-clad ' is derived from albus ' white.' 6   XV. 83. The sacerdotes ' priests ' collectively were  named from the sacra ' sacred rites.' The pontifices  ' high-priests,' Quintus Scaevola a the Pontifex Maxi-  mus said, were 'named from posse ' to be able ' and  facet e ' to do,' as though potentifices. For my part I  think that the name comes from pons ' bridge ' 6 ; for  by them the Bridge-on-Piles c was made in the first  place, and it was likewise repeatedly repaired by them,  since in that connexion rites are performed on both  sides of the Tiber with no small ceremony. The  curiones were named from the curiae ; they are created  for conducting sacred rites in the curiae.*   84. The jiamines a ' flamens,' because in Latium  they always kept their heads covered and had their  hair girt with a woollen filum ' band,' were originally  called Jilamines. Individually they have distinguish-  ing epithets from that god whose rites they perform ;  but some are obvious, others obscure : obvious, like  Martialis and Volcanalis ; obscure are Dialis and  Furinalis, since Dialis is from Jove, for he is called also  Diovis, and Furinalis from Furrina, 6 who even has a   was the fundamental political unit in the early Roman state ;  it was an organization of yentes, originally ten to the curia,  and ten curiae to each of the three tribes.   § 84. ° Of uncertain etymology, but not from filamen.  b A goddess, practically unknown ; cf. vi. 19.   VOL. I G 81     VARRO     feriae Furinales sunt. Sic flamen Falacer a divo  patre Falacre.   85. Salii ab salitando, quod facere in comitiis in  sacris quotannis et solent et debent. Luperci, quod  Lupercalibus in Lupercali sacra faciunt. Fratres  Arvales dicti qui sacra publica faciunt propterea ut  fruges ferant arva : a ferendo et arvis Fratres Arvales  dicti. Sunt qui a fratria dixerunt : fratria est Groe-  cum vocabulum partis 1 hominum, ut (Ne)apoli 2 etiam  nunc. Sodales Titii pdrrjp ' clan  brother ' ; any reference to it is here out of place. f Ac-  cording to Tacitus, Ann. i. 54, they were established by Titus  Tatius for the preservation of certain Sabine religious  practices.   § 86. Perhaps from an old word meaning ' law,' from  the root seen in feci ' I made, established ' ; but without  connexion with the words in the text. Foedus, fides, fidus  are closely connected with one another. 6 In the early   82     OX THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 84-86     Furinal Festival in the calendar. So also the Flamen  Falacer from the divine father Falacer. 6   85. The Salii were named ° from salitare ' to  dance,' because they had the custom and the duty of  dancing yearly in the assembly-places, in their cere-  monies. The Luperci 6 were so named because they  make offerings in the Lupercal at the festival of the  Lupercalia. Fratres Arvales 1 Arval Brothers ' was  the name given to those who perform public rites to  the end that the ploughlands may bearfruits : from  ferre ' to bear ' and arva ' ploughlands ' they are called  Fratres Arvales'. But some have said d that they  were named from fratria ' brotherhood ' : fratria is  the Greek name of a part of the people, e as at Naples  even now. The Sodales Titii ' Titian Comrades ' are  so named from the titiantes ' twittering ' birds which  they are accustomed to watch in some of their augural  observations/   86. The Fetiales a ' herald-priests,' because they  were in charge of the state's word of honour in  matters between peoples ; for by them it was brought  about that a war that was declared should be a just  war, and by them the war was stopped, that by a  foedus ' treaty ' thejides ' honesty ' of the peace might  be established. Some of them were sent before war  should be declared, to demand restitution of the  stolen property, 6 and by them even now is made the  foedus ' treaty,' which Ennius writes c was pronounced  Jidus.   days wars started chiefly as the result of raids in which  property, cattle, and persons had been carried off. e Page  23S Vahlen* ; R.O.L. i. 5&4 Warmington ; Ennius probably  wished by a pun to indicate a relation between foedus and the  adjective Jidus which, in his opinion, did not really exist  (though it did).   83     VARRO     XVI. 87. In re militari praetor dictus qui praeiret  exercitui. Imperator, ab imperio populi qui eos, qui  id attemptasse(n)t, oppressi(t) 1 hostis. Legati qui  lecti publice, quorum opera consilioque uteretur  peregre magistratus, quive nuntii senatus aut populi  essent. Exercitus, quod exercitando fit melior.  Legio, quod leguntur milites in delectu.   88. Cohors, quod ut in villa ex pluribus tectis  coniungitur ac quiddam fit unum, sic hie 1 ex manipulis  pluribus copulatur 2 : cohors quae in villa, quod circa  eum locum pecus cooreretur, tametsi cohortem in  villa /fypsicrates 3 dicit esse Graece X!°P T0V * apud  poetas dictam. Manipuhuo 4 canit, ut turn cum  classes comitiis ad comit(i)atum 5 vocant.   XVII. 92. Quae a fortuna vocabula, in his quae-  dam minus aperta ut pauper, dives, miser, beatus, sic  alia. Pauper a paulo lare. Mendicus a minus, cui  cum opus est minus nullo est. Dives a divo qui ut  deus nihil 1 indigere videtur. Opulentus ab ope, cui  eae opimae ; ab eadem inops qui eius indiget, et ab  eodem fonte copis 2 ac copiosus. Pecuniosus a pecunia  magna, pecunia a pecu : a pastoribus enim horum  vocabulorum origo.   XVIII. 93. Artificibus maxima causa ars, id est,  ab arte medicina ut sit medicus dictus, a sutrina sutor,  non a medendo ac suendo, quae omnino ultima huic  rei : (hae enim) 1 earum rerum radices, ut in proxumo   §91. 1 For caepti. 2 IihoL, for litigines. 3 A.  Sp., for classicos. 4 A. Sp., for cornu no. 5 Ver-  tranius, for comitatum.   § 92. 1 For nichil. 2 Turnebiis, for copiis.   § 93. 1 Added by Reitzenstein.   6 That is, from lituus ' cornet ' and canere.   § 92. " Pau-per has the same first element as pau-lus.  b Derivative of mend um ' error, defect.' c Quite possibly,  since the gods were thought of as conferring wealth ; dives is  derived from divus as caeles is from caelum. d From co-  opts. * The earliest unit of value was a domestic animal ;  cf. English fee and German Viek ' cattle,' both cognate to  Latin pecu.   § 93. " Properly medicina from medicus, which is from  mederi, etc.   88     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 91-93     assistants, were at the start called optiones ' choices ' ;  but now the tribunes, to increase their influence, do  the appointing of them. Tubicines ' trumpeters,' from  tuba ' trumpet ' and canere ' to sing or play ' ; in like  fashion liticines b ' cornetists.' The classicus ' class-  musician ' is named from the classis ' class of citi-  zens ' ; he likewise plays on the horn or the cornet,  for example when they call the classes to gather for  an assembly.   XVII. 92. Among the words which have to do  with personal fortune, some are not very clear, such as  pauper ' poor,' dives ' rich,' miser ' wretched,' beatus  ' blest,' and others as well. Pauper a is from paulus  lar ' scantily equipped home.' Mendicus b ' beggar '  is from minus ' less,' said of one who, when there is a  need, has minus ' less ' than nothing. Dives ' rich ' is  from divus 6 ' godlike person,' who, as being a deus  ' god,' seems to lack nothing. Opulentus ' wealthy '  is from ops ' property,' said of one who has it in abun-  dance ; from the same, mops ' destitute ' is said of  him who lacks ops, and from the same source copis d  ' well supplied ' and copiosus ' abundantly furnished.'  Pecuniosus ' moneyed ' is from a large amount of  pecunia ' money ' ; pecunia is from peca ' flock ' : for  it was among keepers of flocks that these words  originated.'   XVIII. 93. For artisans the chief cause of the  names is the art itself, that is, that from the ars viedi-  cina ' medical art ' the medicus ' physician ' should be  named, and from the ars sutrina ' shoemaker's art '  the sutor ' shoemaker,' and not directly from mederi  ' to cure ' and suere ' to sew,' though these are the  absolutely final sources for such names. For these  are the roots of these things, as will be shown in the   89     VARRO     libro aperietur. Quare quod ab arte artifex dicitur  nec multa in eo obscura, relinquam.   94. Similis causa quae ab scientia voca 3  coactum in publicum, si erat aversum.   96. Ex quo 1 fructus maior, hie 2 est qui Graecis  usus : (sus), quod vs, bos, quod j3ovs, taurus, quod  (Tavpos), item ovis, quod ots : ita enim antiqui  dicebant, non ut nunc -n-pofSarov. Possunt in Latio  quoque ut in Graecia ab suis vocibus haec eadem ficta.  Armenta, quod boves ideo maxime parabant, ut inde  eligerent ad arandum ; inde arimenta dicta, postea   1 tertia littera extrita. Vitulus, quod Greece anti-  quitus iVaAos, aut quod plerique vegeti, vegitulus. 3  Iuvencus, iuvare qui iam ad agrum colendum posset.   97. Capra carpa, a quo scriptum   Omnicarpae caprae.   //ircus, 1 quod Sa&ini fircus ; quod illic fedus, 2 in Latio  rure hedus, qui in urbc ut in multis A addito Aaedus. 3  Porcus, quod Saoini dicww^ 4 aprun«(m) porra(m) 5 ;  proi(n)de 6 porcus, nisi si a Graecis, quod Athenis in  libris sacrorum scripta est iropK-q e(t> 7to/3ko(s). 7   2 Fay, for ut. 3 Aug., for esse.   § 96. 1 Mue., for qua. 2 Mue., for hinc. 3 Laetus,  for uigitulus.   § 97. 1 Aug., for ircus. 2 For faedus. 3 Aug., for  aedus. 4 Laetus, for dicto. 5 Kent ; aprinum porcum  L. Sp. ; aprum porcum Scaliger ; for apruno porco.  6 Turnebus, for poride. 7 Kent, for porcae porco.     § 96. Correct equations ; but the Latin words are not  derived from the Greek : the four pairs are from the ancestral  language, and only sus is likely to be onomatopoeic.  6 The Greek word is not the source of the Latin word, but  is borrowed from it ; there is no satisfactory etymology of  vitulus. c Really ' youthful,' a derivative of invents  ' young man,' and not from iuvare.   §97. "Wrong. 6 An old inherited word. c Iden-   92     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 95-97   a fine was imposed in pecus ' cattle ' and there was a  collection into the state treasury, of what had been  diverted.   96. Regarding cattle from which there is larger  profit, there is the same use of names here as among  the Greeks : sus ' swine,' the same as vs ; bos ' cow,'  the same as (3ov$ ; taurus ' bull,' the same as ravpos ;  likewise ovis ' sheep,' the same as 6is a : for thus the  ancients used to say, not irpoparov as they do now.  This identity of the names in Latium and in Greece  may be the result of invention after the natural utter-  ances of the animals. Armenta ' plough-oxen,' because  they raised oxen especially that they might select  some of them for arandum ' ploughing ' ; thence they  were called arimenta, from which the third letter I was  afterwards squeezed out. Vitulus ' calf,' because in  Greek it was anciently Itu\6 3 an's 4 ;  veteres nostri ariuga, hinc ariug?. 5   104. Vernacula : lact(u)c 1 a lacte, quod Aolus  id habet lact ; brassica 2 ut p(r)aesica, 3 quod ex eius  scapo minutatim praesicatur ; asparagi, quod ex  asperis virgultis leguntur et ipsi scapi asperi sunt, non  leves ; nisi Graecum : illic quoque enim dicitur  dcnrdpayos.* Cucumeres dicuntur a curvore, ut curvi-  meres dicti. Fructus a ferundo, res eae quas 5 fundus  et eae (quas) quae 6 in fundo ferunt ut fruamur.   §103. 1 For raphanum. 2 For malachen. 3 For  lirio. 4 For malache. 6 A. Sp.,/or sysimbrio.   § 104. 1 M, Laetus, for lacte. 2 Laetus, for blassica.  3 Turnebus ; praeseca Aldus ; for passica. 4 For aspara-  gus. 5 A. Sp., for ea cquas. 6 Mue., for ea eque.     * Optima et maxima suggests Jupiter Optimus Maximus.  e The juice of the walnut-hull does make a very dark stain.   § 103. "All the examples in this section have come into  Latin from Greek, except radix, rosa, malva. Radix is  native Latin, and its Greek equivalent had a different mean-  ing. Rosa and malva, and their Greek equivalents, were  separately derived from an earlier language native in the   98     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 102-104     being best and biggest, 6 is called ia-glans from 7«-piter  and glans ' acorn.' The same word nux ' nut ' is so  called because its juice makes a person's skin black,  just as nox ' night ' makes the air black.   103. ° Of those which are grown in gardens, some  are called by foreign names, as, by Greek names,  ocimuvi ' basil,' menta ' mint,' rata ' rue,' which they  now call -rffavov ; likewise caulis ' cabbage,' lapathium  ' sorrel,' radix ' radish ' : for thus the ancient Greeks  called what they now call pdfavos ; likewise these  from Greek names : serpyllum 6 ' thyme,' rosa ' rose,'  each with one letter changed ; likewise Latin names  from these Greek names : KoXiavhpov c ' coriander,'  fj.aXdxrj, nvfiivov ' cummin ' ; likewise lilium ' lily ' from  Xeipiov and malva ' mallow ' from p.a\d%i] and sisym-  brium ' thyme ' from cricrvpfipiov.   104. ° Native words : lactuca ' lettuce ' from lact  ' milk,' because this herb contains milk ; brassica  ' cabbage ' as though praesica, because from its stalk  praesicatur ' leaves are cut off ' one by one ; asparagi  ' asparagus shoots,' because they are gathered from  aspera ' rough ' bushes and the stems themselves are  rough, not smooth : unless it is a Greek name, for in  Greece also they say da-Trdpayos. Cucumeres ' cucum-  bers ' are named from their curvor ' curvature,' as  though curvimeres. Fructus ' fruits ' are named from  ferre b ' to bear,' namely those things which the farm  and those things which are on the farm bear, that   Mediterranean region. * With initial * rather than h,  by assimilation to Latin serpere. c Usually KopiavSpov,  but here with dissimilative change of the prior r to I.   § 104. " Correct on lactuca, fructus, mola ; wrong on  brassica, cucumeres, itva ; asparagus Is from Greek. * Cf.  v. 37, and note e.     99     VARRO     I line declinatae fruges et frumentuni, sed ea c terra ;  etiam frumentum, quod rum  (m)acerare 3 cruda Solera. E quis ad coquendum  quod e terra eru(itu)r, 4 ruapa, unde rapa. Olea ab  eAcua 5 ; olea grandis orchitis, quod earn Attid 6 opxw  /xopa.'   109. Hinc ad pecudis carnem perventum est.  \bv  Zvrepov appellasse. Ab eadem fartura farcimina  (in) 6 extis appellata, a quo (farticulum) 8 : in eo quod  tenuissimum intestinum fartum, hila ab hilo dicta  i(l)lo 7 quod ait Ennius :   Neque dispendi 8 facit hilum.   Quod in hoc farcimine summo quiddam eminet, ab eo  quod ut in capite apex, apexabo dicta. Tertium  fartum est longavo, quod longius quam duo ilia.   3 Added by GS. ; cf. Festus, 225. 15 M. 4 Laetus,for eo.  5 A. Sp.,for ad.   §111. 1 Added by Mve. 2 Laetus, for lucanam.  3 Added by Aldus. 4 Fay, for partes. 5 Added by  Aug., with B. 6 Added by GS. 7 Lackmann, for hilo.  8 For dispendii.     e Perna has no connexion with pes ; but the remaining  etymologies of this section seem to be correct. d The  precise meaning of this word is unknown ; perhaps ' pork-  chop,' cf. W. Heraeus, Archiv f. ImL Lex. 14. 124-125.  e Meaning assured by offulam cum duobus costis, Varro,  De Re Rustica, ii. 4." 11. 1 Page 345 Maurenbrecher ;  page 3 Morel.   §111. °The preceding etymologies in this section are  correct, but hila is properly hilla, diminutive of hira ' empty   106     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 110-111     Perna c ' ham,' from pes ' foot.' Sueris, d from the  animal's name. Offula ' rib-roast,' e from offa, a very  small sueris. Insicia ' minced meat ' from this, that  the meat is insecta ' cut up,' just as in the Song of the  Salii f the word prosicium ' slice ' is used, for which,  in the offering of the vitals, the word prosectum is  now used. Murtatum ' myrtle-pudding,' from murta  ' myrtle-berry,' because this berry is added plentifully  to its stuffings.   111. An intestine of the thick sort that was stuffed,  they call a Lucanica ' Lucanian,' because the soldiers  got acquainted with it from the Lucanians, just as  what they found at Falerii they call a Faliscan haggis ;  and they say fundolus ' bag-sausage ' from fundus  ' bottom,' because this is not like the other intestines,  but is open at only one end : from this, I think, the  Greeks called it the blind intestine. From the same  fartura ' stuffing ' were called the farcimina ' stuffies '  in the case of the vital organs for the sacrifice, whence  also farticulum ' stufflet ' ; in this case, because it is  the most slender intestine that is stuffed, it is called  hila a from that hilum ' whit ' which Ennius 6 uses :   And of loss not a whit does she suffer.   Because at the top of this stuffy there is a little projec-  tion, it is called an apexabo, c because the projection is  like the apex ' pointed cap ' on a human head. The  third kind of sausage is the longavo, e because it is  longer than those two others.   intestine ' ; cf. Festus, 101. 6 M. 6 Annales, 14 Yahlen 2 ;  li.O.L. i. 6-7 Warmington ; quoted also v. 60 and ix. 54.  Apexabo and longavo doubtless have the same suffix, differ-  ing only through the late Latin confusion of 6 and v; unless  indeed both words are further corrupt.   107     VARRO   112. Augmentum, quod ex immolata hostia dc-  sectum in iecore (imponitur) 1 in por(ric)iendo 2  a(u)gendi 3 causa. Magraentum 4 a magis, quod ad  religionem magis pertinet : itaque propter hoc  (mag)mentana 5 fana constituta locis certis quo id  imponeretur. Mattea 6 ab eo quod ea Graece /larrm].  Item (a) 7 Graecis . . . singillatim haec 8 : . . . 9  ovum, bulbum.   XXIII. 113. Lana Graecum, ut Polt/bius et Calli-  machus scribunt. Purpura a purpurae maritumae  colore, wt 1 P(o)enicum, quod a Poenis primum dicitur  allata. Stamen a stando, quod eo stat omne in tela  velamentum. Subtemen, quod subit stamini. Trama,  quod tram(e)at 2 frigus id genus vestimenti. Densum  a dentibus pectinis quibus feritur. Filum, quod  minimum est hilum : id enim minimum est in vesti-  mento.   § 112. 1 Added by A. Sp. 2 L. Sp., for im poriendo.  3 Turnebus, for agendi. 4 B, M, Aug., for magnentum.   6 Tumebus, for mentarea. 6 Popma, for mattae.   7 Added by L. Sp. 8 For heae. 9 The lacuna was noted  by Scaliger ; the exact arrangement is by Kent, after Mue.'s  indication of the probable contents.   §113. 1 Lachmann ; colore G, Laetus ; for colerent.  2 Aug. {quoting a friend), for tramat.   § 112. ° Correct, unless the purpose was to increase, that  is, glorify the god. 6 Properly connected with mactare  ' to sacrifice,' though popular association with magis affected  its meaning. e A highly seasoned dish of hashed meat,  poultry, and herbs, served cold as a dessert.  108     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 112-113     112. The augme/itum a ' increase-cake ' is so called  because a piece of it is cut out and put on the liver of  the sacrificed victim at the presentation to the deity,  for the sake of augendi ' increasing ' it. Magmentum b  ' added offering,' from viagis ' more,' because it  attaches viagis ' more ' closely to the worshipper's  piety : for this reason magmentaria fana ' sanctuaries  for the offering of magmenta ' have been established  in certain places, that the added offering may there  be laid on the original and offered with it. Mattea c  ' cold meat-pie ' is so named because in Greek it is  /larrvij. Likewise from the Greeks is another meat-  dish called . . . , which contains item by item the  following : . . . , an egg, a truffle.   XXIII. 113. Lana a 'wool' is a Greek word,  as Polybius 6 and Callimachus c write. Purpura d  ' purple,' from the colour of the purpura ' purple-fish '  of the sea : a Punic word, because it is said to have  been first brought to Italy by the Phoenicians.  Stamen 1 warp,' from stare ' to stand,' because by this  the whole fabric on the loom stat ' stands ' up. Sub-  temen e ' woof,' because it subit ' goes under ' the  stamen ' warp.' Trama * ' wide-meshed cloth,' be-  cause the cold trameat ' goes through ' this kind of  garment. Densum B ' close-woven cloth,' from the  denies ' dents ' of the sley with which it is beaten.  Filum 9 ' thread,' because it is the smallest hilum  ' shred ' ; for this is the smallest thing in a garment.   § 1 13. ° An old Italic word cognate to English wool ; cf.  v. 130. b Frag. inc. 99 (101) Hultsch. e Fray. 408  Schneider. 4 Quite possibly a Phoenician w ord, but  transmitted to Italj' by the Greeks (irop^vpa). « From  subtexere ' to weave underneath.' ' From trahere ' to  pull.' " Wrong.   109     VARRO     114. Pannus Graecuw, 1 ubi E A 2 fecit. Panu-  vellium dictum a pano et volvendo filo. Tunica ab  tuendo corpore, tunica ut (tu)endica. 3 Toga a  tegendo. Cinctus et cingillum a cingendo, alterum  viris, alterum mulieribus attributum.   XXIV. 115. Anna ab arcendo, quod his arcemus  hostem. Parma, quod e medio in omnis partis par.  Conum, quod cogitur in cacumen versus. Hasta,  quod astans solet 1 ferri. Iaculum, quod ut iaciatur  fit. Tragula a traiciendo. Scutum (a) 2 sectura ut  secutum, quod a minute consectts 3 fit tabellis. Urn-  bones 4 a Graeco, quod a/x/Swves. 5   116. Gladiu/M 1 C in G 2 commutato a clade, quod  fit ad hostium cladem gladium ; similiter ab omine 3  pilum, qui host«s periret, 4 ut perilum. Lorica, quod  e loris de corio crudo pectoralia faciebant ; postea  subcidit galli(ca) 5 e ferro sub id vocabulum, ex anulis   § 1 14. 1 Aug., with B, for greens. 2 Fay, for ea.  3 GS., for indica.   §115. 1 For sollet. 2 Added by Laetus. 3 Aug.,  for consectum. 4 For umbonis. 5 Turnebus, for  ambonis.   § 1 16. 1 L. Sp., for gladius. 2 For G in C. 3 Aug.,  for homine. 4 Aug. (hostis B), for hostem feriret.  6 Mue.,for galli.     § 1 14. ° Not pannus ' cloth,' but pannus ' bobbin,' in  view of what follows ; there is a Greek -nfjvos ' web,' and its  diminutive irqvlov ' bobbin,' which in the Doric form would  have A and not E. 6 Possibly right, if, as A. Spengel  thinks, the word is really panuvollium. e From Semitic,  either directly or through Etruscan.   §115. ° Arma, parma, conum, hasta, tragula, scutum,  umbones : all wrong etymologies. 6 Not from traicere,  but from trahere ' to pull, drag ' ; perhaps because the thong  wound round it for throwing (like the string used in starting  a peg-top) ' pulls ' the javelin.  110     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 114-116     114. Pannus ° ' bobbin,' is a Greek word, where  E has become A. Panuvelliuin 6 ' bobbin with thread '  was said from panus 4 bobbin ' and volvere 4 to wind '  the thread. Tunica c ' shirt,' from tuendo 4 protect-  ing ' the body : tunica as though it were tuendica.  Toga 4 toga ' from tegere 4 to cover.' Cincius ' belt '  and cingillum 4 girdle,' from cingere 4 to gird,' the one  assigned to men and the other to women.   XXIV. 115. Arma ° ' arms,' from arcere 4 to ward  off,' because with them we arcemus 4 ward off' the  enemy. Parma ' cavalry shield,' because from the  centre it is par * even ' in every direction. Conum  4 pointed helmet,' because it cogitur 4 is narrowed '  toward the top. Hasta 4 spear,' because it is usually  carried astajis' standing up.' Iaculum' javelin,' because  it is made that it may iaci ' be thrown.' Tragula 6  ' thong-javelin,' from traicere 4 to pierce.' Scutum  4 shield,' from sectura 4 cutting,' as though secutum,  because it is made of wood cut into small pieces.  Umbones 4 bosses ' from a Greek word, namely   116.° Gladium 4 sword,' from clades 4 slaughter,'  with change of C to G, because the gladium 6 is made  for a slaughter of the enemy ; likewise from its omen  was said pilum, by which the enemy periret ' might  perish,' as though perilum. Lorica ' corselet,' because  they made chest-protectors from lora 4 thongs ' of  rawhide ; afterwards the Gallic corselet of iron was   § 1 16. ° All etymologies wrong except those of lorica and  (with reserves) of galea. b Varro prefers {cf. viii. 45, ix. 81,  Be Re Rust. i. 48. 3) the unfamiliar neuter form, which may  be due to the influence of the associated words scutum, pilum,  telum. The word is of Celtic origin, but may have an ulti-  mate connexion with the root of clades.     Ill     VARRO     ferrea tunica. 6 Balteum, quod cingulum e corio  habebant bullatum, balteum dictum. Ocrea, quod  opponebatur ob crus. Galea ab galero, quod multi  usi antiqui.   117. Tubae ab tubis, quos etiam nunc ita appellant  tubicines sacrorum. Cornua, quod ea quae nunc sunt  ex aere, tunc fiebant bubulo e cornu. Vallum vel  quod ea varicare nemo posset vel quod singula ibi  extrema 6acilla furcillata habent figuram litterae V.  Cervi ab similitudine cornuum cervi ; item reliqua  fere ab similitudine ut vineae, testudo, aries.   XXV. 118. Mensam escariam cillibam appella-  bant ; ea erat 1 quadrata ut etiam nunc in castris est ;  a cibo cilliba dicta ; postea rutunda facta, et quod a  nobis media et a Graecis fxecra, mensa dic^(a) 2 potest ;  nisi etiam quod ponebant pleraque in cibo mensa.  Trulla a similitudine truae, quae quod magna et haec   6 Turnebus, for ferream tunicam.   § 1 18. 1 For erant. 2 Mue.,for dici.   e Rather galerum from galea, which looks like a borrowing  from Greek yaAe'r; ' weasel ' ; the objection is that caps of  weasel-skin are nowhere attested.   §117. ° Wrong etymology. 6 Thrust into the embank-  ment, to increase its defensive strength ; can they be the  stakes, pali or valli, forming a fence along its top ? But  these are not elsewhere spoken of as forked. e Used by  Caesar, who inserted such forked branches into the face of  his wall at Alesia, Bell. Gall. vii. 72. 4, 73. 2. d Otherwise  ' grape-arbours ' ; in military use, sheds under the protection  of which soldiers could advance up to the enemy's fortifica-  tions. " A close formation of overlapping shields.   §118. "Borrowed from Greek KiXAlfias 'three-legged  table,' a derivative of kIXXos ' ass.' 6 Or perhaps mesa,  since n was weak before s ; Priscian, i. 58. 17 Keil, states  that Varro used both spellings. Mensa seems to be the  112     OX THE LATIN LANGUAGE. V. 116-118     included under this name, an iron shirt made of links.  Balteum ' sword-belt,' because they used to wear a  leather belt bullatum ' with an amulet attached,' was  called balteum. Ocrea ' shin-guard' was so called  because it was set in the way ob crus ' before  the shin.' Galea c ' leather helmet,' from galerum  ' leather bonnet,' because many of the ancients used  them.   117. Tubae ' trumpets,' from tubi ' tubes,' a name  by which even now the trumpeters of the sacrifices call  them. Cornua ' horns,' because these, which are now  of bronze, were then made from the cornu ' horn ' of  an ox. Vallum a ' camp wall,' either because no one  could varicare ' straddle ' over it, or because the ends  of the forked sticks 6 used there had individually the  shape of the letter V. Cervi c ' chevaux-de-frise,'  from the likeness to the horns of a cervus ' stag ' ; so  the rest of the terms in general, from a likeness, as  vineae ' mantlets,' d testudo ' tortoise,' e aries ' ram.'   XXV. 118. The eating-table they used to call a  cilliba ° ; it was square, as even now it is in the camp ;  the name cilliba came from cibus ' victuals.' After-  wards it M'as made round, and the fact that it was  media ' central ' with us and p-ka-a ' central ' with the  Greeks, is the probable reason for its being called a  mensa 6 ' table ' ; unless indeed they used to put on,  amongst the victuals, many that were mensa ' measured  out.' Trulla e ' ladle,' from its likeness to a trua  ' gutter,' but because this is big and the other is small,  they named it as if it were truella ' small triia ' ; this   feminine of mensus ' measured ' ; perhaps from tabula  mensa ' measured board.' e Trulta is of uncertain origin,  and yielded trua by back-formation ; Greek rpinJAij seems  to have been borrowed from Latin, as Varro states.     VOL. I     [     113     VARRO   pusilla, ut tr«e 3 enim et navovv* d(i)c(untur) 5  Graece. 6 Reliqua quod aperta sunt unde sint  relinquo.   XXVI. 121. Mensa vinaria rotunda nominabatur  ci(l)liba (a)nte, 1 ut etiam nunc in castris. Id videtur  declinatum a Graeco kvAikcuo, 2 (id) 3 a poculo cylice  qui (in) 3 ilia. Capk?(es) 4 et minores capulae a  capiendo, quod ansatae ut prehendi possent, id est  capi. Harum figuras in vasis sacris ligneas ac fictiles  antiquas etiam nunc videmus.   122. Praeterea in poculis erant paterae, ab eo  quod late (pate)nZ 1 ita 2 dictae. Hisce etiam nunc in  publico convivio antiquitatis retinendae causa, cum  magistri fiunt, potio circumfertur, et in sacrificando  deis hoc poculo magistratus dat deo vinum. Pocula a  potione, unde potatio et etiam posca. 3 Haec possunt  a 7roTa», 4 quod ttotos potio Graece.   2 Aug., with B, for triplia. 3 Aug., with B, for triplion.  4 L. Sp.,for canunun Fv. 5 GS.,forde. 6 Canal, for  greca.   § 121. 1 GS., for cilibantiim. 2 Turnebus, for culiceo.   3 Added by Mue. 4 L. Sp. ; capis Turnebus ; for capit.   § 122. 1 GS. ; patent L. Sp. ; pateant latine Aldus ; for  latini. 2 After ita, Aldus deleted dicunt. 3 Turnebus,  for postea. 4 Mue., for poto.   6 From Greek fiayLs ' a round pan.' " Better lancula,  diminutive of lanx ' platter.' d Correct, except that canis-  trum is from Greek Kaviorpov 4 bread-basket,' made of K&wai  'reeds ' ; page 117 Funaioli.   § 121. ° Of. § 118, where a different etymology is given.   § 122. Not from Greek, but from an Indo-European  root inherited by Latin as well as by Greek. 6 The Greek-  word means properly not a ' draught,' but a ' drinking-bout.'  116     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 120-122     The magida 6 and the languid, both meaning ' platter,'  they named from the magnitudo ' size ' of the one and  the latitudo ' width ' of the other. Patenae ' plates '  they called from patulum ' spreading,' and the little  plates, with which they offered the gods a preliminary  sample of the dinner, they called patellae ' saucers.'  Tryblia ' bowls ' and canistra ' bread-baskets,' though  people think that they are Latin, are really Greek A :  for rpvBkiov and Kavovv are said in Greek. The  remaining terms I pass by, since their sources are  obvious.   XXVI. 121.' A round table for wine was formerly  called a cilliba, a as even now it is in the camp. This  seems to be derived from the Greek kvXikcIov  ' buffet,' from the cup cylix which stands on it. The  capides ' bowls ' and smaller capulae ' cups ' were  named from capere ' to seize,' because they have  handles to make it possible for them prehendi ' to be  grasped,' that is, capi ' to be seized.' Their shapes we  even now see among the sacred vessels, old-fashioned  shapes in wood and earthenware.   122. In addition there were among the drinking-  cups the paterae ' libation-saucers,' named from this,  that they patent ' are open ' wide. For the sake of  preserving the ancient practice, they use cups of this  kind even now for passing around the potio ' draught '  at the public banquet, when the magistrates enter  into their office ; and it is this kind of cup that the  magistrate uses in sacrificing to the gods, when he  gives the wine to the god. Pocula ' drinking-cups,'  from potio ' draught,' whence potatio ' drinking bout '  and also posca ' sour wine.' ° These may however  come from ttotos, because ttotos is the Greek for  potio. b   117     VARRO   123. Origo potionis aqua, quod oequa summa.  Fons unde funditur e terra aqua viva, ut fistula a qua  fusus aquae. Vas vinarium grandius sinum ab sinu,  quod sinum maiorem cavtur 2 urnarium,  quod urnas cum aqua positas ibi potissimum habebant  in culina. Ab eo etiam nunc ante balineum locus ubi  poni solebat urnarium vocatur. Urnae dictae, quod  urinant in aqua Aaurienda ut smnator. C/rinare 3 est  mergi in aquam.   127. .^m&un^m} 1 fictum ab uruo, 2 quod ita  flexum ut redeat sursum versus tit 3 in aratro quod est  wrvum. 4 Calix a caldo, quod in eo calda puis 5 appone-  batur et caldum eo bibebant. Vas ubi coquebant  cibum, ab eo caccabum appellarunt. Vera 6 a ver-  sando.   XXVIII. 128. Ab sedendo appellatae sedes,  sedile, so/ium, 1 sellae, siliquastrum ; deinde ab his  subsellium : ut subsipere quod non plane sapit, sic  quod non plane erat sella, subsellium. Ubi in eius-  modi duo, bisellium dictum. Area, quod arcebantur   § 126. 1 GS., for et. 2 uocabatur, tcith ba expunged,  V ; nocatur other mss. 3 Bent huts, for orinator orinare.   §127. 1 Kent ; imburvom Mue. ; imburum Aldus, with  B; for impurro. 2 Mue., for urbo. 3 Aldus, for est.  4 B, for aruum. 6 Laetus, for plus. 6 Aldus, for uera.   § 128. 1 Aug., for souum.     § 126. ° Wrong etymology. 6 Derivative of vrina at  an early date when itrina still meant merely 4 water,' and not  specifically ' urine.'   § 127. ° ' Bent about,' a vessel shaped like a gravy-boat ;  if my conjecture as to the spelling of the word is right, there  is basis for Varro's etymology. 6 Of uncertain etymology,  but popularly derived by the Romans from Greek icvXii;  ' cup,' the normal meaning also of Latin calix, but not the  meaning in this passage. c From Greek KaKKaftos, a pot  with three legs, to stand over the fire. d Wrong.   120     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 126-128     XXVII. 126. Besides there was a third kind of  table for vessels, rectangular like the second kind ; it  was called an urnarium, because it was the piece of  furniture in the kitchen on which by preference they  set and kept the urnae ' urns ' filled with water. From  this even now the place in front of the bath where  the urn-table is wont to be placed, is called an  urnarium. Urnae ' urns ' got their name a from the  fact that they urinant b ' dive ' in the drawing of  water, like an urinator ' diver.' Urinate means to be  plunged into water.   127. Amburvum, a a pot whose name is made from  urvum ' curved,' because it is so bent that it turns up  again like the part of the plough which is named the  urvum ' beam.' Calix b ' cooking-pot,' from caldum  ' hot,' because hot porridge was served up in it, and  they drank hot liquid from it. The vessel in which  they coquebant ' cooked ' their food, from that they  called a caccabus. Feru ' spit,' from versare ' to  turn.' d   XXVIII. 128. From sedere ' to sit ' were named  sedes ' seat,' sedile ' chair,' solium ' throne,' sellae a  ' stools,' siliquastrum 6 ' wicker chair ' ; then from  these subsellium ' bench ' : as subsipere is said a thing  does not sapit ' taste ' clearly, so subsellium because  it was not clearly c a sella ' stool.' Where two had  room on a seat of this sort, it was called a bisellium  ' double seat.' An area ' strong-chest,' because  thieves arcebantur ' were kept away ' from it when it   § 128. ° With M from dl. b Probably seliquastrum (or  selli-), as in Festus, 340 b 10, 341. 5 ; Fay suggests ' seat-  basket ' (sella + qualum + suffix), citing certain types of Mexi-  can chairs. e Rather ' under-seat,' that is, a seat under  the sitter.     121     VARRO   fures ab ea clausa. Armarium et armamentarium ab  cadem origine, sed declinata aliter.   XXIX. 129. Mundus (ornatus) 1 muliebris dictus  a munditia. Ornatus quasi ab ore natus : hinc enim  maxime sumitur quod earn deceat, itaque id paratur  speculo. 2 Calamistrum, quod his calfactis in cinere  capfillus ornatur. Qui ea ministrabat, a cinere cinera-  rius est appellatus. Discerniculum, quo discernitur  capillus. Pecten, quod per euro explicatur capillus.  Speculum a speciendo, 3 quod ibi (s)e spectant.*   130. Vestis a vellis vel 1 ab eo quod vellus lana  tonsa universa ovis : id dictum, quod vellebant.2  Lan(e)a, 3 ex lana facta. Quod capillum contineret,  dictum a rete reticulum ; rete ab raritudine ; item  texta fasciola,qua capillum in capitealligarent, dictum  capital a capite, quod sacerdotulae in capite etiam  nunc solent habere. Sic rica ab ritu, quod Romano  ritu sacrificium feminae cum faciunt, capita velant.   § 129. 1 Added by GS. ; cf. Festus, 143. 1 M, 2 A.  Sp., for speculum. 3 Laetus, for spiciendo. 4 a, b,  Turnebus, for espeetant.   § 130. 1 Ixietus, for uela. 2 B, Laetus, for uellabant.  3 Turnebus, for lana.     d Both area and arcere are derived from arx ' stronghold.'  * Not connected with area ; but belonging together.   § 129. Munditia is derived from mundus. 6 Wrong  etymologies.   § 130. Both etymological suggestions for vestis arc  wrong ; for the meaning, see A. Spengel, Bemerkungen, 264.   122     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 128-130     was locked.** Armarium ' closet ' and armamentarium  ' warehouse,' from the same source,' but with different  suffixes.   XXIX. 129. Mundus is a woman's toilet set,  named a from munditia ' neatness.' Ornatus ' toilet  set,' as if natus ' born ' from the os ' face ' 6 : for  from this especially is taken that which is to  beautify a woman, and therefore this is handled  with the help of a mirror. Calamistrum ' curling-  iron,' because the hair is arranged with irons when  they have been calfacta ' heated ' in the embers. 6  The one who attended to them was called a cinerarius  ' ember-man,' from cinis ' embers.' Discerniculum  ' bodkin,' with which the hair discernitur ' is parted.'  Pecten ' comb,' because by it the hair explicatur ' is  spread out.' b Speculum ' mirror,' from specere ' to  look at,' because in it they spectant ' look at ' them-  selves.   130. Festis ' garment ' " from velli 6 ' shaggy hair,'  or from the fact that the shorn wool of a sheep, taken  as a whole, is a vellus ' fleece ' : this was said because  they formerly vellebant ' plucked ' it. Lanea ' woollen  headband,' c because made from lana ' wool.' That  which was to hold the hair, was called a reticulum ' net-  cap,' from rete ' net ' ; rete, from raritudo ' looseness  of mesh.' d Likewise the woven band with which  they were to fasten the hair on the head, was called  a capital ' headband,' from caput ' head ' ; and this  the sub-priestesses are accustomed to wear on their  heads even now. So rica ' veil,' from ritus ' fashion,' d  because according to the Roman ritus, when women  make a sacrifice, they veil their heads. The mitra   6 Yellis, dialectal for villis. e For meaning, see A. Spen-  gel, Bemerkungen, 264. d Wrong etymologies.   123     VARRO   Mitra et reliqua fere in capite postea addita cum  vocabulis Graecis.   XXX. 131. Prius deinde (ind)utui, 1 turn amictui  quae sunt tangam. Capitium ab eo quod capit pec-  tus, id est, ut antiqui dicebant, comprehendit. In-  dutui alterum quod subtus, a quo subucula ; alterum  quod supra, a quo supparus, nisi id quod item dicunt  Osce. Alterius generis item duo, unum quod foris  ac palam, palla ; alterum quod intus, a quo (indusium,  ut) 2 intusium, id quod Plautus dicit :   Indusiatam 3 patagiatam caltulam* ac crocotulam.   Multa post luxuria attulit, quorum vocabula apparet  esse Graeca, ut asbest(in)on. 5   132. Amictui dictum quod abiectum 1 est, id  est circumiectum, 2 a quo etiam quo 3 vestitas se invol-  vunt, circumiectui appellant, et quod amictui habet  purpuram circum, vocant circumtextum. Antiquis-  simi amictui ricinium ; id quod eo utebantur duplici,   § 131. 1 B, Turnebus, for deinde utui Fv, f. 2 Added  by GS. 3 GS., for intusiatam ; after the text of Plautus.  * Laetus, for caltulum/ after the text of Plautus. 6 GS.,  for asbeston ; cf. Pliny, jVat. Hist. xix. 4. 20.   §132. 1 Mue., for abiectum. 2 ^w#.,/o?-circumlectum.  3 G, Aug., for quod.     § 131 . The datives indutui, amictui, and circumiectui, are  used in § 131 and § 132 as indeclinables, like frugi ' thrifty,'  cordi ' pleasant,' original datives of purpose that have become  stereotyped. 6 From caput ' head,' because it was put on  over the head like a sweater. c From sub and the verb in  ind-tiere, ' to put on,' ex-uere ' to take off.' d Probably  Oscan. * Of unknown etymology. ' From induere  'to put on.' 9 Epidicus, 231. h The Latin words are  adjectives modifying tunicam in the preceding line. ' Made  of a mineral substance called aofieoTos.  124.     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 130-132     ' turban ' and in general the other things that go on  the head, -were later importations, along -with their  Greek names.   XXX. 131. Next I shall first touch upon those  things which are for putting on,° then those which are  for wrapping about the person. Capitium 6 ' vest,'  from the fact that it capii ' holds ' the chest, that is, as  the ancients said, it comprehendit ' includes ' it. One  kind of put-on goes subtus ' below,' from which it is  called subucula c ' underskirt ' ; a second kind goes  supra 1 above,' from which it is called supparus d  ' dress,' unless, this is so called because they say it in  the same way in Oscan. Of the second sort there are  likewise two varieties, one called palla e ' outer dress,'  because it is outside and palam ' openly ' visible ; the  other is intus ' inside,' from which it is called indusium *  ' under-dress,' as though intusium, of which Plautus  speaks 9 :   Under-dress, a bordered dress, of marigold and saffron  hue.*   There are many garments which extravagance  brought at later times, whose names are clearly  Greek, such as asbestinon i ' fire-proof.'   132. Atnictui ' wrap ' is thus named because it is  ambiectum ' thrown about,' that is, circumiectum ' thrown  around,' from which moreover they gave the name of  circumiectui ' throw-around ' to that with which women  envelop themselves after they are dressed ; and any  wrap that has a purple edge around it, they call  circumtextum ' edge-weave.' Those of very long ago  called a wrap a ricinium ' mantilla ' ; it was called  ricinium from reicere ' to throw back,' ° because they   § 133. ° Properly from rica (§ 130) ; it was a square piece  of cloth worn folded over the head in sign of mourning.   125     VARRO   ab eo quod dimidiam partem retrorsum zaciebant, 4 ab  reiciendo ricinium dictum.   133. (Pallia) 1 hinc, quod facta duo simplicia paria,  parilia primo dicta, R exclusum 2 propter levitatem.  Parapechia, 3 cAlarmydes, 4 sic multa, Graeca. Loena, 5  quod de lana multa, duarum etiam togarum instar ;  ut antiquissimum mulierum ricinium, sic hoc duplex  virorum.   XXXI. 134. Instrumenta rustica quae serendi aut  colendi fructus causa facta. Sarculum ab serendo ae  sanendo. 1 Ligo, quod eo propter latitudinem quod  sub terra facilius legitur. Pala a pangendo,  2  GL quod fuit. Rutrum ruitrum a ruendo.   135. Aratrum, quod aruit 1 terram. Eius fer-  rum vomer, quod vomit eo plus terram. Dens, quod  eo mordetur terra ; super id regula quae stat, stiva  ab stando, et in ea transversa regula manicula, quod  manu bubulci tenetur. Qui quasi temo est inter   4 Ixietus, for faciebant.   § 133. 1 Added by Canal. 2 Mue. ; R esclusum  Turnebus ; for resclusum /, resculum Fv. 3 For para-  pecchia Fv. 4 Ed. Veneta, for clamides. 5 Aldus, for  lena.   § 134. 1 Aldus, for sarcendo. 2 Added by Ellis.  § 135. 1 Turnebus, for aruit ; cf. Varro, De Re Rustica, i.  35, terra adruenda.   § 133. ° Probably of Greek origin. 6 Greek irapam)xvs  ' beside the elbow,' also ' woman's garment with purple  border on each side.' The Latin word seems to come from  the diminutive irapaTrrjxtov ' radius, small bone below the  elbow,' which however may also have denoted the woman's  garment, though this is not attested. c Probably from  Greek ^Acum, perhaps with an Etruscan intermediary.   126     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 132-135     wore it doubled, throwing back one half of it over  the other.   133. Pallia ° ' cloaks ' from this, that they con-  sisted of two single paria ' equal ' pieces of cloth,  called parilia at first, from which R was eliminated for  smoothness of sound. Parapechia b ' elbow-stripes,'  chlamydes ' mantles,' and many others, are Greek.  Laena 6 ' overcoat,' because they contained much lana  ' wool,' even like two togas : as the ricinium was the  most ancient garment of the women, so this double  garment is the most ancient garment of the men.   XXXI. 134. Farming tools which were made for  planting or cultivating the crops. Sarculum ° ' hoe,'  from serere ' to plant ' and sarire ' to weed.' Ligo 6  ' mattock,' because with this, on account of its width,  what is under the ground legitur ' is gathered ' more  easily. Pala c ' spade ' from pangere ' to fix in the  earth ' ; the L was originally GL. Rutrum ' shovel,'  previously ruitrum, from mere ' to fall in a heap.'   135.° Aratrum ' plough,' because it arruit b ' piles  up ' the earth. Its iron part is called vomer ' plough-  share,' because with its help it the more vomit ' spews  up ' the earth. The dens ' colter,' because by this the  earth is bit ; the straight piece of wood which stands  above this is called the stiva ' handle,' from stare ' to  stand,' and the wooden cross-piece on it is the mani-  cula ' hand-grip,' because it is held by the manns  ' hand ' of the ploughman. That which is so to speak  a wagon-tongue between the oxen, is called a bura   § 134. From sarire. b Of uncertain origin. c Cor-  rect ; but from pag+ sla, with loss of the extra consonants in  the group.   § 135. ° Wrong on aratrum, vomer, stiva, bura, urvum.  b Really from arat ' it ploughs.'   127     VARRO     boves, bura a bubus ; alii hoc a curvo urvum 2 appel-  lant. Sub iugo medio cavum, quod bura extrema  addita oppilatur, vocatur coum 3 a cavo. 4 Iugum et  iumentum ab iunctu.   136. Irpices regula compluribus dentibus, quam  item ut plaustrum boves trahunt, ut eruant quae in  terra ser(p>unt 1 ; sirpices, postea (irpices) 2 S detrito..  a quibusdam dicti. Rastelli ut irpices serrae leves ;  itaque 3 homo in pratis per fenisecza 4 eo festucas  corradit, quo ab rasu rastelli dicti. Rastri, quibus  dentaiis 5 penitus eradunt terram atque cruunt, a quo  rutu n*a(s)tri 6 dicti.   137. Falces a farre littera 1 commutata ; hae in  Campania seculae a secando ; a quadam similitudine  harum aliae, ut quod apertum unde, falces fenariae  et arbor(ar)iae 2 et, quod non apertum unde, falces  lumaria(e) 3 et sirpiculae. Lumariae sunt quibus  secant lumecta, id est cum in agris serpunt spinae ;  quas quod ab terra agricolae solvunt, id est luunt,  lumecta. Falces sirpiculae vocatae ab sirpando, id   2 Turnebus, for curuum. 3 Aug., with B, for cous Fv.  4 Rhol., for couo.   § 136. 1 Turnebus, for serunt. 2 Added by Mue.   3 Aug., with B, for ita qua. 4 Aug., for fenisecta.  6 Turnebus, for dentalis. 6 Kent ; rutu rastri Scaliger :  erutu rastri Turnebus ; for ruturbatri Fv.   § 137. 1 For litera in Fv, as often. 2 Georges, for  arboriae ; cf. Varro, Be Re Rust. i. 22. 5, and Cato, De Agric.  10. 3. 3 For lumaria.     " The earlier form of cavus ' hollow ' was in fact covos.   § 136. ° Properly hirpices, from hirpus, the Samnite word  for ' wolf.' b Roots of weeds and grasses. " Diminu-  tive of rostrum ; therefore ultimately from radere. d Mas-  culine plural of neuter singular rastrum, from radere ' to  scrape.'  128     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 135-137     ' beam,' from botes ' oxen ' ; others call this an urvum,  from the curvuvi ' curve.' The hole under the middle  of the yoke, which is stopped up by inserting the  end of the beam, is called coum, from cavum ' hole.'  Iugum ' yoke ' and iumentum ' yoke-animal/ from  iunctus ' joining or yoking.'   136. Irpices a 'harrows' are a straight piece of  wood with many teeth, which oxen draw just like  a wagon, that they may pull up the things 6 that  serpunt ' creep ' in the earth ; they were called sir-  pices and afterwards, by some persons, irpices, with  the S worn off. Rastelli c ' hay-rakes,' like harrows,  are saw-toothed instruments, but light in weight ;  therefore a man in the meadows at haying time  corradit ' scrapes together ' with this the stalks,  from which rasns ' scraping ' they are called rastelli.  Rastri d ' rakes ' are sharp-toothed instruments by  which they scratch the earth deep, and eruunt ' dig  it up,' from which rutus ' digging ' they are called  ruastri.   137. Falces ' sickles,' from far ' spelt,' a with the  change of a letter ; in Campania, these are called  seculae, from secare ' to cut ' ; from a certain likeness  to these are named others, the falces fenariae ' hay  scythes ' and arborariae ' tree pruning-hooks,' of  obvious origin, and falces lumariae and sirpiculae,  whose source is obscure. Lumariae 6 are those with  which lumecta are cut, that is when thorns grow up in  the fields ; because the farmers solvunt ' loosen,' that  is, luunt ' loose,' them from the earth, they are called  lumecta ' thorn-thickets.' Falces sirpiculae c are named   §137. "Wrong. 6 Possibly for dumariae and dumecta,  with Sabine I for d ; cf. Festiis, 67. 10 M. 'Apparently  from sirpus ' rush,' collateral form of scirpus.   VOL. I K 129     VARRO     est ab alligando ; sic sirpata 4 dolia quassa, cum  alligata his, dicta. Utuntur in vinea alligando fasces,  incisos fustes, faculas. Has xranclas 5 Cherso(ne)sice. 6   138. Pilum, quod eo far pisunt, a quo ubi id fit  dictum pistrinum (L 1 et S inter se saepe locum corn-  mutant), inde post in Urbe Lucili pistrina et pistrix.  Trapetes 2 molae oleariae ; vocant trapetes a terendo,  nisi Graecum est ; ac molae a mol(l)iendo 3 : harum  enim motu eo coniecta mol(l)iuntur. 4 Vallum a  volatu, quod cum id iactant volant inde levia. Ven-  tilabrum, quod ventilatur in aere frumentum.   139- Quibus conportatur fructus ac necessariae  res : de his fiscina a ferendo dicta. Corbes ab eo  quod eo spicas aliudve quid corruebant ; hinc minores  corbulae dictae. De his quae iumenta ducunt,  tragula, quod ab eo trahitur per terram ; sirpea, quae  virgis sirpatur, id est colligando implicatur, in qua  stercus aliudve quid vehitur.   4 Aug., with B, for sirpita. 5 Mue., for phanclas /,  G, fanclas H, V, p. 6 Aug., with B, for chermosie /,  chermosioe G, a.   § 138. 1 Aug., for R. 2 For trapetas Fv. 3 Scaliger,  for moliendo. 4 Scaliger, for moliuntnr.     d Cf. the fiaschi vestiti or ' clothed wine-flasks ' of modern  Italy. * Messana in Sicily was before the Greek coloniza-  tion named Zancle ' sickle,' from the shape of the cape on  which it stood. There is no other evidence that this cape was  called a Chersonesus, but as over twenty peninsulas are  referred to by this name, it is possible that the name was  applied here also.   § 138. a Varro's basis for this statement is not apparent.  6 Cf. 521 and 1250 Marx ; one must assume that one of the  Satires of Lucilius was entitled Urbs. c From Greek.  d From molere ' to grind.' e Diminutive of vannvs ' fan.'   §139. "Wrong on fiscina and corbes. b Cf. § 137,  note c.  130     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 137-139     from sirpare ' to plait of rushes,' that is, alligare ' to  fasten ' ; thus broken jars are said to have been  sirpata ' rush-covered,' when they are fastened to-  gether with rushes.* 1 They use rushes in the vine-  yard for tying up bundles of fuel, cut stakes, and  kindling. These sickles they call zanclae in the  peninsular dialect."   138. The pi lum ' pestle ' is so named because with  it they pisunt ' pound ' the spelt, from which the place  where this is done is called a pistrinum ' mill ' — L  and S often change places with each other" — and from  that afterwards pistrina ' bakery ' and pistrix ' woman  baker,' words used in Lucilius's Cityfi Trapetes c are  the mill-stones of the olive-mill : they call them  trapetes from terere ' to rub to pieces,' unless the word  is Greek ; and molae d from mollire ' to soften,' for  what is thrown in there is softened by their motion.  Vallum * ' small win no wing-fan,' from volatus ' flight,'  because when they swing this to and fro the light  particles volant ' fly ' away from there. Ventilabrum  ' winnowing-fork,' because with this the grain venti-  latur ' is tossed ' in the air.   139. Those means with which field produce and  necessary things are transported. Of these, fiscina a   rush-basket ' was named from ferre ' to carry ' ; corbes  ' baskets,' from the fact that into them they corrue-  bant ' piled up ' corn-ears or something else ; from  this the smaller ones were called corbulae. Of  those which animals draw, the tragula ' sledge,'  because it trahitur ' is dragged ' along the ground by  the animal ; sirpea 6 ' wicker wagon,' which sirpatur  ' is plaited ' of osiers, that is, is woven by binding  them together, in which dung or something else is  conveyed.     131     VARRO     140. Vehiculum, in quo faba aliudve quid vehitur,  quod e 1 viminibus vietur 2 aut eo vehitur. Breviws 3  vehiculum dictum est aliis ut* arcera, quae etiam  in Duodecim Tabulis appellatur ; quod ex tabulis  vehiculum erat factum ut area, 5 arcera dictum. Plaus-  trum ab eo quod non ut in his quae supra dixi (ex  quadam parte), 6 sed ex omni parte palam est, quae  in eo vehuntur quod perluce(n)t, 7 ut lapides, asseres,  tignum.   XXXII. 141. Aedificia nominata a parte ut  multa : ab aedibus et faciendo maxime aedificium.  Et oppidum ab opi dictum, quod munitur opis causa  ubi sint et quod opus est ad vitam gerendam ubi  habeant tuto. Oppida quod opere 1 muniebant,  moenia ; quo moenitius esset quod exaggerabant,  aggeres dicti, et qui aggerem contineret, moerus. 2  Quod muniendi causa portabatur, mwnus 3 ; quod  sepiebant oppidum co moenere, 4 momis. 5   142. Eius summa pinnae ab his quas insigniti   §140. 1 GS. ; ex Laetus ; for est. 2 Tvrnebus, for  utetur. 3 A. Sp., for breui est. 4 A. Sp., for uel.  5 Laetus, for arcar Fv. 6 Added by L. Sp. 7 Aug., for  perlucet.   §141. 1 Aug., for operi. 2 Sciop., for moerum Fv.  3 Laetus, for manus. 4 Turnebus, for eae omoenere Fv.  5 Sciop., for murus.     § 140. ° From vehere ' to carry.' 6 Page 116 Schoell.  c From plaudere ' to creak.'   § 141. ° Whence ' temple ' in the singular, ' house ' in the  plural. * From prefix ob + pedom ' place ' ; cf. irihov, San-  skrit padam. c Munire, moenia, murus, munus all belong  together ; oe is the older spelling, preserved in moenia in  classical Latin. It is a question how far we ought to  restore moe- for mu- in this passage ; possibly in all the   132     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 140-142     140. Vehiculum ° ' wagon,' in which beans or some-  thing else is conveyed, because it vietur ' is plaited ' or  because vehitur ' carrying is done ' by it. A shorter  kind of wagon is called by others, as it were, an arcera  ' covered wagon,' which is named even in the Twelve  Tables b ; because the wagon was made of boards like  an area ' strong box,' it was called an arcera. Plaus-  trum e ' cart,' from the fact that unlike those which I  have mentioned above it is palam ' open ' not to a  certain degree but everywhere, for the objects which  are conveyed in it perlucent ' shine forth to view,' such  as stone slabs, wooden beams, and building material.   XXXII. 141. Aedificia ' buildings ' are, like many  things, named from a part : from aedes a ' hearths '  andjacere ' to make ' comes certainly aedificium. Op-  pidum 6 ' town ' also is named from ops ' strength,'  because it is fortified for ops ' strength,' as a place  where the people may be, and because for spending  their lives there is opus ' need ' of place where they  may be in safety. Moenia c ' walls ' were so named  because they muniebant ' fortified ' the towns with  opus ' work.' What they exaggerabant ' heaped up '  that it might be moenitius ' better fortified,' was called  aggeres d ' dikes,' and that which was to support the  dike was called a moerus ' wall.' Because carrying  was done for the sake of muniendi ' fortifying,' the  work was a munus ' duty ' ; because they enclosed  the town by this moenus, it was a moerus ' wall.'   142. Its top was called pinnae a ' pinnacles,' from  those feathers which distinguished soldiers are accus-   words, since Varro had a fondness for archaic spellings.  d Exaggerare is from agger, which is from ad ' to ' and  gerere ' to carry.'   § 142. ° Literally, ' feathers.'   133     VARRO     milites in galeis habere solent et in gladiatoribus  Samnites. Turres a torvis, quod eae proiciunt ante  alios. Qua viam relinquebant in muro, qua in op-  pidum portarent, portas.   143. Oppida condebant in Latio Etrusco ritu  multi, id est iunctis bobus, tauro ct vacca interiore,  aratro circumagebant sulcum (hoc faciebant religionis  causa die auspicato), ut fossa et muro essent muniti.  Terram unde exculpserant, fossam vocabant et intror-  sum i'actam 1 murum. Post ea 2 qui fiebat orbis, urbis  principium ; qui quod erat post murum, postmoerium  dictum, eo usque 3 auspicia urbana finiuntur. Cippi  pomeri stant et circum Arcciam et 4 circum 5 Romam.  Quare et oppida quae prius erant circumducta aratro  ab orbe 6 et urvo urb 2 postilionem postulare, id est civem  fortissimum eo demitti. 3 Turn quendam Curtium  virum fortem armatum ascendisse in equum et a Con-  cordia versum cum equo eo 4 praecipitatum ; eo facto   2 macella Scaliger, for macelli. 3 Jordan, for iunium.  4 Added by 08., from Plautus, Cure. 474. 5 Added by  GS. 6 Laetus, for quern. 7 For cuppedinis.   § 147. 1 Stowasser, for fuerit; cf. Festus, 125. 7 M.   § 148. 1 After Cornelius, Mue. deleted Stilo. 2 Laetus,  for manio. 3 Turnebus, for eodem mitti. 4 A. Sp.,  with II, for eum.   6 Curculio, 474. c Page 115 Funaioli.   § 147. "Page 116 Funaioli. 6 Seemingly only an   aetiological story ; the cognomen is not otherwise known.  Could it here be a corruption of Marcellus ?   § 148. a A writer on historical topics, possibly the Pro-  cilius who was tribune of the plebs in 56 u.c. 6 L. Cal-  purnius Piso Frugi, consul 133 B.C., adversary of the Gracchi ;   138     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 146-148     small fortified villages. Along the Tiber, at the  sanctuary of Portunus, they call it the Forum Pis-  carium ' Fish Market ' ; therefore Plautus says 6 :   Down at the Market that sells the fish.   Where things of various kinds are sold, at the Cornel-  Cherry . Groves, is the Forum Cuppedinis ' Luxury  Market,' from cuppedium ' delicacy,' that is, from  fastidium ' fastidiousness ' ; many c call it the Forum  Cupidinis ' Greed Market,' from cupiditas ' greed.'   147. After all these things which pertain to human  sustenance had been brought into one place, and the  place had been built upon, it was called a Macellum,  as certain writers say, a because there was a garden  there ; others say that it was because there had been  there a house of a thief with the cognomen Macellus, 6  which had been demolished by the state, and from  which this building has been constructed which is  called from him a Macellum.   148. In the Forum is the Lacus Curtius ' Pool of  Curtius ' ; it is quite certain that it is named from  Curtius, but the story about it has three versions : for  Procilius a does not tell the same story as Piso, 6 nor  did Cornelius c follow the story given by Procilius.  Procilius states d that in this place the earth yawned  open, and the matter was by decree of the senate  referred to the haruspices ; they gave the answer that  the God of the Dead demanded the fulfilment of a  forgotten vow, namely that the bravest citizen be sent  down to him. Then a certain Curtius, a brave man,  put on his war-gear, mounted his horse, and turning  away from the Temple of Concord, plunged into the   author of a work on Roman history. e Identity quite  uncertain. 6 Hist. Rom. Frag., page 198 Peter.   139     VARRO     locum coisse atque eius corpus divinitus humasse ac  reliquisse genti suae monumentum.   149- Piso in Annalibus scribit Sabino bello, quod  fuit Romulo et Tatio, virum fortissimum Met(t)ium  Curiium 1 Sabinum, cum Romulus cum suis ex su-  periore parte impressionem fecisset, 2 in locum 3 palus-  trem, qui turn fuit in Foro antequam cloacae sunt  factae, secessisse atque ad suos in Capitolium re-  cepisse ; ab eo lacum (Curtium) 4 invenisse nomen.   150. Cornelius et Lutatius 1 scribunt eum locum  esse fulguritum et ex S. C. septum esse : id quod  factum es(se)t 2 a Curtio consule, cui M. Genucius 3  fuit collega, Curtium appellatum.   151. Arx ab arcendo, quod is locus munitissimus  Urbis, a quo facillime possit hostis prohiberi. Career  a coercendo, quod exire prohibentur. In hoc pars  quae sub terra Tullianum, ideo quod additum a  Tullio rege. Quod Syracusis, ubi de(licti) 1 causa  custodiuntur, vocantur latomiae, (in)de 2 lautumia   § 149. 1 For curcium Fv. 2 After fecisset, Popma de-  leted curtium. 3 Laetus, for lacum. 4 Added by GS.   § 150. 1 Aug., with B, for luctatius. 2 Mue., for est.  3 For genutius.   § 151. 1 Bergmann, for de. 2 Mue. ; exinde Turnebus ;  for et de.     § 149. Hist. Rom. Frag., page 79 Peter. 6 Tradition-  ally built by the first Tarquin ; cf. Livv, i. 38. 6. c Cf.  Livy, i. 10-13, especially i. 12. 9-10 and! 13. 5.   § 150. Q. Lutatius Catulus, 152-87 b.c, consul 102 as  colleague of Marius in the victory over the Cimbri at Ver-  cellae ; a writer on etymology and antiquities. b Hist.  Rom. Frag., page 126 Peter ; Gram. Rom. Frag., page 105  Funaioli. c C. Curtius Chilo and M. Genucius Augurinus  were colleagues in the consulship in 445 b.c.  140     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 148-151     gap, horse and all ; upon which the place closed up  and gave his body a burial divinely approved, and  left to his clan a lasting memorial.   149. Piso in his Annals writes that in the Sabine  War between Romulus and Tatius, a Sabine hero  named Mettius Curtius, when Romulus with his men  had charged down from higher ground and driven in  the Sabines, got away into a swampy spot which at  that time was in the Forum, before the sewers b had  been made, and escaped from there to his own men  on the Capitoline c ; and from this the pool found its  name.   150. Cornelius and Lutatius a write b that this  place was struck by lightning, and by decree of the  senate was fenced in : because this was done by the  consul Curtius, 6 who had M. Genucius as his colleague,  it was called the Lacus Curtius.   151. The arx ' citadel,' from arcere ' to keep off,'  because this is the most strongly fortified place in the  City, from which the enemy can most easily be kept  away. The career 6 ' prison,' from coercere ' to con-  fine,' because those who are in it are prevented from  going out. In this prison, the part which is under the  ground is called the Tullianum, because it was added  by King Tullius. Because at Syracuse the place  where men are kept under guard on account of  transgressions is called the Latomiae c ' quarries,' from   § 151. "The northern summit of the Capitoline, on which  stood the temple of Juno Moneta. * Beneath the Arx, at  the corner of the Forum ; etymology wrong. e Greek  XoLTOfuai, contracted from XaoTOfuai, which gave the Latin  word ; there were old tufa-quarries on the slopes of the  Capitoline, and the excavation which formed the dungeon was  probably a part of the quarry.     141     VARRO     translatum, quod hie quoque in eo loco lapidicinae  fuerunt.   152. In (Aventi)no 1 Lauretum ab eo quod ibi  sepultus est Tatius rex, qui ab Laurentibus inter-  fectus est, (aut) 2 ab silva laurea, quod ea ibi excisa et  aedificatus vicus : ut inter Sacram Viam et Macellum  editum Corneta (a cornis), 3 quae abscisae loco re-  liquerunt nomen, ut ^esculetum ab aesculo 4 dictum  et Fagutal a fago, unde etiam Iovis Fagutalis, quod  ibi saeellum.   153. Armilustr(i)um 1 ab ambitu lustri : locus  idem Circus Maximus 2 dictus, quod circum spectaculis  aedificatus wbi 3 ludi fiunt, et quod ibi circum metas  fertur pompa et equi currunt. Itaque dictum in  Cornicula(ria) 4 militi's 5 adventu, quern circumeunt  ludentes :   Quid cessamus ludos facere ? Circus noster ecce  adest.   §152. 1 Groth, for in eo. 2 Added by Sciop.  3 Added by Aug., with B. 4 Laetus, for escula.   § 153. 1 For armilustrum. 2 Laetus, for mecinus.  3 Aug., with B, for ibi. 4 Vertranius, for cornicula.  6 Tumebas, for milites.     § 152. There is here a lacuna, or else the in eo of the  manuscripts stands for in Aventino ; for the Lauretum was  on the Aventine.   § 153. The word denotes both the ceremony, held on  October 19, and the place where it was performed, which  seems originally to have been on the Aventine ; according to  Varro, it was later held in the Circus, in the valley between  the Aventine and the Palatine. According to Servius, in  Aen. i. 283, the name was ambilustrum, so called because the  ceremony was not legal unless performed by both (ambo)  censors jointly ; it is possible that the word should be so  emended here and at vi. 22. " Circum is merely the ac-     142     OX THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 151-153     that the word was taken over as lautumia, because  here also in this place there were formerly stone-  quarries.   1 52. On the Aventine a is the Lauretum ' Laurel-  Grove,' called from the fact that King Tatius was  buried there, who was killed by the Laurentes ' Lauren-  tines,' or else from the laurea ' laurel ' wood, because  there was one there which was cut down and a street  run through with houses on both sides : just as  between the Sacred Way and I lie higher part of the  Macellum are the Corneta ' Cornel-Cherry Groves,'  from corni 'cornel-cherry trees,' which though cut  away left their name to the place ; just as the Aescu-  letum ' Oak-Grove' is named from aesculus ' oak-tree,'  and the Fagutal ' Beech-tree Shrine ' from fagus  ' beech-tree,' whence also Jupiter Fagutalis ' of the  Beech-tree,' because his shrine is there.   153. Armilustrium a ' purification of the arms,' from  the going around of the lustrum ' purificatory offering';  and the same place is called the Circus Maximus,  because, being the place where the games arc  performed, it is built up circum 6 ' round about ' for  the shows, and because there the procession goes  and the horses race circum ' around ' the turning-posts.  Thus in The Story of the Helmet-Horn c the following  is said at the coming of the soldier, whom they en-  circle and make fun of :   Why do we refrain from making sport ? See, here's  our circus-ring.   cusative of circus. e Frag. I of Plautus's Cornicularia,  which may be taken as the Story of the Corniculum, a horn-  shaped ornament on the helmet, bestowed for bravery ; here  apparently assumed by a braggart soldier, the miles of the  text.     143     VARRO     In circo primum unde mittuntur equi, nunc dicuntur  carceres, Naevius oppidum appellat. Carceres dicti,  quod coercentur 6 equi, ne inde exeant antequam  magistratus signum misit. Quod a(d) muri spm'em'  pmnis 8 turribusque 9 carceres olim fuerunt, scripsit  poeta :   Dictator ubi currum insidit, pervehitur usque ad  oppidum.   154. Intumus circus ad Murcice 1 vocatur, 4 ut  Procilius aiebat, ab urceis, quod is locus esset inter  figulos ; alii dicunt a murteto declinatum, quod ibi id  fuerit ; cuius vestigium manet, quod ibi est sacellum  etiam nunc Murteae Veneris. Item simili de causa  Circus Flaminius dicitur, qui circum aedificatus est  Flaminium Campum, et quod ibi quoque Ludis  Tauriis equi circum metas currunt.   155. Comitium ab eo quod coibant eo comitiis  curiatis et litium causa. 1 Curiae duorum generum :  nam et ubi curarent sacerdotes res divinas, ut 2 curiae   6 p, Ed. Veneta (cohercentur Laetus), for coercuntur.   7 Mue., for a muris partem. 8 Laetus, for pennis.  9 Aug., for turribus qui.   § 154. 1 L. Sp.,for murcim Fv. 2 Sciop.,/or uocatum.  § 155. 1 Mue. ; caussa Aug., with B ; causae Fv. 2 For   et.     d Merely the plural of career ' prison ' ; not related to  coercere. e Naevius, Comic. Rom. Frag., inc. fab. II Rib-  beck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 148-149 Warmington.   § 154. ° Hist. Rom. Frag., page 3 Peter. " Page 116  Funaioli. c In the level ground of the Campus Martius,  through which C. Flaminius Nepos as censor in 220 b.c.  built the Via Flaminia, the great highway from Rome to the  north, and near it the Circus Flaminius ; he was consul in  217 and was killed in the battle with Hannibal at Lake     144     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 15S-155     In the Circus, the place from which the horses are let  go at the start, is now called the Carceres ' Prison-  stalls,' but Naevius called it the Town. Carceres d  was said, because the horses coercentur ' are held in  check,' that they may not go out from there before  the official has given the sign. Because the Stalls  were formerly adorned with pinnacles and towers  like a wall, the poet wrote e :   When the Dictator mounts his car, he rides the whole  way to the Town.   1 54. The very centre of the Circus is called ad  Murciae ' at Murcia's,' as Procilius ° said, from the  urcei ' pitchers,' because this spot was in the potters'  quarter ; others 6 say that it is derived from murtetum  ' myrtle-grove,' because that was there : of which a  trace remains in that the chapel of Venus Muriea 4 of  the Myrtle ' is there even to this day. Likewise for a  similar reason the Circus Flaminius ' Flaminian Circus '  got its name, for it is built c circum ' around ' the  Flaminian Plain, and there also the horses race  circum ' around ' the turning-posts at the Taurian  Games. d   155. The Comitium ' Assembly-Place ' was named  from this, that to it they coibant ' came together ' for  the comitia curiata a ' curiate meetings ' and for law-  suits. The curiae 6 ' meeting-houses ' are of two  kinds : for there are those where the priests were to  attend to affairs of the gods, like the old meeting-   Trasumennus. d Games in honour of the deities of the  netherworld.   § 155. ° Long before Varro's time, practically replaced by  the comitia centuriata. * Curia denoted first a group of  gentes ; then a meeting-place for such groups ; then any  meeting-place.   vol. i L 145     VARRO     veteres, et ubi senatus humanas, ut Curia Hostilia,  quod primus aedificavit Hostilius rex. Ante hanc  Rostra ; cuius id vocabulum, ex hostibus capta fixa  sunt rostra ; sub dextra huius a Comitio locus sub-  structus, ubi nationum subsisterent legati qui ad  senatum essent missi ; is Graecostasis appellatus a  parte, ut multa.   156. Senaculum supra Graecostasim, ubi Aedis  Concordiae et Basilica Opimia ; Senaculum vocatum,  ubi senatus aut ubi seniores consisterent, dictum ut  yepoverta 1 apud Graecos. Lautolae ab lavando, quod  ibi ad Ianum Geminum aquae caldae fuerunt. Ab  his palus fuit in Minore Velabro, a quo, quod ibi  vehebantur lintribus, 2 velabrum, ut illud de quo supra  dictum est.   157. Aequimaelium,quod a€p€Tpoi>.   167. Posteaquam transierunt ad culcitas, quod in  eas acus 1 aut tomentum aliudve quid calcabant, ab  inculcando culcita dicta. Hoc quicquid insternebant  ab sternendo stragulum appellabant. Pulvinar vel a  plumbs vel a pellulis 2 declinarunt. Quibus operiban-  tur, operimenta, et pallia opercula dixerunt. In his  multa peregrina, ut sagum, reno Gallica, ut 3 gaunaca 4  et amphimallum Graeca ; contra Latinum toral, 5  ante torum, et torus a torto, 6 quod is in promptu.   2 Aug., for terras. 3 Ed. Veneta, for quam. 4 L. Sp.,  for ubi. 5 Added by L. Sp.   §167. 1 Turnebus, for ea sagus. 2 Aldus, for a  pluribus uel a pollulis. 3 GS. ; gallica Turnebus ; for  galli quid. 4 GS. ; gaunacum Scaliger, for gaunacuma.  5 A. Sp. ; toral quod Aug.; torale quod Aldus ; for tore  uel. 6 Meursius, for toruo.     6 That is, on additional straw and grass (if the text be  correct). e From the Greek, with dissimilative loss of the  prior t. d The standing grain ; then, the stems of the  grain-plants, not merely of wheat. * From the Greek  word, which is from epa> ' I bear.'   §167. "Wrong. 6 Hoc = hue 'into this.' c From  156     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 166-167     ' gathered ' the straw-coverings and the grass with  which to make them, as even now is done in camp ;  these couches, that they might not be on the earth,  they raised up on these materials 6 ; — unless rather  from the fact that the ancient Greeks called a bed a  \tK-pov. Those who covered up a couch, called the  coverings segestria, c because the coverings in general  were made from the seges d ' wheat-stalks,' as even  now is done in the camp ; unless the word is from the  Greeks, for there it is o-rkyao-rpov. Because the bed  of a dead man fertur ' is carried,' our ancestors called  it a feretrum e ' bier,' and the Greeks called it a   3 quod olim v(i)num 4  dicebant multa?« 5 : itaque cum (in) 8 dolium aut  culleum vinum addunt rustici, prima urna addita  dicunt etiam nunc. Poena a poeniendo aut quod post  peccatum sequitur. Pretium, quod emptionis aesti-  mationisve causa constituitur, dictum a peritis, quod  hi soli facere possunt recte id.   § 175. 1 Bergk,for issedonion.   § 176. 1 L. Sp., for ceptum. 2 A. Sp., for ab eadem   mente. 3 Bentinus, for intrigo (intrigo dicta et intertrigo  B and Aug.).   § 177. 1 Groth, for a. 2 Aug., for multas. 3 Added   by Mue. 4 B, Laetus, for unum. 5 Goeschen, for   multae. 6 Added by Aug., with B.   §176. "Wrong.   § 177. ° Multa 'fine,' possibly taken from Sabine, but  probably from the root in mulcare ' to beat.' Varro seems  to identify it with multae ' many,' supply perhaps pecuniae :  the magistrate imposed one multa after another, just as the  countrymen poured one multa of wine after another into   164     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 175-177     is Sdi'ciov with the Aeolians, and 86p.a as others say it,  and ooo-is of the Athenians. Arrabo ' earnest-money,'  when money is given on this stipulation, that a  balance is to be paid : this word likewise is from  the Greek, where it is dppafiwv. Reliquum ' balance,'  because it is the reliquum ' remainder ' of what is owed.   176. Damnum ' loss,' from demptio ' taking away,' a  when less is brought in by the sale of the object than  it cost. Lucrum ' profit ' from luere ' to set free,' if  more is taken in than will exsolvere ' release ' the price  at which it was acquired. Detrimenium ' damage,'  from detritus ' rubbing off,' because those things which  are trita ' rubbed ' are of less value. From the same  trimentum comes intertrimentum ' loss by attrition,'  because two things which have been trita ' rubbed '  inter se ' against each other ' are also diminished ;  from which moreover intertrigo ' chafing of the skin '  is said.   177. A multa ' fine ' is that money named by a  magistrate, that it might be exacted on account of  a transgression ; because the fines are named one at  a time, they are called midtae as though ' many,' and  because of old they called wine multa : thus when the  countrymen put wine into a large jar or wine-skin,  they even now call it a multa after the first pitcherful  has been put in. a Poena ' penalty,' from poenire 6 ' to  punish ' or because it follows post ' after ' a transgres-  sion. Pretium ' price ' is that which is fixed for the  purpose of purchase or of evaluation ; it is named  from the periti d ' experts,' because these alone can  set a price correctly.   the storage jars or skins. 6 Poena from Greek : poenire  (classical punire) from poena. * As though from pone  ' behind,' =post. d Wrong etymology.   165     VARRO     178. Si quid datum pro opera aut opere, merces,  a merendo. Quod manu factum erat et datum pro  eo, manupretium, a manibus et pretio. Corollarium,  si additum praeter quam quod debitum ; eius voca-  bulum fictum a corollis, quod eae, cum placuerant  actores, in scaena dari solitae. Praeda est ab hosti-  bus capta, quod manu parta, ut parida praeda. Prae-  mium a praeda, quod ob recte quid factum concessum.   179- Si datum quod reddatur, mutuum, quod  Siculi [xoItov : itaque scribit Sophron   Moitov arri/xo. 1   Et munus quod mutuo animo qui sunt dant officii  causa ; alterum munus, quod muniendi causa impera-  tum, a quo etiam municipes, qui una munus fungi  debent, dicti.   180. Si es{ty ea pecunia quae in h/dicium 2 venit  in litibus, sacramentum a sacro ; qui 3 petebat et qui  infiiiabatur, 4 de aliis rebus ut(e)rque 5 quingenos aeris  ad ponte Re liustica, iii. 5. 3, who says that  the entrance to a bird-cote is called a coclia ' snail-shell,'  being intended to admit air and some light, but not to permit  direct vision from the interior to the outside. ' Varro had  a friend Q. Lucienn% a Roman senator, well versed in Greek;  he appears as a speaker in Varro's De Re Rustica, ii. (5. 1,   174     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 2-i     in turdarium ' thrush-cote ' and turdelix e ' spiral en-  trance for thrushes.' Thus the Greeks, in adapting  our names, make Aeivuqi'ds of Lucienns * and Koii'-ios  of Quinctius, and we make Aristarcfius of their'Aptcr-ap-  Xos and Z)/o of their Attov. In just this way, I say, our  practice has altered many from the old form, as solum 9  ' soil ' from solu, hiberum h ' God of Wine ' from hoe-  besom, hares i ' Hearth-Gods ' from hases : these  words, covered up as they are by lapse of time, I  shall try to dig out as best I can.   II. 3. First we shall speak of the time-names, then  of those things which take place through them, but in  such a way that first Ave shall speak of their essential  nature : for nature was man's guide to the imposition  of names. Time, they say, is an interval in the  motion of the world. This is divided into a number  of parts, especially from the course of the sun and the  moon. Therefore from their temperatus ' moderated '  career, tempus ' time ' is named," and from this comes  tempestiva ' timely things ' ; and from their motus  ' motion,' the mundus b ' world,' which is joined with  the sky as a whole.   4. There are two motions of the sun : one with the  sky, in that the moving is impelled by Jupiter as ruler,  who in Greek is called ii'a, when it comes from east to  west ° ; wherefore this time is from this god called a   etc). ' With change from the fourth declension to the  second (if the text is correct). * With change of the vowel  as well as rhotacism ; the accusative form must be kept in  the translation, to show this clearly. * With rhotacism  (change of intervocalic s to r).   § 3. * The converse is true : temperare is from tempus.  b Wrong.   § 4. ° This insertion in the text gives the needed sense :  the second motus is in § 8.   175     VARRO     ab hoc deo dies appellatur. Meridies ab eo quod  mcdius dies. D antiqui, non R in hoc dicebant, ut  Praeneste incisum in solario vidi. Solarium dictum  id, in quo horae in sole inspiciebantur, (vel horologium  ex aqua), 2 quod Cornelius in Basilica Aemilia et  Fulvia inumbravit. Diei principium mane, quod  turn 3 manat dies ab oriente, nisi potius quod bonum  antiqui dicebant manum, ad cuiusmodi religionem  Graeci quoque cum lumen affcrtur, solent dicere  dyudov.   5. Suprema summum diei, id ab superrimo. Hoc  tempus XII Tabulae dicunt occasum esse solis ; sed  postea lex P/aetoria 1 id quoque tempus esse iubet  supremum quo praetor in Comitio supremam pronun-  tiavit populo. Secundum hoc dicitur crepusculum a  crepero : id vocabulum sumpserunt a Safiinis, unde  veniunt Crepusci nominati Amiterno, qui eo tempore  erant nati, ut Luci(i) 2 prima luce in Reatino 3 ; cre-  pusculum significat dubium ; ab eo res dictae dubiae  creperae, quod crepusculum dies etiam nunc sit an  iam nox multis dubium.   2 Added by GS. 3 For cum.   §5. 1 Aug., for praetoria. 2 Laehis,for luci. 3 Mue.,  for reatione or creatione.     * Dies is cognate with Greek Ala, but not derived from it.  " P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica Corculum, when censor in  159 b.c. with M. Popilius Laenas, setup the first water-clock  in Rome in this Basilica, which was erected in 179 on the  north side of the Forum by the censors M. Aemilius Lepidus  and M. Fulvius Nobilior, from whom it was named.  d Both etymologies wrong.   §5. "Approximately correct. * Page 119 Schoell.   176     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 4-5     dies ' day.' 6 Meridies ' noon,' from the fact that it is  the medius ' middle ' of the dies ' day.' The ancients  said D in this word, and not R, as I have seen at Prae-  neste, cut on a sun-dial. Solarium ' sun-dial ' was the  name used for that on which the hours were seen in  the sol ' sunlight ' ; or also there is the water-clock,  which Cornelius* set up in the shade in the Basilica of  Aemilius and Fulvius. The beginning of the day is  mane ' early morning,' because then the day manat  ' trickles ' from the east, unless rather because the  ancients called the good manum d : from a supersti-  tious belief of the same kind as influences the Greeks,  who, when a light is brought, make a practice of  saying, " Goodly light ! "   5. Suprema means the last part of the day ; it is  from superrimum. a This time, the Twelve Tables say, 6  is sunset ; but afterwards the Plaetorian Law c de-  clares that this time also should be ' last ' at which the  praetor in the Comitium has announced to the people  the suprema ' end of the session.' In line with this,  crepusculum ' dusk ' is said from creperum ' obscure ' ;  this word they took from the Sabines, from whom  come those who were named Crepusci, from Amiter-  num, who had been born at that time of day, just like  the Lucii, who were those born at dawn (prima luce) in  the Reatine country. Crepusculum means doubtful :  from this doubtful matters are called creperae ' ob-  scure,' d because dusk is a time when to many it is  doubtful whether it is even yet day or is already  night.   e A law for the protection of minors, named from Plaetorius,  a tribune of the people. d All etymologically sound, but  a meaning 4 doubtful ' must have proceeded from a word  crepus ' dusk.'   VOL. I X 177     VARRO   6. Nox, quod, ut Pacm'us 1 ait,   Omnia nisi interveniat sol pruina obriguerint,   quod nocet, nox, nisi quod Graecc vv^ nox. Cum  Stella prima exorta (eum Graeci vocant ea-irepov,  nostri Vesperuginem ut Plautus :   Neqne Vesperugo neque Vergiliae occidunt),   id tempus dictum a Graecis kcnrkpa, Latine vesper ;  ut ante solem ortum quod eadem Stella vocatur iubar,  quod iubata, Pacui dicit pastor :   Exorto iubare, noctis decurso itinere ;  Enni* Aiax :   Lumen — iubarne ? — in caelo cerno.   7. Inter vesperuginem et iubar dicta nox intem-  pesta, ut in Bruto Cassii quod dicit Lucretia :   Nocte intempesta nostram devenit domum.   Intempestam Aelius dicebat cum tempus agendi est  nullum, quod alii concubium 1 appellarunt, quod  omnes fere tunc cubarent ; alii ab eo quod sileretur   § 6. 1 Ribbeck ; Pacuvius Scaliger ; for catulus. 2 GS. ;  Ennii Laetus ; for ennius.   § 7. 1 Laetus, for inconcubium.   §6. ° Antiopa, Trag. Rom. Frag. 14 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L.  ii. 170-171 Warmington; cf. Funaioli, page 123. Ribbeck 's  nocti ni for nisi is probably Pacuvius's wording; Varro, as  often, paraphrases the quotation. * Nox and vv£ come  from the same source; connexion with nocere is dubious.  e Amphitruo,275. d Correct etymologies. " Iubar and  tuba ' mane ' are not related, despite vii. 76. f Trag. Rom.  Frag. 347 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 320-321 Warmington.  » Trag. Rom. Frag. 336 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. i. 226-227  Warmington; cf. vi. 81 and vii. 76.   § 7 ° A writer of praetextae, otherwise unknown : the  name recurs at vii. 72 ; possibly Victorius's emendation to   178     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 6-7   6. Nox ' night ' is called nox, because, as Pacuvius  says,"   All will be stiff with frost unless the sun break in,   because it nocet ' harms ' ; unless it is because in  Greek night is vv£. b When the first star has come  out (the Greeks call it Hesperus, and our people call  it Vesperugo, as Plautus does c :   The evening star sets not, nor yet the Pleiades),   this time is by the Greeks called lter (ac> caeli, 1 quod  movetur a bruma ad solstitium. Dicta bruma, quod  brevissimus tunc dies est ; solstitium, quod sol eo die  sistere videbatur, quo 2 ad nos versum proximus est.  Sol 3 cum venit in medium spatium inter brumam et  solstitium, quod dies aequus fit ac nox, aequinoctium  dictum. Tempus a bruma ad brumam dum sol redit,  vocatur annus, quod ut parvi circuli anuli, sic magni  dicebantur circites ani, unde annus.   9- Huius temporis pars prima hiems, quod turn  multi imbres ; hinc hibernacula, hibernum ; vel, quod  turn anima quae flatur omnium apparet, ab hiatu  hiems. Tempus secundum ver, quod turn virere 1  incipiunt virgulta ac vertere se tempus anni ; nisi  quod Iones dicunt r;p 2 ver. Tertium ab aestu aestas ;  hinc aestivum ; nisi forte a Graeco aWecr9ai. Quar-  tum autumnus, (ab augendis hominum opibus dictus  frugibusque coactis, quasi auctumnus). 3   2 For conticinnium /. 3 uidebitur Plautus. 4 redito  hue Plautus. 6 For conticinnio /.   § 8. 1 Mue.,for alter caeli. 2 quo A. Sp. ; quod Mue. ;  for aut quod. 3 A. Sp. ; proximus est sol, solstitium  L. Sp. ; for proximum est solstitium.   § 9. 1 Aldus, for uiuere. 2 L. Sp. ; eap Victorius ; for  et. 3 Added by GS., after Krieg shammer, and Fest.  23. 11 If.   d Asinaria, 685.   § 8. For the first motion, see § 4. 6 The winter and  the summer solstices. e Annus is not connected with anus  or anulus ' ring.'   § 9. Wrong. * Cognate with the Greek, not derived  from it.   180     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 7-9     the time which Plautus likewise calls the conticinium  ' general silence ' : for he writes d :   We'll see, I want it done. At general-silence time  come back.   8. There is a second motion of the suri, a differing  from that of the sky, in that the motion is from bruma  ' winter's day ' to sohtitium ' solstice.' 6 Bruma is so  named, because then the day is brevissimus ' shortest ' :  the sohtitium, because on that day the sol ' sun ' seems  sister e ' to halt,' on which it is nearest to us. When  the sun has arrived midway between the bruma and  the sohtitium, it is called the aequinoctium ' equinox,'  because the day becomes aequus ' equal ' to the nox  ' night.' The time from the bruma until the sun re-  turns to the bruma, is called an annus ' year,' because  just as little circles are anuli ' rings,' so big circuits  were called ani, whence comes annus ' year.' c   9. The first part of this time is the hiems ' winter,'  so called because then there are many imbres  ' showers ' a ; hence hibernacula ' winter encamp-  ment,' hibernum ' winter time ' ; or because then  everybody's breath which is breathed out is visible,  hiems is from hiatus ' open mouth.' a The second  season is the ver b * spring,' so called because then the  virgulta ' bushes ' begin virere ' to become green ' and  the time of year begins vertere ' to turn or change '  itself" ; unless it is because the Ionians say rjp for  spring. The third season is the aestas ' summer,'  from aestus ' heat ' ; from this, aestivum ' summer pas-  ture ' ; unless perhaps it is from the Greek aWetrdai  ' to blaze.' 6 The fourth is the autumnus ' autumn,'  named from augere ' to increase ' the possessions of  men and the gathered fruits, as if auctumnus. a   181     VARRO     10. endo 5 sub/iga&ulum. 6  Vo/turnalia 7 a deo Vo/turno, 8 cuius feriae turn. Octo-  bri mense Meditrinalia dies dictus a medendo, quod  Flaccus flamen Martialis dicebat hoc die solitum  vinum (novum) 1 et vetus libari et degustari medica-  menti causa ; quod facere solent etiam nunc multi  cum dicttnt 10 :   Novum vetus vinum bibo : novo veteri 11 morbo medeor.   22. Fontanalia a Fonte, quod is dies feriae eius ;  ab eo turn et in fontes coronas iaciunt et puteos  coronant. Armilustrium ab eo quod in Armilustrio  armati sacra faciunt, nisi locus potius dictus ab his ;  sed quod de his prius, id ab luendo 1 aut lustro,  id est quod circumibant ludentes ancilibus armati.   3 L. Sp., for aut. 4 Aldus, for diciturne. 6 Skutsch,  for suffiendo. * Kent, for subligaculum. 7 For uor-  turnalia ; cf. volturn. in the Fasti. 8 For uorturno / cf.  preceding note. 9 Added by Laetus. 10 L. Sp., for  dicant. 11 After veteri, G, V,f, Aldus deleted uino; cf.  Festus, 123. 16 M.   § 22. 1 Vertranius, for luendo.     c An oblong piece of white cloth with a coloured border,  which the Vestal Virgins fastened over their heads with a  fibula ' clasp ' when they offered sacrifice ; cf. Festus, 348 a 25  and 3*9. 8 M. d On August 27; the god Volturnus  cannot be identified unless he is identical with Vortumnus  (Vertumnus), since he can hardly be the deity of the river  Volturnus in Campania or of the mountain Voltur, in Apulia,  near Horace's birthplace. « On October 3 ; Meditrina,   194     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 21-22     may enter it except the Vestal Virgins and the state  priest. " When he goes there, let him wear a white  veil," is the direction ; this suffibuluni e ' white veil '  is named as if sub-Jigabulum from sujfigere ' to fasten  down.' The Volturnalia ' Festival of Volturnus,'  from the god Volturnus, 41 whose feast takes place then.  In the month of October, the MeditrinaUa e ' Festival  of Meditrina ' was named from mederi ' to be healed,'  because Flaccus the special priest of Mars used to say  that on this day it was the practice to pour an offering  of new and old wine to the god, and to taste of the  same/ for the purpose of being healed ; which many  are accustomed to do even now, when they say :   Wine new and old I drink, of illness new and old  I'm cured.*   22. The Fontanalia ' Festival of the Springs,' from  Fons ' God of Springs,' because that day ° is his holi-  day ; on his account they then throw garlands into  the springs and place them on the well- tops. The  Armilustrium 6 ' Purification of the Arms,' from the  fact that armed men perform the ceremony in the  Armilustrium, unless the place c is rather named from  the men ; but as I said of them previously, this word  comes from ludere ' to play ' or from lustrum ' puri-  fication,' that is, because armed men went around  ludentes ' making sport ' with the sacred shields. d   Goddess of Healing. 'The ceremonial first drinking of  the new wine. ' Frag. Poet. Lat., page 31 Morel.   § 22. » October 13. » October 13. e The place was  named from the ceremony ; cf. v. 153. d The first ancile  is said to have fallen from heaven in the reign of Numa, who  had eleven others made exactly like it, to prevent its loss  or to prevent knowledge of its loss ; for the safety of the  City depended on the preservation of that shield which fell  from heaven.   195     VARRO     Saturnalia dicta ab Saturno, quod eo die feriae eius,  ut post diem tertium Opalia Opis.   23. Angeronalia ab Angerona, cui sacrificium fit  in Curia Acculeia et cuius feriae publicae is dies.  Larentinae, quem diem quidam in scribendo Laren-  talia appellant, ab Acca Larentia nominatus, cui  sacerdotes nostri publice parentant e sexto die, 1 qui  a& ea* dicitur die* 3 Parent(ali)um 4 Accas Larentinas. 5   24. Hoc sacrificium fit in Velabro, qua 1 in Novam  Viam exitur, ut aiunt quidam ad sepulcrum Accae, ut  quod ibi prope faciunt diis Manibus servilibus sacer-  dotes ; qui uterque locus extra urbem antiquam fuit  non longe a Porta Romanula, de qua in priore libro  dixi. Dies Septimontium nominatus ab his septem  montibus, in quis sita Urbs est ; feriae non populi, sed  montanorum modo, ut Paganalibus, qui sunt alicuius  pagi.   25. De statutis diebus dixi ; de anrialibus nec   § 23. 1 parentant Aug., e sexto die Fay, for parent ante  sexto die. 2 Mue., for atra. 3 L. Sp., for diem.  4 Mommsen, for tarentum. 6 L. Sp., for tarentinas.   § 24. 1 Laetus, for quia.   ' December 17, and the following days. ' December 19.   § 23. ° On December 21. * Goddess of Suffering and  Silence. c On December 23 ; supply feriae with Laren-  tinae. d Wife of Faustulus ; she nursed and brought up  the twins Romulus and Remus. e " Sixth " is wrong if  the Saturnalia began on December 17, unless in this instance  both ends are counted, or the allusion is to an earlier practice  by which the Saturnalia began one day later. On the phrase  e sexto die, cf. Fay, Amer. Jmtrn. Phil. xxxv. 246.  f Archaic genitive singular ending in -as.   190     OX THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 22-25     The Saturnalia ' Festival of Saturn ' was named from  Saturn, because on this day * was his festival, as on the  second dav thereafter the Opalia/ the festival of  Ops.   23. The Angeronalia," from Angerona, 6 to whom a  sacrifice is made in the Acculeian Curia and of whom  this day is a state festival. The Larentine Festival, 6  which certain writers call the Larentalia, was named  from Acca Larentia, d to whom our priests officially  perform ancestor-worship on the sixth day after the  Saturnalia,' which day is from her called the Day of  the Parentalia of Larentine Acca/   24. This sacrifice is made in the Velabrum, where  it ends in New Street, as certain authorities say, at the  tomb of Acca, because near there the priests make  offering to the departed spirits of the slaves ° : both  these places b were outside the ancient city, not far  from the Little Roman Gate, of which I spoke in the  preceding book." Septimontium Day d was named  from these septem viontes ' seven hills,' ' on which the  City is set ; it is a holiday not of the people generally,  but only of those who live on the hills, as only those  who are of some pagus ' country district ' have a holi-  day 1 at the Paganalia 3 ' Festival of the Country  Districts.'   25. The fixed days are those of which I have  spoken ; now I shall speak of the annual festivals   § 24. ° Faustulus and Acca were, of course, slaves of  the king. * The tomb of Acca and the place of sacrifice  to the Manes serciles. e v. 164. d On December 11.  * Not the usual later seven; Festus, 348 M., lists Capitoline  with Velia and Cermalus, three spurs of the Esquiline —  Oppius, Fagutal, Cispius — and the Subura valley between.  ' Supply feriantur. ' Early in January, but not on a  fixed date.     197     VARRO     de 1 statutis dicam. Compitalia dies attributus  Laribus viaUhus 2 : ideo ubi viae competunt turn in  competis sacrificatur. Quotannis is dies concipitur.  Similiter Latinae Feriae dies conceptivus 3 dictus a  Latinis populis, quibus ex Albano Monte ex sacris  carnem 4 petere fuit ius cum Romanis, a quibus Latinis  Latinae dictae.   26. Sementivae 1 Feriae dies is, qui a pontificibus  dictus, appellatus a semente, quod sationis causa sus-  cepta(e). 2 Paganicae eiusdem agriculturae causa  susceptae, ut haberent in agris omn/s 3 pagus, unde  Paganicae dictae. Sunt praeterea feriae conceptivae  quae non sunt annales, ut hae quae dicuntur sine  proprio vocabulo aut cum perspic?/o, 4 ut Novendiales 5  sunt.   IV. 27. De his diebus (satis) 1 ; nunc iam, qui  hominum causa constituti, videamus. Primi dies  mensium nominati ivalendae, 2 quod his diebus calan-   § 25. 1 Mommsen, for de. 2 Bongars, for ut alibi.  3 Laetus, for conseptivus. 4 Victorius, for carmen.   § 26. Vertranius, for sementinae. 2 Aldus, for   suscepta. 3 Aldus, for omnes. 4 Aug., for perspicio.  6 For novendialis.   § 27. 1 Added by Sciop. 2 Aug., with B, for caK     § 25. ° That is, set by special proclamation, and not  always falling on the same date. b By the praetor, not far  from January 1. e Written competa in the text, to make  the association with competunt. d The festival of the  league of the Latin cities; its date was set by the Roman  consuls (or by a consul) as soon as convenient after entry  into office.   § 26. ° In January, on two days separated by a space  of seven days ; as they were days of sowing, the choice  depended upon the weather. * Collective singular with   198     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 25-27     which are not fixed on a special day.° The Compitalia  is a day assigned 6 to the Lares of the highways ;  therefore where the highways competunt ' meet,'  sacrifice is then made at the compita c ' crossroads.'  This day is appointed every year. Likewise the  Latinae Feriae ' Latin Holiday ' d is an appointed day,  named from the peoples of Latium, who had equal  right with the Romans to get a share of the meat at  the sacrifices on the Alban Mount : from these Latin  peoples it was called the Latin Holiday.   26. The Sementivae Feriae ' Seed-time Holiday '  is that day which is set by the pontiffs ; it was named  from the sementis ' seeding,' because it is entered  upon for the sake of the sowing. The Paganicae  ' Country-District Holiday ' was entered upon for the  sake of this same agriculture, that the whole pagus 6  ' country-district ' might hold it in the fields, whence  it was called Paganicae. There are also appointive  holidays which are not annual, such as those which are  set without a special name of their own, c or with an  obvious one, such as is the Novendialis ' Ceremony of  the Ninth Day.' d   IV. 27. About these days this is enough ° ; now  let us see to the days which are instituted for the  interests of men. The first days of the months  are named the Kalendae, b because on these days the   plural verb. e Such as the supplicat tones voted for Caesar's  victories in Gaul ; cf. Bell. Gall. ii. 35. 4, iv. 38. 5, vii. 90. 8.  d The offerings and feasts for the dead on the ninth day after  the funeral ; also, a festival of nine days proclaimed for the  purpose of averting misfortunes whose approach was indicated  by omens and prodigies.   § 27. ° The insertion of satis makes the chapter beginning  conform to those at v. 57, 75, 95, 184, vi. 35, etc. * The K  in Kalendae and halo, before A, is well attested.   199     VARRO     tur eius menszs 3 Nonae a pontificibus, quintanae an  septimanae sint futurae, in Capitolio in Curia Calabra  sic : " Die te quin/z 4 ka\o 5 Iuno Covella " (aut) 8 " Sep-  tim(i) die te 7 ka\o 5 Iuno Covella."   28. Nonae appellatae aut quod ante diem nonum  Idus semper, aut quod, ut novus annus Kalendae 1  Ianuariae ab novo sole appellatae, novus mensis (ab) a  nova luna Nonce 3 ; eodem die 4 in Urbe(m) 5 (qui) 6 in  agris ad regem conveniebat populus. Harum rerum  vestigia apparent in sacris Nonalibus in Arce, quod  tunc ferias primas menstruas, quae futurae sint eo  mense, rex edicit populo. Idus ab eo quod Tusci  Itus, vel potius quod Sabini Idus dicunt.   29. Dies postridie Kalendas, Nonas, Idus appellati  atri, quod per eos dies (nihil) 1 novi inciperent. Dies  fasti, per quos praetoribus omnia verba sine piaculo  licet fari ; comitiales dicti, quod turn ut (in Comitio) 2   3 Aug., with B, for menses. 4 Mommsen ; die te V  Christ ; for dictae quinque. 5 See note 2, § 27. 6 Added  by Zander. 7 Mommsen ; VII die te Christ ; for septem  dictae.   § 28. 1 Aug., with B,for calendae. 2 a added by Sciop.  3 Sciop., for nonis. 4 After die, Mue. deleted enim.  8 Laetus,for urbe. 6 Added by L. Sp.   §29. 1 Added by Turnebus. 2 Added by Bergk.     e See v. 13. d The statement of Macrobius, Sat. i. 15. 10,  that kalo Iuno Covella was repeated five or seven times re-  spectively, may rest merely on a corrupted form of this passage  which was in the copy used by Macrobius. ' ' Juno of the  New Moon ' ; Covella, diminutive from covus ' hollow,'  earlier form of cavus (cf. v. 19) — unless it be corrupt for  Novella, as Scaliger thought. For the New Moon has a  concave shape.   § 28. The north-eastern summit of the Capitoline.  6 Origin uncertain ; perhaps from Etruscan, as Varro says.   200     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 27-29   Nones of this month calantur ' are announced ' by the  pontiffs on the Capitoline in Announcement Hall, c  whether they will be on the fifth or on the seventh, in  this way d : " Juno Covella, e I announce thee on the  fifth day " or " Juno Covella, I announce thee on the  seventh day."   28. The Nones are so called either because they  are always the nonus ' ninth ' day before the Ides, or  because the Nones are called the novus ' new ' month  from the new moon, just as the Kalends of January  are called the new year from the new sun ; on the  same day the people who were in the fields used to  flock into the City to the King. Traces of this status  are seen in the ceremonies held on the Nones, on  the Citadel," because at that time the high-priest  announces to the people the first monthly holidays  which are to take place in that month. The Idus b  ' Ides,' from the fact that the Etruscans called them  the Itus, or rather because the Sabines call them the  Idus.   29. The days next after the Kalends, the Nones,  and the Ides, were called atri ' black,' because on  these days they might not start anything new. Dies  fasti b ' righteous days, court days,' on which the  praetors c are permitted fart ' to say ' any and all  words without sin. Comitiales ' assembly days ' are so  called because then it is the established law that the   § 29. a Gf. Macrobius, Sat. i. 15. 22 ; the use of ater was  appropriate after the Ides, when the moon was not visible in  the day nor in the early evening, nor was it visible immedi-  ately after the Kalends. 6 That is, when it was fas to hold  court and make legal decisions; Varro connects with fari  ' to say,' with which the Romans associated fas etymologi-  cally, but the connexion has recently been questioned.  e Who functioned as judges.   201     VARRO   esset populus constitutum est ad suffragium ferun-  dum, nisi si quae feriae conceptae essent, propter quas  non liceret, (ut) 3 Compitalia et Latinae.   30. Contrarii horum vocantur dies nefasti, per  quos dies nefas fari praetorem " do," " dico," " ad-  dico " ; itaque non potest agi : necesse est aliquo  (eorum) 1 uti verbo, cum lege qui(d) 2 peragitur. Quod  si turn imprudens id verbum emisit ac quem manu-  misit, ille nihilo minus est liber, sed vitio, ut magi-  stratus vitio creatus nihilo setf us 3 magistratus. Praetor  qui turn fatus 4 est, si imprudens fecit, piaculari hostia  facta piatur ; si prudens dixit, Quintus Mucius aiebat 5  eum expiari ut impium non posse.   31. Interctsi 1 dies sunt per quos mane et vesperi  est nefas, medio tempore inter hostiam caesam e t exta  porrecta 2 fas ; a quo quod fas turn intercedit aut eo 3  intercisum nefas, intercis?. 4 Dies qui vocatur sic  " Quando 5 rex comitiavit fas," is 6 dictus ab eo quod   3 Added by Laetus.   § 30. 1 Added by Laetus, with B. 2 Laetus, for qui.  3 A. Sp. ; secius Victorius ; for sed ius. 4 Turnebus, for  factus. 8 L. Sp., for abigebat.   § 31. 1 Laetus, for intercensi. 2 Aug., with B, for  proiecta. 3 L. Sp. ; eo est Mue. ; for eos. 4 A. Sp.,  for intercisum. 5 Before quando, B inserts Q R C F, the  abbreviation found in the Fasti. 6 fas is Victorius, for  fassis.     § 30. ° For the meaning of vitio, see Dorothy M.  Paschall, " The Origin and Semantic Development of Latin  Vitium," Trans. Amer. Philol. Assn. lxvii. 219-231.  * i. 19 Huschke.   § 31. ° March 24 and May 24. * The caedere ' to cut '  in intercidere and the cedere ' to go on ' in intercedere are not  etymologically connected.  202     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 29-31     people should be in the Comitium to cast their votes —  unless some holidays should have been proclaimed on  account of which this is not permissible, such as the  Compitalia and the Latin Holiday.   30. The opposite of these are called dies nefasti  ' unrighteous days,' on which it is nefas ' unrighteous-  ness ' for the praetor to say do ' I give,' dico ' I pro-  nounce,' addico ' I assign ' ; therefore no action  can be taken, for it is necessary to use some one  of these words, when anything is settled in due  legal form. But if at that time he has inadvert-  ently uttered such a word and set somebody free,  the person is none the less free, but with a bad  omen" in the proceeding, just as a magistrate  elected in spite of an unfavourable omen is a  magistrate just the same. The praetor who has  made a legal decision at such a time, is freed of  his sin by the sacrifice of an atonement victim, if  he did it unintentionally ; but if he made the pro-  nouncement with a realization of what he was doing,  Quintus Mucius 6 said that he could not in any way  atone for his sin, as one who had failed in his duty  to God and country.   31. The intercisi dies ' divided days ' are those a on  which legal business is wrong in the morning and in  the evening, but right in the time between the slaying  of the sacrificial victim and the offering of the vital  organs ; whence they are intercisi because the fas  ' right ' intercedit 6 ' comes in between ' at that time,  or because the nefas ' wrong ' is intercisum ' cut into *  by the fas. The day which is called thus : " When  the high-priest has officiated in the Comitium, Right,"  is named from the fact that on this day the high-priest  pronounces the proper formulas for the sacrifice in the   203     VARRO     eo die rex sacrificio ius' dicat ad Comitium, ad quod  tempus est nefas, ab eo fas : itaque post id tempus  lege actum saepe.   32. Dies qui vocatur " Quando stercum delatum  fas," 1 ab eo appellatus, quod eo die ex Aede Vestae  stercus everritur et per Capitolinum Clivum in locum  defertur certum. Dies Alliensis ab Allia 2 fluvio  dictus : nam ibi exercitu nostro fugato Galli obse-  derunt Romam.   33. Quod ad singulorum dicrum vocabula pertinet  dixi. Mensium nomina fere sunt aperta, si a Martio,  ut antiqui constituerunt, numeres : nam primus a  Marte. Secundus, ut Fulvius scribit et Iunius, a  Venere, quod ea sit ApArodite 1 ; cuius nomen ego  antiquis litteris quod nusquam inveni, magis puto  dictum, quod ver omnia aperit, Aprilem. Tertius a  maioribus Maius, quartus a iunioribus dictus Iunius.   34. Dehinc quintus Quintilis et sic deinceps usque  ad Decembrem a numero. Ad hos qui additi, prior a  principe deo Ianuarius appellatus ; posterior, ut idem  dicunt scriptores, ab diis inferis Februarius appellatus,   7 Other codices, for sacrificiolus Fv.   § 32. 1 Before quando, B inserts Q S D F, the abbrevia-  tion found in the Fasti. 2 B, Laetus,for allio (auio/).   § 33. 1 For afrodite.   § 32. a June 15. 6 July 18 ; anniversary of the battle  of 390 b.c, at the place where the Allia flows into the Tiber,  eleven miles above Rome.   § 33. ° Probably from an adjective apero- ' second,' not  otherwise found in Latin. 6 Servius Fulvius Flaccus,  consul 135 b.c, skilled in law, literature, and ancient history.  "Page 121 Funaioli ; page 11 Huschke. d From Maia,  mother of Mercury. * From the goddess Juno ; page 121  Funaioli.   § 34. a Varro wrote before Quintilis was renamed Iulius  204     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 31-34     presence of the assembly, up to which time legal  business is wrong, and from that time on it is right :  therefore after this time of day actions are often taken  under the law.   32. The day a which is called " When the dung has  been carried out, Right," is named from this, that on  this day the dung is swept out of the Temple of Vesta  and is carried away along the Capitoline Incline to a  certain spot. The Dies Alliensis b ' Day of the Allia '  is called from the Allia River ; for there our army was  put to flight by the Gauls just before they besieged  Rome.   33. With this I have finished my account of what  pertains to the names of individual days. The names  of the months are in general obvious, if you count  from March, as the ancients arranged them ; for the  first month, Martius, is from Mars. The second,  Aprilis, a as Fulvius 6 writes and Junius also, 6 is from  Venus, because she is Aphrodite ; but I have nowhere  found her name in the old writings about the month,  and so think that it was called April rather because  spring aperit ' opens ' everything. The third was  called Maius d ' May ' from the maiores ' elders,' the  fourth Iunius e ' June ' from the iuniores ' younger  men.'   34. Thence the fifth is Quintilis a ' July ' and so in  succession to December, named from the numeral.  Of those which were added to these, the prior was  called Ianuarius ' January ' from the god b who is first  in order ; the latter, as the same writers say, 6 was  called Februarius* ' February ' from the di inferi ' gods   and Sextilis was renamed Augustus. * Janus. 'Page  16 Funaioli ; page 11 Huschke. d From a lost word feber  ' sorrow.'   205     VARRO     quod turn his paren(te)tur x ; ego magis arbitror  Februarium a die februato, quod turn februatur  populus, id est Lupercis nudis lustratur antiquum  oppidum Palatinum gregibus humanis cinctum.   V. 35. Quod ad temporum vocabula Latina  attinet, hactenus sit satis dictum ; nunc quod ad eas  res attinet quae in tempore aliquo fieri animadver-  terentur, dicam, ut haec sunt : legisti, cumis, 1 ludens ;  de quis duo praedicere volo, quanta sit multitudo  eorum et quae sint obscuriora quam alia.   36. Cum verborum declinatuum 1 genera sint quat-  tuor, unum quod tempora adsignificat neque habet  casus, ut ab lego leges, lege 2 ; alterum quod casus  habet neque tempora adsignificat, ut ab lego lectio  et lector ; tertium quod habet utrunque et tempora  et casus, ut ab lego legens, lecturus ; quartum quod  neutrum habet, ut ab lego lecte ac lectissime : horum  verborum si primigenia sunt ad mi/fe, 3 ut Cosconius  scribit, ex eorum declinationibus verborum discrimina  quingenta milia esse possunt ideo, quod a* singulis  verbis primigenii(s) 5 circiter quingentae species de-  clinationibus fiunt.   § 34. 1 Aug. ; parentent Laetus ; for parent.  § 35. 1 Mue., with G, II, for currus.   § 36. 1 B, Laetus, for declinatiuum. 2 V, b, for lego  Fv. 3 Victorius, for admitte. 4 L. Sp., for quia.  5 Aug., for primigenii.     • Three different ceremonies are confounded here : one of  purification, one of expiation to the gods of the Lower World,  one of fertility ; cf. vi. 13, note a.   § 35. That is, all verbal forms, and the derivatives from  the verbal roots.   § 36. The verb has both meanings ; some of the deriva-  tives have only one or the other. 6 Q. Cosconius, orator   206     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 34-36     of the Lower World,' because at that time expiatory  sacrifices are made to them ; but I think that it was  called February rather from the dies februalus ' Puri-  fication Day,' because then the people februatur ' is  purified,' that is, the old Palatine town girt with flocks  of people is passed around by the naked Luperci.'   V. 35. As to what pertains to Latin names of time  ideas, let that which has been said up to this point be  enough. Now I shall speak of what concerns those  things which might be observed as taking place at  some special time a — such as the following : legisti  ' thou didst read,' cursus ' act of running,' ludens  ' playing.' With regard to these there are two things  which I wish to say in advance : how great then-  number is, and what features are less perspicuous  than others.   36. The inflections of words are of four kinds : one  which indicates the time and does not have case, as  leges ' thou wilt gather or read,' a lege ' read thou,'  from lego 1 I gather or read ' ; a second, which has  case and does not indicate time, as from lego lectio  ' collection, act of reading,' lector ' reader'; the third,  which has both, time and case, as from lego legens  ' reading,' ledums ' being about to read ' ; the third,  which has neither, as from lego lecte 'choicely,' lectis-  sime ' most choicely.' Therefore if the primitives of  these words amount to one thousand, as Cosconius 6  writes, then from the inflections of these words the  different forms can be five hundred thousand in  number for the reason that from each and every  primitive word about five hundred forms are made  by derivation and inflection.   and authority on grammar and literature, who flourished  about 100 b.c. ; page 109 Funaioli.   207     VARRO     37. Primigenia dicuntur verba ut lego, scribo, sto,  sedeo et cetera, quae non sunt ab ali(o) quo 1 verbo,  sed suas habent radices. Contra verba declinata sunt,  quae ab ali(o) quo 2 oriuntur, ut ab lego legis, legit,  legam et sic 3 indidem hinc permulta. Quare si quis  primigeniorum verborum origines ostenderit, si ea  mille sunt, quingentum milium simplicium verborum  causas aperuerit una ; sin 4 nullius, tamen qui ab his  reliqua orta ostenderit, satis dixerit de originibus  verborum, cum unde nata sint, principia erunt pauca,  quae inde nata sint, innumerabilia.   38. A quibus iisdem principiis antepositis prae-  verbiis paucis immanis verborum accedit numerus,  quod praeverbiis (in)mutatis 1 additis atque commu-  tatis aliud atque aliud fit : ut enim (pro)cessit 2 et  recessit, sic accessit et abscessit ; item incessit et ex-  cessit,sic successit et decessit, (discessit) 3 et concessit.  Quod si haec decern sola praeverbia essent, quoniam  ab uno verbo declinationum quingenta discrimina  fierent, his decemplicatis coniuncto praeverbio ex  uno quinque milia numero efficerent(ur), 4 ex mille ad  quinquagies centum milia discrimina fieri possunt.   §37. 1 Mue. ; alio Aug., G ; for aliquo. 2 Mue., for  aliquo. 3 After sic, Laetus deleted in. 4 Turnebus, for  unas in.   § 38. 1 GS., for mutatis. 2 Fritzsche, for cessit.  3 Added by GS (et discessit added by Vertranius). 4 Aldus,  for efficerent.     § 37. " That is, cannot be referred to a simpler radical  element.  208     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 37-38     37. Primitive is the name applied to words like  lego ' I gather,' scribo ' I write,' sto ' I stand,' sedeo ' I  sit,' and the rest which are not from some other word, a  but have their own roots. On the other hand deriva-  tive words are those which do develop from some other  word, as from lego come legis ' thou gatherest,' legit  ' he gathers,' legam ' I shall gather,' and in this fashion  from this same word come a great number of words.  Therefore, if one has shown the origins of the primi-  tive words, and if these are one thousand in number,  he will have revealed at the same time the sources of  five hundred thousand separate words ; but if without  showing the origin of a single primitive word he has  shown how the rest have developed from the primi-  tives, he will have said quite enough about the origins  of words, since the original elements from which the  words are sprung are few and the words which have  sprung from them are countless.   38. There are besides an enormous number of  words derived from these same original elements by  the addition of a few prefixes, because by the addition  of prefixes with or without change a word is repeatedly  transformed ; for as there is processit ' he marched  forward ' and recessit-' drew back,' so there is accessit  ' approached ' and abscessit ' went off,' likewise incessit  ' advanced ' and excessit ' withdrew,' so also successit  ' went up ' and decessit ' went away,' discessit ' de-  parted ' and concessit ' gave way.' But if there were  only these ten prefixes, from the thousand primitives  five million different forms can be made inasmuch as  from one word there are five hundred derivational  forms and when these are multiplied by ten through  union with a prefix five thousand different forms are  produced out of one primitive.   vol. i p 209     VARRO     39. Democritus, Ecurus, 1 item alii qui infinita  principia dixerunt, quae unde sint non dicunt, sed  cuiusmodi sint, tamen faciunt magnum : quae ex his  constant in mundo, ostendunt. Quare si etymologws 2  principia verborum postulet mille, de quibus ratio ab  se non poscatur, et reliqua ostendat, quod non pos-  tulat, tamen immanem verborum expediat numerum.   40. De multitudine quoniam quod satis esset  admonui, 1 de obscuritate pauca dicam. Verborum  quae tempora adsignificant ideo locus 2 difficillimus  (TVfj.a, 3 quod neque his fere societas cum Graeca  lingua, neque vernacula ea quorum in partum memoria  adfuerit nostra ; e 4 quibus, ut dixi, 5 quae poterimus.   VI. 41. Incipiam hinc primura 1 quod dicitur ago.  Actio ab agitatu facta. Hinc dicimus " agit gestum  tragoedus," 2 et " agitantur quadrigae " ; hinc " agi-  tur pecus pastum." Qua 3 vix agi potest, hinc angi-  portum ; qua nil potest agi, hinc angulus, (vel) 4 quod  in eo locus angustissimus, cuius loci is angulus.   42. Actionum trium primus agitatus mentis, quod   § 39. 1 Turnebus, for secutus Fv, securus G, II. 2 ety-  mologos B, Rhol., for ethimologos Fv, ethimologus G.  § 40. 1 Laetus, for admonuit. 2 f, Aldus, for locutus.   3 est Irv/xa Sciop. (L. Sp. deleted est), for est TTMa Fv.   4 A. Sp.,for nostrae. 6 M, Laetus, for dixit.   §41. 1 Laetus, for primus. 2 For tragaedus. 3 Al-  dus, for quia. 4 Added by Mue., whose punctuation is  here followed.     § 39. Of Abdera (about 460-373 b.c), originator of the  atomic theory. * Of Athens (341-270 b.c), founder of the  Epicurean school of philosophy; Epic. 201. 33 Usener.  e That is, that he should be excused from interpreting them  (quod for quot).   § 40. For adfuerit with the goal construction, cf. Vergil,  Eel. 2. 45 hue ades, etc. 6 v. 10.  210     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 39-42     39. Democritus, a Epicurus, 6 and likewise others  who have pronounced the original elements to be  unlimited in number, though they do not tell us  whence the elements are, but only of what sort they  are, still perform a great service : they show us the  things which in the world consist of these elements.  Therefore if the etymologist should postulate one  thousand original elements of words, about which an  interpretation is not to be asked of him, and show the  nature of the rest, about which he does not make the  postulation, c the number of words which he would  explain would still be enormous.   40. Since I have given a sufficient reminder of the  number of existing words, I shall speak briefly about  their obscurity. Of the words which also indicate  time the most difficult feature is their radicals, for the  reason that these have in general no communion with  the Greek language, and those to whose birth a our  memory reaches are not native Latin ; yet of these,  as I have said, 6 we shall say what we can.   VI. 41. I shall start first from the word ago ' I  drive, effect, do.' Actio ' action ' is made from agitatus  1 motion.' a From this we say " The tragic actor agit  ' makes ' a gesture," and " The chariot-team agitantur  ' is driven ' " ; from this, " The flock agitur ' is driven '  to pasture." Where it is hardly possible for anything  agi ' to be driven,' from this it is called an angiportum 6  1 alley ' ; where nothing can agi ' be driven,' from this  it is an angulus ' corner,' or else because in it is a very  narrow (angustus) place to which this corner belongs.   42. There are three actiones ' actions,' and of these   § 41. All these words are derivatives of agere, except  angiportum and angulus ; but actio does not develop by loss  of the »' in agitatus. b Cf. v. 145.   211     VARRO     primum ea quae sumus acturi cogitare debemus,  deinde turn dicere et facere. De his tribus minime  putat volgus esse actionem cogitationem ; tertium, in  quo quid facimus, id maximum. Sed et cum cogi-  tamus 1 quid et earn rem ogitamus 2 in mente, agimus,  et cum pronuntiamus, agimus. Itaque ab eo orator  agere dicitur causam et augures augurium agere  dicuntur, quom in eo plura dicant quam faciant.   43. Cogitare a cogendo dictum : mens plura in  unum cogit, unde eligere 1 possit. Sic e lacte coacto  caseus nominatus ; sic ex hominibus contio dicta, sic  coemptio, sic compitum nominatum. A cogitatione  concilium, inde consilium ; quod ut vestimentum  apud fullonem cum cogitur, conciliari 2 dictum.   44. Sic reminisci, cum ea quae tenuit mens ac  memoria, cogitando repetuntur. Hinc etiam com-  minisci dictum, a con et mente, cum finguntur in  mente quae non sunt ; et ab hoc illud quod dicitur  eminisci, 1 cum commentum pronuntiatur. Ab eadem   § 42. 1 Sciop., for hos agitamus Fv. 2 L. Sp., for  cogitamus.   § 43. 1 a, p, RhoL, for elicere. 2 Aug., for consiliari.  § 44. 1 Heusinger, for reminisci.   § 42. a Page 16 Regell.   § 43. a Here Varro gives a parenthetic list of words with  the prefix co- or com- ; though he is wrong in including  caseus. b Cogitatio, concilium, consilium have nothing in  common except the prefix.   212     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 42-44     the first is the agitatus ' motion ' of the mind, because  we must first cogitare ' consider ' those things which  we are acturi ' going to do,' and then thereafter say  them and do them. Of these three, the common folk  practically never thinks that cogitatio ' consideration '  is an action ; but it thinks that the third, in which we  do something, is the most important. But also when  we cogitamus ' consider ' something and agitamus  ' turn it over ' in mind, we agimus ' are acting,' and  when we make an utterance, we agimus ' are acting.'  Therefore from this the orator is said agere ' to plead '  the case, and the augurs are said a agere ' to practice '  augury, although in it there is more saying than  doing.   43. Cogitare ' to consider ' is said from cogere ' to  bring together ' : the mind cogit ' brings together '  several things into one place, from which it can  choose. Thus a from milk that is coactum ' pressed,'  caseus ' cheese ' was named ; thus from men brought  together was the contio ' mass meeting ' called, thus  coemptio ' marriage by mutual sale,' thus compitum  ' cross-roads.' From cogitatio ' consideration ' came  concilium ' council,' and from that came consilium  ' counsel ' ; 6 and the concilium is said conciliari ' to be  brought into unity ' like a garment when it cogitur ' is  pressed ' at the cleaner's.   44. Thus reminisci ' to recall,' when those things  which have been held by mind and memory are fetched  back again by considering (cogitando). From this also  comminisci ' to fabricate a story ' is said, from con ' to-  gether ' and mens ' mind,' when things which are not,  are devised in the mind ; and from that comes the  word eminisci ' to use the imagination,' when the  commentum ' fabrication ' is uttered. From the same     213     VARRO     mente meminisse dictum et amens, qui a mente sua  cU'scedit. 2   45. Hinc etiam metus 1 (a) mente quodam modo  mota, 2 ut 3 metuisti (te> 4 amovisti ; sic, quod frigidus  timor, tremuisti timuisti. Tremo dictum a simili-  tudine vocis, quae tunc cum valde tremunt apparet,  cum etiam in corpore pili, ut arista in spica ^ordei,  horrent.   46. Curare a cura dictum. Cura, quod cor urat ;  curiosus, quod hac praeter modum utitur. Recor-  dan, 1 rursus in cor revocare. Curiae, ubi senatus  rempublicam curat, et ilia ubi cura sacrorum publica ;  ab his curiones.   47. Volo a voluntate dictum et a volatu, quod  animus ita est, ut puncto temporis pervolet quo volt.  Lwbere 1 ab labendo dictum, quod lubrica mens ac  prolabitur, ut dicebant olim. Ab lubendo libido,  libidinosus ac Venus Libentina et Libitina, sic alia.   2 Aug., for descendit.   § 45. 1 GS., for metuo. 2 Canal, for mentem quodam  modo motam. 3 L. Sp., for uel. 4 Added by Kent,  after Fay.   § 46. 1 Aug., with B, for recordare.   § 47. 1 L. Sp., for libere.     § 45. ° According to Mueller, the sequence of the topics  indicates that this section and § 49 have been interchanged in  the manuscripts. All etymologies in this section are wrong.   § 46. ° Three etymologically distinct sets of words are  here united : cura, curare, curiosus ; cor, recordari ; curia,  curio.   § 47. ° Volo ' I wish ' is distinct from volo 1 I fly.'  6 Ijubet, later libet, is distinct from labi and from lubricus.  e Either as a euphemism, or from the fact that the funeral  apparatus was kept in the storerooms of the Temple of Venus,  which caused the epithet to acquire a new meaning.   214     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 44-47     word mens ' mind ' come meminisse ' to remember '  and amens ' mad,' said of one who has departed a  mente ' from his mind.'   45. ° From this moreover metus ' fear,' from the  mens ' mind ' somehow mota ' moved,' as metuisti ' you  feared,' equal to te amouisti ' you removed yourself.'  So, because timor ' fear ' is cold, tremuisti ' you  shivered ' is equal to timuisti ' you feared.' Tremo ' I  shiver ' is said from the similarity to the behaviour of  the voice, which is evident then when people shiver  very much, when even the hairs on the body bristle  up like the beard on an ear of barley.   46. " Curare ' to care for, look after ' is said from  cur a ' care, attention.' Cura, because it cor urat ' burns  the heart ' ; curiosus ' inquisitive,' because such a  person indulges in cura beyond the proper measure.  Recordari ' to recall to mind,' is revocare ' to call  back ' again into the cor ' heart.' The curiae ' halls,'  where the senate curat ' looks after ' the interests of  the state, and also there where there is the cura ' care '  of the state sacrifices ; from these, the curiones ' priests  of the curiae.'   47. Volo ' I wish ' is said from voluntas ' free-will '  and from volatus ' flight,' because the spirit is such  that in an instant it pervolat ' flies through ' to any  place whither it volt ' wishes.' a Lubere 6 'to be  pleasing ' is said from labi ' to slip,' because the mind  is lubrica ' slippery ' and prolabitur ' slips forward,' as of  old they used to say. From lubere 1 to be pleasing '  come libido ' lust,' libidinosus ' lustful,' and Venus  Libentina ' goddess of sensual pleasure ' and Libitina c  ' goddess of the funeral equipment,' so also other  words.     215     VARRO   48. Metuere a quodam motu animi, cum id quod  malum casurum putat refugit mens. Cum vehe-  mentius in movendo ut ab se abeat foras fertur,  formido ; cum (parum movetur) 1 pavet, et ab eo  pavor.   49. Meminisse a memoria, cum (in) id quod  remansit in mente 1 rursus movetur ; quae a manendo 2  ut manimoria 3 potest esse dicta. Itaque Salii quod  cantant :   Mamuri Vetwn', 4  significant memoriam veterem. 5 Ab eodem monere, 6  quod is qui monet, proinde sit ac memoria ; sic  monimenta quae in sepulcris, et ideo secundum viam,  quo praetereuntis admoneant 7 et se fuisse et illos  esse mortalis. Ab eo cetera quae scripta ac facta  memoriae causa monimenta dieta.   50. Maerere a marcere, quod etiam corpus mar-  cescere(t) 1 ; hinc etiam macri dicti. Laetari ab eo   § 48. 1 Added by L. Sp.   § 49. 1 A. Sp., for id quod remansit in mente in id  quod/ the omission, with Sciop. 2 Rhol., for manando.  3 Other codices, for maniomoria Fv. 4 Turnebus, for  memurii ueterum or ueteri. 5 Maurenbrecher ; veterem  memoriam Aug., with B ; where, according to Victorius, F  had memoriam followed by an illegible word. 6 For mo-  nerem. 7 For admoueant Fv, admoneat B.   § 50. 1 L. Sp.,for marcescere.   § 48. All etymologies in the section are wrong.   § 49. See note on § 45. Meminisse, mens, monere,  monimentum (or monumentum) are from the same root ;  memoria is perhaps remotely connected with them ; but  manere is to be kept apart. 6 Frag. 8, page 339 Mauren-  brecher; page 4 Morel. c The traditional smith who made  the best of the duplicate ancilia (see vi. 22, note d), and at his  request was rewarded by the insertion of his name in the  Hymns of the Salii (Festus, 131. 11 M.). But Varro seems  216     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 48-50     48. ° Metuere ' to fear,' from a certain motus  ' emotion ' of the spirit, when the mind shrinks back  from that misfortune which it thinks will fall upon it.  When from excessive violence of the emotion it is  borne foras ' forth ' so as to go out of itself, there is  formido ' terror ' ; when parum movetur ' the emotion  is not very strong,' it pavet ' dreads,' and from this  comes pavor ' dread.'   49. ° Meminisse ' to remember,' from memoria  ' memory,' when there is again a motion toward that  which remansit 1 has remained ' in the mens ' mind ' :  and this may have been said from manere ' to remain,'  as though manimoria. Therefore the Salii, 6 when  they sing   O Mamurius Veturius,'   indicate a memoria vetus ' memory of olden times.'  From the same is monere ' to remind,' because he who  monet ' reminds,' is just like a memory. So also the  monimenta ' memorials ' which are on tombs, and in  fact alongside the highway, that they may admonere  ' admonish ' the passers-by that they themselves were  mortal and that the readers are too. From this, the  other things that are written and done to preserve  their memoria ' memory ' are called monimenta ' monu-  ments.'   50. ° Maerere ' to grieve,' was named from marcere  ' to wither away,' because the body too would marces-  cere ' waste away ' ; from this moreover the inacri  ' lean ' were named. Laetari ' to be happy,' from this,   to feel an etymological connexion between Mamuri Veturi  and memoriam veterem.   § 50. All etymologies wrong, except the association of  laetari, laetitia, laeta.   217     VARRO     quod latius gaudium propter magni boni opinionem  diffusum. Itaque Iuventius ait :   Gaudia   Sua si omnes homines conferant unum in locum,  Tamen mea exsuperet laetitia.   Sic cum se habent, laeta.   VII. 51. Narro, cum alterum facio narum, 1 a  quo narratio, per quam cognoscimus rem gesta(m). 2  Quae pars agendi est ab dicendo 3 ac sunt aut con-  iuncta cum temporibus aut ab his : eorum 4 hoc genus  videntur ervfia.   52. Fatur is qui primum homo significabilem ore  mittit vocem. Ab eo, ante quam ita faciant, pueri  dicuntur infantes ; cum id faciunt, iam fari ; cum hoc  vocabulum, 1 (turn) a similitudine vocis pueri (fario-  lus) ac fatuus dictum. 2 Ab hoc tempora 3 quod turn  pueris constituant Parcae fando, dictum fatum et res  fatales. Ab hac eadem voce 4 qui facile fantur facundi  dicti, et qui futura praedivinando soleant fari fatidici ;  dicti idem vaticinari, quod vesana mente faciunt :   §51. 1 Victorius, for narrum. 2 For gesta Fv. 3 L.  Sp. ; a dicendo Ursinus ; for ab adiacendo Fv. * Aug.,  for earum.   § 52. 1 Aug., for uocabulorum. 2 OS., for a simili-  tudine uocis pueri ac fatuus fari id dictum. 3 Popma, for  tempore. 4 Canal, for ad haec eandem uocem.     6 Com. Rom. Frag., verses 2-4 Ribbeck 3 . Juventius was a  writer of comedies from the Greek, in the second century b.c.   § 51. ° Varro wrote naro, with one R, according to Cas-  siodorus, vii. 159. 8 Keil ; the etymology is correct. 6 Cf.  vi. 42.   § 52. ° The etymologies in this section are correct, except  those of fariolus and vaticinari. 6 Dialectal form, prob-   218     OX THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 50-52     that joy is spread latius 'more widely' because of the  idea that it is a great blessing. Therefore Juventius  says 6 :   Should all men bring their joys into a single spot,  My happiness would yet surpass the total lot.   When things are of this nature, they are said to be  laeta ' happy.'   VII. 51. Narro a 'I narrate,' when I make a  second person narus ' acquainted with ' something ;  from which comes narratio ' narration,' by which we  make acquaintance with an occurrence. This part of  acting is in the section of saying, 6 and the words are  united with time-ideas or are from them : those of  this sort seem to be radicals.   52.° That man fatur ' speaks ' who first emits from  his mouth an utterance which may convey a meaning.  From this, before they can do so, children are called  infantes ' non-speakers, infants ' ; when they do this,  they are said now fan ' to speak ' ; not only this word,  but also, from likeness to the utterance of a child,  fariolus 6 ' soothsayer ' and fatuus ' prophetic speaker '  are said. From the fact that the Birth-Goddesses by  fando ' speaking ' then set the life-periods for the  children, fatum ' fate ' is named, and the things that  are fatales ' fateful.' From this same word, those who  fantur ' speak ' easily are called facundi ' eloquent,'  and those who are accustomed fari ' to speak ' the  future through presentiment, are called fatidici  ' sayers of the fates ' ; they likewise are said vaticinari  ' to prophesy,' because they do this with frenzied   ably Faliscan, for hariolus, which is connected with haruspex.  * As though fati- ; but properly from the stems of rates  ' bard ' and canere ' to sing.'   219     VARRO     sed de hoc post erit usurpandum, cum de poetis  dicemus.   53. Hinc fasti dies, quibus verba certa legitima  sine piaculo praetoribus licet fari ; ab hoc nefasti,  quibus diebus ea fari ius non est et, si fati sunt, pia-  culum faciunt. Hinc efFata dicuntur, qui augures  finem auspiciorum caelcstum extra urbem agri(s) 1  sunt effati ut esset ; hinc effari templa dicuntur : ab  auguribus efFantur qui in his fines sunt.   54. Hinc fana nominata, quod 1 pontifices in sac-  rando fati sint finem ; hinc profanum, quod est ante  fanum coniunctum fano ; hinc profanatum quid in  sacrificio aique 2 Herculi decuma appellata ab eo est  quod sacrificio quodam fanatur, id est ut fani lege^it. 3  Id dicitur pollu(c)tum, 4 quod a porriciendo est fictum:  cum enim ex mercibus libamenta porrecta 5 sunt  Herculi in aram, turn pollu(c)tum 4 est, ut cum pro-  fan(at)um 6 dicitur, id est proinde ut sit fani factum :  itaque ibi 7 olim (in) 8 fano consumebatur omne quod   § 53. 1 Laetus, for agri.   § 54. 1 Laetus, for quae. 2 M, V, Laetus, for ad quae  Fv. 3 Canal, for sit. 4 Aug. {quoting a friend), for  pollutum. 5 Aug., with B, for proiecta. 6 Turnebus,  for profanum. 7 Vertranius, for ubi. 8 Added by  Vertranius.   d Cf. vii. 36.   § 53. ° Fastus and nefastus, from fas and nefas ; but  whether fas and nefas are from the root of fari, is question-  able. 6 Cf. vi. 29-30. c Page 19 Regell. d Effari is  used both with active and with passive meaning.   § 54. Fanum (whence adj. profanus), from fas, not from  fari. b Profanus was used also of persons who remained  ' before the sanctuary ' because they were not entitled to go  inside, or because admission was refused ; therefore ' un-  initiated ' or ' unholy,' respectively. " Wrong etymology.  d Any edibles or drinkables were appropriate offerings to  220     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 52-54     mind : but this will have to be taken up later, when  we speak about the poets. d   53. From this the dies fasti a ' righteous days,  court days,' on which the praetors are permitted fori  ' to speak ' without sin certain words of legal force ;  from this the nefasti ' unrighteous days,' on which it is  not right for them to speak them, and if they have  spoken these words, they must make atonement. 6  From this those words are called effata ' pronounced,'  by which the augurs c have effati ' pronounced ' the  limit that the fields outside the city are to have, for  the observance of signs in the sky ; from this, the  areas of observation are said effari d ' to be pro-  nounced ' ; by the augurs, 6 the boundaries effantur  ' are pronounced ' which are attached to them.   54. From this the f ana ° ' sanctuaries ' are named,  because the pontiffs in consecrating them have fati  ' spoken ' their boundary ; from this, profanum ' being  before the sanctuary,' b which applies to something  that is in front of the sanctuary and joined to it ; from  this, anything in the sacrifice, and especially Hercules 's  tithe, is called prqfanatum ' brought before the sanc-»  tuary, dedicated,' from this fact that it fanatur ' is  consecrated ' by some sacrifice, that is, that it becomes  by law the property of the sanctuary. This is called  polluctum ' offered up,' a term which is shaped c from  porricere ' to lay before ' : for when from articles of  commerce first fruits d are laid before Hercules, on his  altar, then there is a polluctum ' offering-up,' just as,  when prqfanatum is said, it is as if the thing had be-  come the sanctuary's property. So formerly all that  was profanatum e ' dedicated ' used to be consumed in   Hercules ; cf. Festus, 253 a 17-21 M. ' That is, so far as  it was not burned on the altar, in the god's honour.   221     VARRO     profan(at)um 8 erat, ut etiam (nunc) 10 fit quod praetor  urb(an)ws u quotannis facit, cum Herculi immolat  publice iuvencam.   55. Ab eodem verbo fari fabulae, ut tragoediae et  comoediae, 1 dictae. Hinc fassi ac confessi, qui fati id  quod ab is 2 quaesitum. Hinc professi ; hinc fama et  famosi. Ab eodem falli, sed et falsum et fallacia,  quae propterea, quod fando quern decipit ac contra  quam dixit facit. Itaque si quis re fallit, in hoc non  proprio nomine fallacia, sed tralati(ci)o, 3 ut a pede  nostro pes lecti ac betae. Hinc etiam famigerabile 4  et sic compositicia 5 aha item ut declinata multa, in  quo et Fatuus et Fatuae. 6   56. Loqui ab loco dictum. 1 Quod qui primo  dicitur iam fari 2 vocabula et reliqua verba dicit ante  quam suo quique 3 loco ea dicere potest, 1 hunc CArys-  ippus negat loqui, sed ut loqui : quare ut imago  hominis non sit homo, sic in corvis, cornicibus, pueris  primitus incipientibus fari verba non esse verba, quod   8 L. Sp., for profanum. 10 Added by L. Sp. 11 Aug.,  with B, for P. R. urbis Fv.   % 55. 1 For tragaediae et comaediae. 2 For his.  3 A. Sp. ; tralatitio Sciop. ; for tranlatio. 4 M, V, p,  Aldus, for famiger fabile Fv. 5 A. Sp.,for composititia  Fv. « B, O, f, for fatue Fv.   § 56. 1 Punctuation by Stroux. 2 For farit Fv. 3 L.  Sp. ; quidque Aug. ; for quisque.     § 55. ° The preceding words all belong with fari ; but  falli, falsum, fallacia form a distinct group. 6 Instead of  by speaking. e That is, beet-root. d Faunus and the  Nymphs.   § 56. ° Wrong. 6 Page 143 von Arnim. " Ravens  222     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 54-56     the sanctuary, as even now is done "with that which  the City Praetor offers every year, when on behalf  of the state he sacrifices a heifer to Hercules.   55. From the same word fan ' to speak,' the  fabulae ' plays,' such as tragedies and comedies, were  named. From this word, those persons have fassi  ' admitted ' and confessi ' confessed,' who have fati  4 spoken ' that which was asked of them. From this,  professi ' openly declared ' ; from this, fama ' talk,  rumour,' and famosi ' much talked of, notorious.' a  From the same,/affi ' to be deceived,' but also falsum  ' false ' and fallacia ' deceit,' which are so named on  this account, that by fando ' speaking ' one misleads  someone and then does the opposite of what he has  said. Therefore if one fallit ' deceives ' by an act, 6 in  this there is not fallacia ' deceit ' in its own proper  meaning, but in a transferred sense, as from our pes  ' foot ' the pes ' foot ' of a bed and of a beet c are  spoken of. From this, moreover, famigerabile ' worth  being talked about,' and in this fashion other com-  pounded words, just as there are many derived -words,  among which are Fatuus ' god of prophetic speaking '  and the Fatuae ' women of prophecy.' d   56. Loqui 'to talk,' is said from locus 'place.'  Because he who is said to speak now for the first time,  utters the names and other words before he can say  them each in its own locus ' place,' such a person  Chrysippus says 6 does not loqui ' talk,' but quasi-  talks ; and that therefore, as a man's sculptured bust  is not the real man, so in the case of ravens, crows,"  and boys making their first attempts to speak, their  words are not real words, because they are not talk-   and crows were the chief speaking birds of the Romans ; cf.  Macrobius, Sat. ii. 4. 29-30.   223     VARRO     non loquantur. 4 Igitur is loquitur, qui suo loco quod-  que verbum sciens ponit, et is turn 5 prolocutus, 6 quom  in animo quod habuit extulit loquendo.   57. Hinc dicuntur eloqui ac reloqui 1 in fanis  Sabinis, e cella dei qui loquuntur. 2 Hinc dictus  loquax, qui nimium loqueretur ; hinc eloquens, qui  copiose loquitur ; hinc colloquium, cum veniunt in  unum locum loquendi causa ; hinc adlocutum mulieres  ire aiunt, cum eunt ad aliquam locutum consolandi 3  causa ; hinc quidam loquelam dixerunt verbum quod  in loquendo efferimus. Concinne loqui dictum a  concinere, 4 ubi inter se conveniunt partes ita  3  novissimum, quod extremum. Sic ab eadem origine  novitas et novicius et novalis in agro et " sub No vis "  dicta pars in Foro aedificiorum, quod vocabulum ei  pervetustww, 4 ut Novae Viae, quae via iam diu vetus.   60. Ab eo quoque potest dictum nominare, quod  res novae in usum quom 1 additae erant, quibus ea(s) 2  novissent, nomina ponebant. Ab eo nuncupare, quod  tunc (pro) 3 civitate vota nova suscipiuntur. Nuncu-  pare nominare valere apparet in legibus, ubi " nun-  cupatae pecuniae " sunt scriptae ; item in Choro in  quo est :   Aenea ! — Quis  4 est qui meum nomen nuncupat ?   § 59. 1 Aug., from Gellius, x. 21. 2, for dico. 2 Ben-  tinus, from Gellius, I.e., for uetustus ac ueterrimus.  3 Added by Aug., from Gellius, I.e. 4 B, Laetus, for  peruetustas.   § 60. 1 Aug. (quoting a friend), for quomodo. 2 Ver-  tranius,for ea. 3 Added by L. Sp. 4 Added by Grotius.     e Naples ; Nova-polis is a half-way translation into Latin.   § 59. ° Page 57 Funaioli. * The Tabernae Novae were  the shops on the north side of the Forum which replaced  those burned in the fire of 210 b.c. ; those on the south side,  which escaped the fire, were called the Tabernae Veteres.   § 60. ° Nomen and nominare are distinct from novus, and  226     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 58-60     derived from a Greek word ; from this, accordingly,  their Neapolis e ' New City ' was called Nova-polis  ' New-polis ' by the old-time Romans.   59. From this, moreover, novissimum ' newest ' also  began to be used popularly for extremum ' last,' a use  which within my memory both Aelius and some  elderly men avoided, on the ground that the proper  form of the superlative of this word was nimium novum ;  its origin is just like vetustius ' older ' and veterrimum  ' oldest ' from vetus ' old,' thus from novum were derived  novius ' newer ' and novissimum, which means ' last.'  So, from the same origin, novitas ' newness ' and novi-  cius ' novice ' and novalis ' ploughed anew ' in the case  of a field, and a part of the buildings in the Forum was  called sub Xovis 6 ' by the New Shops ' ; though it has  had the name for a very long time, as has the Nova Via   New Street,' which has been an old street this long  while.   60. From this can be said also nominare ' to call  by name,' because when novae ' new ' things were  brought into use, they set nomina ' names ' on them,  by which they novissent ' might know ' them. From  this, nuncupate* ' to pronounce vows publicly,' because  then nova ' new ' vows are undertaken for the state.  That nuncupare is the same as nominare, is evident in  the laws, where sums of money are written down as  nuncupatae ' bequeathed by name ' ; likewise in the  Chorus, in which there is c :   Aeneas ! — Who is this who calls me by my name ?   also from novisse ' to know.' * Containing the elements of  nomen and capere ' to take.' e Trag. Rom. Frag., page  272 Ribbeck 3 ; R O.L. ii. 608-609 Warmington ; possibly  belonging to a play entitled Proserpina, cf. vi. 9-1. But  the title is perhaps hopelessly corrupt.   227     VARRO     Item in Medo 5 :   Quis tu es, mulier, quae me insueto nuncupasti nomine ?   61. Dico originem habet Graecam, quod Graeci  SeiKvvw. 1 Hinc (etiam dicare, ut ait) 8 Ennius :   Dico VI hunc dicare (circum metulas). 3   Hinc iudicare, quod tunc ius dicatur ; hinc iudex,  quod iu(s> dicat 4 accepta potestate ; (hinc dedicat), 5  id est quibusdam verbis dicendo finit : sic 6 enim aedis  sacra a magistratu pontifice prae(e)unte 7 dicendo  dedicatur. Hinc, ab dicendo, 8 indicium ; hinc ilia :  indicit (b)ellum, 9 indixit funus, prodixit diem, addixit  iudicium ; hinc appellatum dictum in mimo, 10 ac  dictiosus ; hinc in manipulis castrensibus (dicta 11  ab) 13 ducibus ; hinc dictata in ludo ; hinc dictator  magister populi, quod is a consule debet dici ; hinc  antiqua ilia (ad)dici 13 numo et dicis causa et addictus.   6 Aldus, for medio.   §61. 1 L. Sp. ; SeiKvvvai Mue. ; SeiKco Scaliger ; for  NISIhce Fv. 2 Added by Kent. 3 Fay, for qui hunc  dicare; cf Festus, 153 a 15-21 M., and Livy, xli. 27. 6.  4 Aug., with B,for iudicat. b Added by Stroux. 8 With  sic enim, F resumes ; cf. v. 118, crit. note 7. 7 Bcntinus  (or earlier) ; praeunte /, Laetus ; for prae unce F. 8 L.  Sp.,for dicando. 9 Turnebus, for ilium. 10 B, Aldus,  for minimo. 11 Added by Aug., with B. 18 Added by  Kent ; a added by Fay. 13 Budaeus, for dici.     d Pacuvius, Trag. Rom. Frag. 239 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 260-  261 Warmington ; the play was named from one of Medea's  sons.   §61. ° All the words explained in this section belong  together ; but dicere is cognate with the Greek word, not  derived from it. 6 Inc. frag. 39 Vahlen 2 ; see critical note.  c Rather, because he dictat ' gives orders ' to the people.  d Numo in the text is the older spelling, in which consonants  were never doubled. * Applied to the fictitious sale of an   228     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 60-61     And likewise in the Medus d :   Who are you, woman, who have called me by an  unaccustomed name ?   61. Dico ° ' I say ' has a Greek origin, that which  the Greeks call BeiKvi'm ' I show.' From this more-  over comes dicare ' to show, dedicate,' as Ennius  says b :   I say this circus shows six little turning-posts.  From this, iudicare ' to judge,' because then ius ' right '  dicitur ' is spoken ' ; from this, index ' judge,' because  he ius dicat ' speaks the decision ' after receiving the  power to do so ; from this, dedicat ' he dedicates,' that  is, he finishes the matter by dicendo ' saying ' certain  fixed words : for thus a temple of a god dedicatur ' is  dedicated ' by the magistrate, by dicendo ' saying ' the  formulas after the pontiff. From this, that is from  dicere, comes indicium ' information ' ; from this, the  following : indicit ' he declares ' war, indixit ' he has  invited to ' a funeral, prodixit ' he has postponed ' the  day, addixit ' he has awarded ' the decision ; from this  was named a dictum ' bon mot ' in a farce, and dic-  tiosus ' witty person ' ; from this, in the companies of  soldiers in camp, the dicta ' orders ' of the leaders ;  from this, the dictata ' dictation exercises ' in the  school ; from this, the dictator c ' dictator,' as master  of the people, because he must did ' be appointed ' by  the consul ; from this, those old phrases addict nummo d  ' to be made over to somebody for a shilling,' e and  dicis causa ' for the sake of judicial form,' and addictus  " bound over f ' to somebody.   inheritance to the heir. ' Said of a defendant who was  unable to pay the amount of debt or damages, and was de-  livered to the custody of the plaintiff as a virtual slave until  he could arrange payment.   229     VARRO     62. Si dico quid (sciens 1 ne)scienti, 2 quod ei 3  quod ignoravit trado, hinc doceo declinatum vel quod  cum docemus 4 dicimus vel quod qui docentur induczm-  tur 5 in id quod docentur. Ab eo quod scit ducere 6 qui  est dux aut ductor ; (hinc 7 doctor) 8 qui ita inducit, ut  doceat. Ab dwcendo 9 docere disciplina discere litteris  commutatis paucis. Ab eodcm principio documenta,  quae exempla docendi causa dicuntur.   63. Disputatio ct computatio e 1 propositione  putandi, quod valet purum facere ; ideo antiqui  purum putum appellarunt ; ideo putator, quod  arbores puras facit ; ideo ratio putari dicitur, in qua  summa fit pura : sic is sermo in quo pure disponuntur  verba, ne sit confusus atque ut diluceat, dicitur dis-  putare.   64. Quod dicimus disserit item translati(ci)o 1  aeque 2 ex agris verbo : nam ut //olitor disserit in areas  sui cuiusque generis res, sic in oratione qui facit,  disertus. Sermo, opinor, est a serie, unde serta ;  ctiam in vestimento sartum, quod comprehensum :   § 62. 1 Added by L. Sp. 2 Scaliger, for scienti.  3 Sciop., for det. 4 After docemus, Laetus deleted ut.   6 Reiter, for inducantur. 6 M, Laetus, for ducare.   7 Added by GS. 8 Added by L. Sp. 9 Fay, for docendo.   § 63. 1 L. Sp., for et.   §64. 1 A. Sp. ; translatitio Aug.; for translatio.  2 Aug., for atque.   § 62. ° Docere is quite independent of dicere, and also  of ducere. b Disciplina was popularly associated with  discere, but was really a derivative of discipulus, which came  from dis + capere 1 to take apart (for examination).'   § 64. ° There are in Latin two verbs sero serere, distinct in  etymology : serere sevi satus 4 to sow, plant,' and serere serui  sertus ' to join together, intertwine.' The derivatives in this  section are all from the second verb, except sartum, the  participle of sarcio, which is distinct from both.   230     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 62-64     62. If I dico ' say ' something that I know to one  who does not know it, because I trado ' hand over ' to  him what he was ignorant of, from this is derived  doceo a ' I teach,' or else because when we docemus  ' teach ' we dicivius ' say,' or else because those who  docentur ' are taught ' inducuntur ' are led on ' to that  which they docentur ' are taught.' From this fact,  that he knows how ducere ' to lead,' is named the one  who is dux ' guide ' or ductor ' leader ' ; from this,  doctor ' teacher,' who so inducit ' leads on ' that he  docet ' teaches.' From ducere ' to lead,' come docere  ' to teach,' disciplina b ' instruction,' discere ' to learn,'  by the change of a few letters. From the same  original element comes documenta ' instructive ex-  amples,' which are said as models for the purpose of  teaching.   63. Disputatio ' discussion ' and coniputatio ' reckon-  ing,' from the general idea of putare, which means to  make purum ' clean ' ; for the ancients used putum to  mean purum. Therefore putator ' trimmer', because  he makes trees clean ; therefore a business account is  said putari ' to be adjusted,' in which the sum is pura  ' net.' So also that discourse in which the words are  arranged pure ' neatly,' that it may not be confused  and that it may be transparent of meaning, is said  disputare ' to discuss ' a problem or question.   64. Our word disserit a is used in a figurative mean-  ing as well as in relation to the fields : for as the  kitchen-gardener disserit ' distributes ' the things of  each kind upon his garden plots, so he who does the  like in speaking is disertus ' skilful.' Sermo ' conversa-  tion,' I think, is from series ' succession,' whence serta  ' garlands ' ; and moreover in the case of a garment  sartum ' patched,' because it is held together : for   231     VARRO   sermo enim non potest in uno homine esse solo, sed  ubi (o)ratio 3 cum altero coniuncta. Sic conserere  manu(m) 4 dicimur cum hoste ; sic ex iure manu(m) 5  consertum vocare ; hinc adserere manu 6 in libertatem  cum prendimus. Sic augures dicunt :   Si mihi auctor es 7 verbenam 6 manu 9 asserere,  dicit(o> 10 consortes.   65. Hinc etiam, a quo 1 ipsi consortes, sors ; hinc  etiam sortes, quod in his iuncta tempora cum homini-  bus ac rebus ; ab his sortilegi ; ab hoc pecunia quae  in faenore sors est, impendium quod inter se iung^t. 2   66. Legere dictum, quod leguntur ab oculis  litterae ; ideo etiam legati, quod (ut) 1 publice mit-  tantur leguntur. Item ab legendo leguli, qui oleam  aut qui uvas legunt ; hinc legumina in frugibus variis ;  etiam leges, quae lectae et ad populum latae quas  observet. Hinc legitima et collegae, qui una lecti, et  qui in eorum locum suppositi, sublecti ; additi allecti  et collecta, quae ex pluribus locis in unum lecta. Ab   3 Aug., for ratio. 4 Other codd.,for manu F. 5 Sciop.,  for manu ; cf. Gellius, xx. 10. 6 p, Aug., for manum.  7 Aug., for est. 8 Bergk, for verbi nam. 9 Aug., for  manum. 10 A. Sp.,for dicit.   §65. 1 L. Sp., for ad qui. 2 Groth, for iungat.   § 66. 1 Added by B, Aldus.   b Genitive plural. e Page 18 Regell.   § 65. ° These words belong to serere, but Varro's reason  for the meaning of sors may not be correct. 6 To Varro,  the fundamental meaning in sors is one of ' joining ' : cf.  v. 183.   § 66. ° All words discussed in this section are from various  forms of the root seen in legere, which means ' to gather, pick,  select, choose, read ' ; except legumen. * Properly parti-  ciple of legare ' to appoint,' a derivative of legere. e More  exactly, legumina are, according to Varro, fruits of various  kinds that have to be picked (rather than cut, like cabbage,   232     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 64-66     sermo ' conversation ' cannot be where one man is  alone, but where his speech is joined with another's.  So we are said conserere manum ' to join hand-to-hand  fight ' with an enemy ; so to call for vianum 6 consertum  ' a laying on of hands' according to law ; from this,  adserere manu in libertatem ' to claim that so-and-so is  free,' when we lay hold of him. So the augurs say c :   If you authorize me to take in my hand the sacred  "bough, then name my colleagues (consortes).   65. From this, moreover, sors a ' lot,' from which  the consortes ' colleagues ' themselves are named ;  from this, further, sortes ' lots,' because in them time-  ideas are joined with men and things ; from these,  the sortilegi ' lot-pickers, fortune-tellers ' ; from this,  the money which is at interest is the sors 1 principal,'  because it joins 6 one expense to another.   66. ° Legere ' to pick or read,' because the letters  leguntur ' are picked ' with the eyes ; therefore also  legati 6 ' envoys,' because they leguntur ' are chosen '  to be sent on behalf of the state. Likewise, from  legere ' to pick,' the leguli ' pickers,' who legunt ' gather '  the olives or the grapes ; from this, the legumina e  ' beans ' of various kinds ; moreover, the leges ' laws,'  which are lectae ' chosen ' and brought before the  people for them to observe. From this, legitima ' law-  ful things ' ; and collegae ' colleagues,' who have been  lecti ' chosen ' together, and those who have been put  into their places, are sublecti ' substitutes ' ; those  added are allecti ' chosen in addition,' and things which  have been lecta ' gathered ' from several places into  one, are collecta ' collected.' From legere ' to gather '   or mowed, like wheat) ; but the resemblance to legere seems  to be only accidental.   233     VARRO     legendo ligna quoque, quod ea caduca legebantur in  agro quibus in focum uterentur. Indidem ab legendo  legio et diligens et dilectus.   67. Murmuran' 1 a similitudiae sonitus dictus, qui  ita leviter loquitur, ut magis e sono id faccre quam ut  intellegatur videatur. Hinc etiam poctae   Murmurantia litora.   Similiter fremere, gemere, clamare, crepare ab  similitudine vocis sonitus dicta. Hinc ilia  Arma sonant, fremor oritur ;   hinc   Nihil 2 me increpitando commoves.   68. Vicina horum quiritarc, iubilare. Quiritare  dicitur is qui Quiritum fidem clamans inplorat. Qui-  rites a Curensibus ; ab his cum Tatio rege in socie-  tatem venerunt civitatz's. 1 Ut quiritare urbanorum,  sic iubilare rusticorum : itaquc hos imitans Aprissius  ait :   Io bucco ! — Quis me iubilat ? —  Vicinns tuus antiquus.   Sic triumphare appellatum, quod cum imperatore   § 67. 1 L. Sp.,for murmuratur dictum. 2 For nichil.  § 68. 1 Sciop., for civitates.   d Better spelling, delectus.   § 67. ° Some, but not all, of the words discussed in this  section are onomatopoeic. b Lh-iter ' lightly.' e Trag.  Rom. Frag., page 314 Ribbeck 3 ; but the words look like  part of a dactylic hexameter, in which case it should read  Arma sonant, oritur fremor. d Trag. Rom. Frag., page  314 Ribbeck 3 .   § 68. a Frequentative of queri ' to complain,' and not  connected with Quirites. b Cures, ancient capital city  of the Sabines. c The name is corrupt, but no probable   234     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 66-68     comes also ligna ' firewood,' because the wood that  had fallen was gathered in the field, to be used on the  fireplace. From the same source, legere ' to gather,'  came legio ' legion,' and diligens ' careful,' and dilectus A  ' military levy.'   67. ° From likeness to the sound, he is said mur-  murari ' to murmur,' who speaks so softly b that he  seems more as the result of the sound to be doing  it, than to be doing it for the purpose of being  understood. From this, moreover, the poets say   Murmuring sea-shore.  Likewise, fremere ' to roar,' gemere ' to groan,'  clamare ' to shout,' crepare ' to rattle ' are said from  the likeness of the sound of the word to that which it  denotes. From this, that passage c :   Arms are resounding, a roar doth arise.  From this, also, d   By your rebuking you alarm me not.   68. Close to these are quiritare a ' to shriek,'  iubilare ' to call joyfully.' He is said quiritare, who  shouts and implores the protection of the Quirites.  The Quirites were named from the Curenses ' men of  Cures ' b ; from that place they came with King  Tatius to receive a share in the Roman state. As  quiritare is a word of city people, so iubilare is a word  of the countrymen ; thus in imitation of them Apris-  sius c says :   Oho, Fat-Face ! — Who is calling rne ? —  Your neighbour of long standing.   So triumpkare ' to triumph ' was said, because the   emendation has been suggested ; Com. Rom. Frag., page  332 Ribbeck 3 .     235     VARRO   milites redeuntes clamitant per Urbem in Capitolium  eunti " (I)o 2 triumphe " ; id a dpidfifiu) 3 ac Graeco  Liberi cognomento potest dictum.   69- Spondere est dicere spondee-, a sponte : nam id  (idem) 1 valet et a voluntate. Itaque Lucilius scribit  de Cretcea, 2 cum ad se cubitum venerit sua voluntate,  sponte ipsam suapte adductam, ut tunicam et cetera 3  reiceret. Eandem voluntatem Terentius significat,  cum ait satius esse   Sua sponte recte facere quam alieno metu.   Ab eadem sponte, a qua dictum spondere, declinatum  (de)spondet 4 et respondet et desponsor et sponsa,  item sic alia. Spondet enim qui dicit a sua sponte  " spondeo " ; (qui) spo(po)ndit, 5 est sponsor ; qui  (i)dem« (ut) 7 faciat obligatur sponsu, 8 consponsus.   70. Hoc Naevius significat cum ait " consponsi."  (Si) 1 spondebatur pecunia aut filia nuptiarum causa,   2 Laetus, for o. 3 Aldus, for triambo.   § 69. 1 Added by Fay. 2 For Gretea. 3 For ceterae.  4 GS, after Lachmann, for spondit. 8 L. Sp., for spondit.  6 B, Ed. Veneta, for quidem. 7 Added by Aug., with B.  8 L. Sp.,for sponsus.   § 70. 1 Added by Fay.   d From the Greek, through the Etruscan. e Ac, intro-  ducing an appositive.   § 69. ° Verses 925-927 Marx. Cretaea was a meretrix,  named from the country of her origin. Varro has para-  phrased the quotation, which was thus restored to metrical  form by Lachmann, the first two words being added by Marx :   Cretaea nuper, cum ad me cubitum venerat,  Sponte ipsa suapte adducta ut tunicam et cetera  Reiceret.     236     ON THE LATINS LANGUAGE, VI. 68-70     soldiers shout " Oho, triumph ! " as they come back  with the general through the City and he is going up  to the Capitol; this is perhaps derived** from dpiafifios,  as * a Greek surname of Liber.   69« Spondere is to say spondeo ' I solemnly promise,'  from sponte ' of one's own inclination ' : for this has  the same meaning as from voluntas ' personal desire.'  Therefore Lucilius writes of the Cretan woman, that  when she had come of her own desire to his house to  lie with him, she was of her own sponte ' inclination '  led to throw back her tunic and other garments. The  same voluntas ' personal desire ' is what Terence  means 6 when he says that it is better   Of one's own inclination right to do,  Than merely by the fear of other folk.   From the same sponte from which spondere is said, are  derived despondet ' he pledges ' and respondet ' he  promises in return, answers,' and desponsor ' promiser '  and sponsa ' promised brides' and likewise others in  the same fashion. For he spondet ' solemnly promises '  who says of his own sponte ' inclination ' spondeo ' I  promise ' ; he who spopondit ' has promised ' is a  sponsor ' surety ' ; he who is by sponsus ' formal  promise ' bound to do the same thing as the other  party, is a consponsus ' co-surety.'   70. This is what Naevius means" when he says  consponsi. If money 6 or a daughter spondebatur ' was  promised ' in connexion with a marriage, both the   While this might accord with the Lucilian prototype of  Horace, Sat. i. 5. 82-85, the meter forbids, and because of the  subject matter A. Spengel proposed Licinius, writer of  comedies, for Lucilius. b Adelphoe, 75.   §70. " Com. Rom. Frag., page 34 Ribbeck*; R.O.L.  ii. 598 Warmington. * As dower.   237     VARRO     appellabatur etpecunia et quae desponsa erat sponsa ;  quae pecunia inter se contra sponsu 2 rogata erat, dicta  sponsio ; cui desponsa quae 3 erat, sponsus ; quo die  sponsum erat, sponsalis.   71. Qui 1 spoponderat filiam, despondisse 2 dice-  bant, quod de sponte eius, id est de voluntate,  exierat : non enim si volebat, dabat, quod sponsu erat  alligatus : nam ut in com(o)ediis vides dici :   Sponde(n) 3 tuam gnatam 4 filio uxorem meo ?  Quod turn et praetorium ius ad legem et censorium  iudicium ad aequum existimabatur. Sic despondisse  animum quoque dicitur, ut despondisse filiam, quod  suae spontis statuerat finem.   72. A sua sponte dicere cum spondere, (respon-  dere) 1 quoque dixerunt, cum a(d) sponte(m) 2 re-  sponderent, id est ad voluntatem rogatoris. 3 Itaque  qui ad id quod rogatur non dicit, non respondet, ut  non spondet ille statim qui dixit spondeo, si iocandi   2 L. Sp., for sponsum. 3 Hue., for quo.   § 71. 1 G, B, Laetus, for quo. 2 B, Aldus, for dispon-  disse. 3 Aug. ; spondem Rhol. ; for sponde. 4 Rhol.,  for agnatam.   § 72. 1 Lachmann, for a qua sponte dicere cumspondere.  2 Turnebus, for a sponte. 3 L. Sp.,for rogationis.     c To be forfeited to the other party as damages by that party  which might break the agreement.   § 71. ° Com, Rom. Frag., page 134 Ribbeck 3 .   238     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 70-72     money and the girl who had been desponsa ' pledged '  were called sponsa ' promised, pledged * ; the money  which had been asked under the sponsus ' engagement '  for their mutual protection against the breaking of  the agreement,* was called a sponsio ' guarantee de-  posit ' ; the man to whom the money or the girl was  desponsa ' pledged,' was called sponsus ' betrothed ' ;  the day on which the engagement was made, was  called sponsalis ' betrothal day.'   71. He who spoponderat ' had promised ' his  daughter, they said, despondisse ' had promised her  away,' because she had gone out of the power of his  sponte ' inclination,' that is, from the control of his  voluntas ' desire ' : for even if he wished not to give  her, still he gave her, because he was bound by his  sponsus ' formal promise ' : for you see it said, as in  comedies a :   Do you now promise your daughter to my son as wife ?   This was at that time considered a principle estab-  lished by the praetors to supplement the statutes, and  a decision of the censors for the sake of fairness. So a  person is said despondisse animum ' to have promised  his spirit away, to have become despondent,' just as  he is said despondisse Jiliam ' to have promised his  daughter away,' because he had fixed an end of the  power of his sponte ' inclination.'   72. Since spondere was said from sua sponte dicere  ' to say of one's own inclination,' they said also re-  spondere ' to answer,' when they responderunt ' promised  in return ' to the other party's spontem ' inclination,'  that is, to the desire of the asker. Therefore he who  says " no " to that which is asked, does not respondere,  just as he does not spondere who has immediately said   239     VARRO   causa dixit, neque agi potest cum eo ex sponsu.  Itaqu(e) is 4 qu(o)i dicit(ur) 5 in co?«oedia 6 :   Meministin 7 te spondere 8 mihi gnatam 9 tuam ?   quod sine sponte sua dixit, cum eo non potest agi ex  sponsu.   73. Etiam spes a sponte potest esse declinata,  quod turn sperat cum quod 1 volt fieri putat : nam  quod non volt si putat, metuit, non sperat. Itaque  hi 2 quoque qui dicunt in Astraba Plauti :   Nwwc 3 sequere adseque, Polybadisce, meam spem   cupio consequi. —  Sequor hercle (e)quidem, 4 nam libenter mea(m)   sperata(m) 5 consequor :   quod sine sponte dicunt, vere neque ille sperat qui  dicit adolescens neque ilia (quae) 6 sperata est.   74. Sponsor et praes et vas neque ide/w, 1 neque  res a quibus hi, sed e re simili. 2 Itaque praes qui  a magistratu interrogatus, in publicum ut praestet ;  a quo et cum respondet, dicit " praes." Vas appel-   4 L. Sp., for itaquis. 5 Kent, for qui dicit F (d'r a = dici-  tur). 6 L. Sp.,for tragoedia. 7 Aug., for meministine.  8 Lachmann, metri gratia, for despondere. 9 Rhol., for  agnatam.   § 73. 1 Aug., for quod cum. 2 L. Sp., for hie. 3 L.  Sp., for ne. 4 L. Sp., for quidem. 6 Ritschl, for mea  sperata. 6 Added by Kent.   §74. 1 Laetus, for ideo. 2 Sciop., for simile.     § 72. Hanging nominative, resumed by cum eo after the  quotation. b Trag. Rom. Frag., page 305 Ribbeck 3 ; but  as the content indicates that it came from a comedy rather  than from a tragedy, I have accepted L. Spengel's emenda-  tion comoedia for the. manuscript tragoedia.   § 73. a Wrong. * Frag. I Ritschl. c A dseque, active  imperative form ; cf. Neue-Wagener, Formenlehre der lat.   240     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 72-74     spondeo, if he said it for a joke, nor can legal action  be taken against him as a result of such a sponsus  'promise.' Thus he" to whom someone says in a  comedy, 6   Do you recall you pledged your daughter unto me ?   which he had said without his sponte ' inclination,'  cannot be proceeded against under his sponsus.   73. Spes ' hope ' is perhaps also derived a from  sponte ' inclination,' because a person then sperat  ' hopes,' M'hen he thinks that what he wishes is coming  true ; for if he thinks that what he does not wish is  coming true, he fears, not hopes. Therefore these  also who speak in the Astraba of Plautus 6 :   Follow now closely,' Polybadiscus, I wish to overtake  my hope. —   Heavens I surely do : I'm glad to overtake her whom  I hope :   because they speak without sponte ' feeling of success,'  the youth who speaks does not truly ' hope,' nor does  the girl who is ' hoped for.' d   74. Sponsor and praes and vas are not the same  thing, nor are the matters identical from which these  terms come ; but they develop out of similar situa-  tions. Thus a praes is one who is asked by the  magistrate that he praestat 1 make a guarantee ' to  the state ; from which, also when he answers, he  says, " I am your praes." He was called a vas   Spr. 3 iii. 89. d Sperata, a regular term for the object of  a young man's love.   § 7i. " Varro apparently says that a sponsor is one who  undertakes an engagement toward an individual or indivi-  duals ; a praes is one who undertakes an engagement on his  own behalf, toward the state ; a vas is one who guarantees  another person's engagement toward the state.   VOL. I r 2-H     VARRO   latus, qui pro altero vadimonium promittebat. Con-  suetudo erat, cum re?/s 3 parum esset idoneus inceptis  rebus, ut pro se alium daret ; a quo caveri 4 postea lege  coeptum 5 est ab his, qui praedia venderent, vadem ne  darent ; ab eo ascribi coeptum 5 in lege mancipiorum:   Vadem ne poscerent nec dabitur.   75. Canere, 1 accanit et succanit ut canto et can-  tatio ex Camena permutato pro M N. 2 Ab eo quod  semel, canit, si saepius, cantat. Hinc cantitat, item  alia ; nec sine canendo (tubicines, liticines, corni-  cines), 3 tibicines dicti : omnium enim horum quo-  da^) 4 canere ; etiam bucinator a vocis similitudine  et cantu dictus.   76. Oro ab ore et perorat et exorat et oratio et  orator et osculum dictum. Indidem omen, orna-  mentum ; alterum quod ex ore primum elatum est,  osmen dictum ; alterum nunc cum propositione dici-  tur vulgo ornamentum, quod sicut olim ornamenta 1   3 For reos. 4 For cavari. 6 For caeptum.   §75. 1 For canerae. 2 Mue., for N.M. 8 Added  by L. Sp., after Mue. recognized the lacuna and its contents,  but set it after tibicines; cf v. 91. 4 Kent ; quoddam  Canal ; for quod a.   §76. 1 OS., for ornamentum.     §75. ° The words explained in this section belong to-  gether, except Camena, which stands apart. 6 Either  ' sing ' or ' play on an instrument.' c Usually in the  plural ; Italian goddesses of springs and waters, regularly  identified with the Greek Muses. d The insertion in the  text is rendered necessary by omnium horum ; cf. also critical  note. e Quodam, ablative with canere.   § 76. ° These words are from os, except omen, ornamen-  tum, oscines.   242     OX THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 74-76     ' bondsman ' who promised bond for another. It  was the custom, that when a part}' in a suit was not  considered capable of fulfilling his engagements, he  should give another as bondsman for him : from which  they later began to provide by law against those who  should sell their real estate, that they should not  offer themselves as bondsmen. From this, they began  to add the provision in the law about the transfer of  properties, that   " they should not demand a bondsman, nor will a  bondsman be given."   7o. a Canere 6 ' to sing,' accanit ' he sings to ' some-  thing, and succanit ' he sings a second part,' like canto  ' I sing ' and cantatio ' song,' from Camena c ' Muse,'  with N substituted for M. From the fact that a  person sings once, he canit : if he sings more often, he  cantat. From this, cantitat ' he sings repeatedly,' and  likewise other words ; nor without canere ' singing,  playing ' are the tubicines ' trumpeters,' named, and  the liticines ' cornetists,' cornicines ' horn-blowers,' d  iibicines ' pipes-players ' : for canere ' playing ' on  some special instrument * belongs to all these. The  bucinator ' trumpeter ' also was named from the like-  ness of the sound and the cantus ' playing.'   76. a Oro ' I beseech ' was so called from os  ' mouth,' and so were perorat ' he ends his speech ' and  exorat ' he gains by pleading,' and oratio ' speech ' and  orator ' speaker ' and osculum ' kiss.' From the same,  omen ' presage ' and ornamentum ' ornament ' : because  the former was first uttered from the os ' mouth,' it  was called osmen ; the latter is now commonly used  in the singular with the general idea of ornament,  but as formerly most of the play-actors use it in   24-3     VARRO     scoenici plerique dicunt. Hinc oscines dicuntur apud  augures, quae ore faciunt auspicium.   VIII. 77. Tertium gradum agcndi esse dicunt, ubi  quid faciant ; in eo propter similitudinem agendi et  faciendi et gerendi quidam error his qui putant esse  unum. Potest enim aliquid facere et non agere, ut  poeta facit fabulam et non agit, contra actor agit et  (non) 1 facit, et sic a poeta fabula fit, non agitur, ab  actore agitur, non fit. Contra imperator quod dicitur  res gerere, in eo neque facit neque agit, sed gerit, id  est sustinet, tralatum ab his qui onera 2 gerunt, quod  hi sustinent.   78. Proprio nomine dicitur facere a facie, qui rci  quam facit imponit faciem. Ut fictor cum dicit fingo,  figuram imponit, quom dicit formo, 1 formam, sic cum  dicit facio, faciem imponit ; a qua facie discernitur, ut  dici possit aliud esse vestimentum, aliud vas, sic item  quae fiunt apud fabros, fictores, item alios alia. Qui  quid 2 amministrat, cuius opus non extat quod sub   § 77. 1 Omitted in F. 2 G, H, for honera F.   § 78. 1 L. Sp„ for informo. 2 Aug., for quicquid.     6 Found only in the plural in the scenic poets, who used  it of ornaments for the head and face (os) ; it is a derivative  of ornare ' to adorn,' which comes from ordo ordinis.  c From prefix ops + can- ' sing ' : cf. o(p)s-tendere ' to show.'   § 77. Cf vi. 41-42. 6 The distinction is almost  impossible to imitate in translation, but the argument is good  so far as the examples in the text are concerned.   § 78. a Fades is from facere.  244     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 76-78     the plural. 6 From this, oscines c ' singing birds ' are  spoken of among the augurs, which indicate their pre-  monitions by the os ' mouth.'   VIII. 77. The third stage of action ° is, they say,  that in -which they fadunt ' make ' something : in this,  on account of the likeness among agere ' to act ' and   facere ' to make ' and gerere ' to carry or carry on,'  a certain error is committed by those •who think  that it is only one thing. 6 For a person can facere  something and not agere it, as a poet fadt ' makes ' a  play and does not act it, and on the other hand the  actor agit ' acts ' it and does not make it, and so a play   ft ' is made ' by the poet, not acted, and agitur ' is  acted ' by the actor, not made. On the other hand,  the general, in that he is said to gerere ' carry on '  affairs, in this neither fadt ' makes ' nor agit ' acts,'  but gerit ' carries on,' that is, supports, a meaning  transferred from those who gerunt ' carry ' burdens,  because they support them.   78. In its literal sense facere ' to make ' is from   fades ° ' external appearance ' : he is said facere ( to  make ' a thing, who puts a fades ' external appear-  ance ' on the thing which he facit ' makes.' As the   fetor ' image-maker,' when he says " Fingo ' I shape,' "  puts a figura ' shape ' on the object, and when he says  " Formo ' I form,' " puts a. forma ' form ' on it, so when  he says " Fado ' I make,' " he puts a fades ' external  appearance ' on it ; by this external appearance there  comes a distinction, so that one thing can be said to be  a garment, another a dish, and likewise the various  things that are made by the carpenters, the image-  makers, and other workers. He who furnishes a  service, whose work does not stand out in concrete  form so as to come under the observation of our     245     VARRO     sensu(m) 3 veniat, ab agitatu, ut dixi, magis agere  quam facere putatur ; sed quod his magis promiscue  quam diligenter eonsuetudo est usa, translations  utimur verbis : nam et qui dieit, faeere verba dieimus,  et qui aliquid agit, non esse inficientem.   79- (Et facere lumen, 1 faculam) 2 qui adlueet,  dieitur. Lucere ab luere, (quod) et 3 luce dissolvun-  tur tenebrae ; ab luce Noctiluea, 4 quod propter lueem  amissam is eultus institutus. Aequirere est ad et  quaerere ; ipsum quaerere ab eo quod quae res ut  reeiperetur datur opera ; a quoerendo quaestio, ab  his turn quaestor. 5   80. Video a visu, (id a vi) 1 : qui(n)que 2 enim  sensuum maximus in oeulis : nam cum sensus nullus  quod abest mille passus sentire possit, oculorum  sensus vis usque pervenit ad stellas. Hinc :   Visenda vigilant, vigilium invident.   Et Acci 3 :   3 //, Aldus, for sensu.   § 79. 1 Added by GS. 2 Added by Fay, from Plautus,  Persa, 515. 3 quod et Kent; quod A. Sp. ; for et.   4 After Noctiluea, L. Sp. deleted lucere item ab luce, a mar-  ginal gloss that had crept into the text. 6 Kent, for con-  qucstor.   §80. 1 Added by L. Sp. 2 For qui que. 3 Kent, for  atti.     6 vi. 41-42.   § 79. " Wrong etymology. 6 This sentence, if properly  reconstructed, goes with the preceding section. c Wrong.  d As dis-so-luuntur, which is in fact its origin. * This  sentence is out of place, but its proper place cannot be deter-  mined ; cf. v. 81. f Correct etymologies, except that of  qnaerere itself.   § 80. " Video is to be kept distinct from vis and from  vigilium. 6 Part of a verse from an unknown play, in   246     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 78-80     physical senses, is, from his agitatus ' action, motion,'  as I have said, 6 thought rather agere ' to act ' than  facere ' to make ' something ; but because general  practice has used these words indiscriminately rather  than with care, we use them in transferred meanings ;  for he who dicit ' says ' something, we say facere  ' makes ' words, and he who agit ' acts ' something, we  say is not inficiens ' failing to do ' something.   79. And he who lights a faculam a ' torch,' is said  to facere ' make ' a light. 6 Lucere ' to shine,' from  luere c ' to loose,' because it is also by the light that the  shades of night dissohuntur d ' are loosed apart ' ; from  lux ' light ' comes Noctiluca ' Shiner of the Night,'  because this worship was instituted on account of the  loss of the daylight. Acquirere e ' to acquire ' is ad' in  addition ' and quaerere ' to seek ' ; quaerere itself is  from this, that attention is given to quae res ' what  thing ' is to be got back ; from quaerere comes  quaestio ' question ' ; then from these, quaestor ' in-  vestigator, treasurer.' *   80. Video a ' I see,' from visus ' sight,' this from vis  ' strength ' ; for the greatest of the five senses is in  the eyes. For while no one of the senses can feel that  which is a mile away, the strength of the sense of the  eyes reaches even to the stars. From this 6 :   They watch for what is to be seen, but hate to  stay awake.'   Also the verse of Accius d :   which the persons are watching the night sky for omens.  e Invidere 4 to look at with dislike ' originally took a direct  object, as here ; cf. Cicero, Tusc. iii. 9. 20. d If properly  reconstituted, an iambic tetrameter catalectic, referring to  Actaeon,_who inadvertently beheld Artemis bathing with  the nymphs.   247     VARRO   Cum illud o(c)wli(s) violavit 4 (is), 5 qui inmdit 6  invidendum.   A quo etiam violavit virginem pro vit(i)avit dicebant ;  acque eadem modestia potius cum muliere fuisse  quam concubuisse dicebant.   81. Cerno idem valet : itaque pro video ait En-  nius :   Lumen — iubarne ? — in caelo cerno.   Cawius 1 :   Sensumque inesse et motum in membris cerno.   Dictum cerno a cereo, id est a creando ; dictum ab eo  quod cum quid creatum est, tunc denique videtur.  Hinc fines capilli d^scripti, 2 quod finis videtur, dis-  crimen ; et quod 3 in testamento (cernito), 4 id est  facito videant te esse heredem : itaque in cretione  adhibere iubent testes. Ab eodem est quod ait  Medea :   Ter sub armis malim vz'tam 5 cernere,  Quam semel modo parere ;   quod, ut decernunt de vita eo tempore, multorum  videtur vitae finis.   4 Mue., for obliuio lavet (obviolavit Aug., with B).   5 Added by Kent, metri gratia. 6 Kent ; vidit Mue. ;  for incidit.   §81. 1 Schoell, marginal note in his copy of A. Sp.'s  edition,for canius. 2 A. Sp., for descripti. 3 Turnebus,  for qui id. 4 Added by Turnebus. 5 Bentinus, from  Nonius Marc. 261. 22 M.,for multa.     e See note c. f Invidendum with negative prefix in-,  unlike the preceding word; cf. infectum meaning both  ' stained ' and ' not done.'   §81. "Literally 'separate'; hence 'distinguish, see,'  and also ' discriminate, decide.' Cerno has no connexion     248     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 80-81     When that he violated with his eyes,   Who looked upon • what ought not to be seen.'   From which moreover they used to say violavit ' he did  violence to ' a girl instead of vitiavit ' ruined ' her ;  and similarly, with the same modesty, thev used to  say rather that a man fult ' was ' with a woman, than  that he concubuit ' lay ' with her.   81. Cerno a has the same meaning; therefore  Ennius b uses it for video :   I see light in the sky — can it be dawn ?   Cassius c says :   I see that in her limbs there's feeling still and motion.   Cerno ' I see ' is said from cereo, that is, creo ' I create ' ;  it is said from this fact, that when something has been  created, then finally it is seen. From this, the bound-  ary-lines of the parted hair, d because a boundary-  line is seen, got the name discrimen ' separation ' ; and  the cernito ' let him decide,' e which is in a will, that is,  make them see that you are heir : therefore in the  cretio ' decision ' they direct that the heir bring wit-  nesses. From the same is that which Medea says / :   I'd rather thrice decide, in battle wild,   My life or death, than bear but once a child.   Because, when they decernunt ' decide ' about life at  that time, the end of many persons' lives is seen.   with creo. 6 Trag. Rom. Frag., verse 338 Ribbeck* ;  R.O.L. i. 226-227 Warmington ; from the Ajar ; cf. vi. 6  and vii. 76. e Fitting Cassius's play Lucretia ; cf. vi. 7  and vii. 72. * Capittus in the singular was used as a  collective by Varro, according to Charisius, i. 104. 20 Keil.  • Cf. Gams, Institut. ii. 1 74. ' Ennius, Medea, 222-223  Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. i. 316-317 Warmington; translated from  Euripides, Medea, 250-251.     249     VARRO     82. Spectare dictum ab (specio) 1 antiquo, quo  etiam Ennius usus :   uos 2 Epulo postquam spexit,   et quod in auspiciis distributum est qui habent spec-  tionem, qui non habeant, et quod in auguriis etiam  nunc augurcs dicunt avem specere. Consuetudo  com(m)unis quae cum praeverbi(i)s coniun(c)ta  fuerunt etiam nunc servat, ut aspicio, conspicio,  respicio, suspicio, despicio, 3 sic alia ; in quo etiam  expecto quod spectare volo. Hinc speculo(r), 4 hinc  speculum, quod in eo specimus imaginem. Specula,  de quo prospicimus. Speculator, quern mittimus  ante, ut respiciat quae volumus. Hinc qui oculos  inunguimus quibus specimus, specillum.   83. Ab auribus verba videntur dicta audio et  ausculto ; aures 1 ab aveo, 2 quod his avemus di(s)cere 3  semper, quod Ennius videtur ervfiov ostendere velle  in Alexandro cum ait :   lam dudum ab ludis animus atque aures avent,  Avide expectantes nuntium.   Propter hanc aurium aviditatem theatra replentur.  Ab audiendo etiam auscultare declinatum, quod hi   § 82. 1 Added bp Aug. 2 A. Sp., from Festus, 330 b  32 31., for uos. 3 31, Jxietus, for didestspicio. 4 Canal,  for specula.   § 83. 1 3Iue., for audio. 2 Laetus, for abaucto.  3 Aug., for dicere.   § 82. ° Annales, 421 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 148-149 Warm-  ington ; given in better form by Festus, 330 b 32 M. : Quos  ubi rex (Ep)ulo spexit de cotibus (=cautibus) celsis. Epulo  was a king of the Istrians, who fought against the Romans  in 178-177 b.c. ; cf. Livy,xli. 1,4, 11. 6 Page 20 Regell.  c Page 17 Regell.   § 83. Auris, audio, ausculto belong ultimately together,   250     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 82-83     82. Spectare ' to see ' is said from the old word  specere, which in fact Ennius used a :   After Epulo saw them,  and because in the taking of the auspices 6 there is a  division into those who have the spectio ' watch-duty '  and those who have not ; and because in the taking  of the auguries even now the augurs say c specere ' to  watch ' a bird. Gammon practice even now keeps  the compounds made with prefixes, as aspicio ' I look  at,' conspicio ' I observe,' respicio ' I look back at,'  suspicio ' I look up at,' despicio ' I look down upon,'  and similarly others ; in which group is also expecto ' I  look for, expect ' that which I wish spectare ' to see.'  From this, speculor ' I watch ' ; from this, speculum  ' mirror,' because in it we specimus ' see ' our image.  Specula ' look-out,' that from which we prospicimus  ' look forth.' Speculator ' scout,' whom we send  ahead, that he respiciat 1 may look attentively ' at  what we wish. From this, the instrument with  which we anoint our eyes by which we specimus ' see,'  is called a specillum ' eye-spatula.'   83. From the aures ' ears ' seem to have been said  the words audio ' I hear ' and ausculto ' I listen, heed ' ;  aures ' ears ' from aveo a ' I am eager,' because with  these we are ever eager to learn, which Ennius seems  to wish to show as the radical in his Alexander, 1 * when  he says :   A long time eager have been my spirit and my ears,  Awaiting eagerly some message from the games.   It is on account of this eagerness of the ears that the  theatres are filled. From audire ' to hear ' is derived  also auscultare ' to listen, heed,' because they are said   but are not to be connected with aveo. 6 Trag. Rom. Frag.  34-35 Ribbeck'; R.O.L. i. 236-237 Warmington.   251     VARRO   auscultare dicuntur qui auditis parent, a quo dictum  poetae :   Audio, . 7   84. Ore edo, sorbeo, bibo, poto. Edo a Graeco  low, 1 hinc esculentum et esca  edulia 2 ; et quod  Graece yei'eTcu, 3 Latine gustat. Sorbere, item bi-  bere a vocis sono, ut fervere aquam ab eius rei simili  sonitu. Ab eadem lingua, quod irorov, potio, unde  poculum, potatio, repotia. 4 Indidem puteus, quod  sic Graecum antiquum, non ut nunc (f>peap dictum.   85. A manu manupretium 1 ; mancipium, quod  manu capitur ; (quod) 2 coniungit plures manus,  manipulus ; manipularis, manica. Manubrium, quod  manu tenetur. Mantelium, ubi manus terguntur. . . . 3   4 Aug. {quoting a friend), for aut. 5 B, Laetus, for ob-  scnlto. 6 L. Sp., for odoratur. 7 sic alia ab ore A. Sp.,  for sic ab ore (Mue. deleted sic, and set ab ore at the begin-  ning of the next section).   §84. 1 A Idus, for edon. 2 Canal; escae edulia Aldus;  for escaedulia. 3 Victorias, for geuete. 4 Aug. (quot-  ing a friend), for repotatio.   § 85. 1 Victorius, for mantur praetium. 2 Added by  G, H. 3 Lacuna recognized by Aug.     e That is, with an changed to o, as if audor were the origin  of odor ; olor, with the well-known change of d to I, is not  attested elsewhere in Latin literature, but is found in the  glosses and survives in the Romance languages. These  words belong together, but are not to be grouped with audio.   § 84. ° The etymological connexions are correct (except  for puteus ; cf. v. 25 note a), but the Latin words are cognate   252     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 83-85     auscultare who obey what they have heard ; from  which comes the poet's saying :   I hear, but do not heed.   With the change of a letter are formed odor c or olor  ' smell ' ; from this, olet ' it emits an odour,' and odorari  ' to detect by the odour,' and odoratus ' perfumed,' and  an odora ' fragrant ' thing, and similarly other words.   84. a With the mouth edo ' I eat,' sorbeo ' I suck in,'  6160 ' I drink,' poto ' I drink.' Edo from Greek eSto ' I  eat ' ; from this, esculentum ' edible ' and esca ' food '  and edulia ' eatables ' ; and because in Greek it is  yevtrat ' he tastes,' in Latin it is gustat. Sorbere ' to  suck in,' and likewise bibere ' to drink,' from the sound 6  of the word, as for water fervere ' to boil ' is from the  sound like the action. From the same language,  because there it is — 6-ov ' drink,' is potio ' drink,'  whence poculum ' cup,' potatio ' drinking-bout,' repotia  ' next day's drinking.' From the same comes puteus  ' well,' because the old Greek word was like this, and  not pcap as it is now.   80. From manus ' hand ' comes manupretium  ' workman's wages ' ; mancipium ' possession of pro-  perty,' because it capitur ' is taken ' mann ' in hand ' ;  manipulus ' maniple,' because it unites several manus  ' hands ' ; manipularis ' soldier of a maniple,' manica  ' sleeve.' Manubrium ' handle,' because it is grasped  by the manus ' hand.' Mantelium ' towel,' on which  the manus ' hands ' terguniur ' are wiped.' . . . a   with the Greek, not derived from it. 6 These words are  not onomatopoeic   § 85. The gap is serious : the subject matter shifts  abruptly, and many appropriate topics are missed, such as  the actions of the feet, and some further discussion of the  distinctions among agere, facere, gerere, cf. § 77.   253     VARRO     IX. 86. Nunc primum ponam (de) 1 Censoriis  Tabulis :   Ubi noctu in templum censor 2 auspicaverit atque de  caelo nuntium erit, praeconi 3 sic imperato 4 ut viros vocet :  " Quod bonum fortunatum felix salutareque siet 5 populo Ro-  mano Quiritiiw* 6 reique publicae populi Romani Quiritium  mihique collegaeque meo, fidei magistratuique nostro :  omnes Quirites pedites armatos, privatosque, curatores  omnium tribuum, si quis pro se sive pro 1 altero rationem dari  volet, voca 8 inlicium hue ad me."   87. Praeco in templo primum vocat, postea de moeris 1  item vocat. Ubi ht 12 ex(qua)0ra(s>, 13 consules  praetores tribunosque plebis collegasque uos, 14 et in  templo adesse iubeas omnes 15 ; ac cum mittas, contionem  avoces. 18   92. In eodem Commentario Awquisitionis 1 ad ex-  tremum scriptum caput edicti hoc est :   Item quod attingat qui de censoribus 2 classicum ad  comitia centuriata redemptum habent, uti curent eo die quo  die comitia erunt, in Arce classicus canat 3 circumque muros  et ante privati huiusce T. Quinti Trogi scelerosi ostium 4 canat,  et ut in Campo cum primo luci adsiet. 5   93. Inter id cum circum muros mittitur et cum  contio advocatur, interesse tempus apparet ex his  quae interea fieri mlicium 1 scriptum est ; sed ad  comitiatum 2 vocatur populus ideo, quod alia de causa  hie magistratus non potest exercitum urbanum con-   § 91. 1 Bergk, for orande sed. 2 Mommsen, for au-  spiciis. 3 L. Sp., for dum. 4 Sciop., for commeatum.   5 Kent ; praeco reum Aug. ; for praetores. 6 Laetus, for  portet. 7 Aug., with B, for cornicem. 8 Aldus, for  cannat. ' Rhol., for colligam. 10 Mue., for rogis.  11 Victorius, for comitiae dicat. 12 Mue., for censeat.  13 Bergk ; exquiras Mue.; for extra. 14 Sciop., for uos.  15 Sciop., for homines. 16 B, G, Aug., for auoces.   § 92. 1 Aug., with B, for acquisitionis. 2 Aug., with  B, for decessoribus. 3 Victorius, for cannatum.  4 Sciop., for hostium. 5 Sciop., for adsit et.   § 93. 1 Aldus, for illicitum F 1 (illicium F 2 ). 2 Sciop.,  for comitia turn.   § 91. a The document is addressed to Sergius as quaestor.   6 Page 21 Regell. "The northern summit of the Capito-   258     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 91-93     91. You° shall give your attention to the auspices, 4 and  take the auspices in the sacred precinct ; then you shall send  to the praetor or to the consul the favourable presage which  has been sought. The praetor shall call the accused to  appear in the assembly before you, and the herald shall call  him from the walls : it is proper to give this command. A  horn-blower you shall send to the doorway of the private  individual and to the Citadel," where the signal is to sound.  Your colleague you shall request that from the speaker's  stand he proclaim an assembly, and that the bankers shut up  their shops.* You shall seek that the senators express their  opinion, and bid them be present ; you shall seek that the  magistrates express their opinion, the consuls, the praetors,  the tribunes of the people, and your colleagues, and you shall  bid them all be present in the temple ; and when you send the  request, you shall summon the gathering.   92. In the same Commentary on the Indictment, at  the end, this summing up of the edict is written :   Likewise in what pertains to those who have received  from the censors the contract for the trumpeter who gives the  summons to the centuriate assembly, they shall see to it that  on that day, on which the assembly shall take place, the  trumpeter shall sound the trumpet on the Citadel and around  the walls, and shall sound it before the house-entrance of this  accursed Titus Quintius Trogus, and that he be present in the  Campus Martius at daybreak."   93. That between the sending around the walls  and the calling of the gathering some time elapses, is  clear from those things the doing of which in the  meantime is written down as the inlicium ' imitation ' ;  but the people is called to appear in the assembly  because for any other reason this magistrate cannot  call together the citizen-army of the City. The   line. * These shops (c/. § 59 and note), on both sides of  the Forum, were to be closed during the trial of Trogus.   § 92. In early Latin, lux was normally masculine, as in  Plautus, Aul. 7-lS,Cist. 525, Capt. 1008 ; Terence, Adel. 841.   § 93. a The praetor.   259     VARRO     vocare ; censor, consul, dictator, interrex potest, quod  censor 3 exercitum centuriato constituit quinquen-  nalem, cum lustrare 4 et in urbem ad vexillum ducere  debet ; dictator et consul in singulos annos, quod hie  exercitui imperare potest quo eat, id quod propter  centuriata comitia imperare solent.   94. Quare non est dubium, quin 1 hoc inlicium sit,  cum circum muros itur, ut populus inliciatur ad magis-  tratus conspectum, qui (vi)ros 2 vocare 3 potest, in eum  locum unde vox ad contionem vocantis exaudiri possit.  Quare una origine illici et inlicis quod in Choro Pro-  serpinae est, et pellexit, quod in //ermiona est, cum  ait Pacuius :   Regni alieni cupiditas   Pellexit.   Sic Elicii Iovis ara 4 in Aventino, ab eliciendo.   95. Hoc nunc aliter fit atque olim, quod augur  consuli adest turn cum exercitus imperatur ac praeit  quid eum dicere oporteat. Consul augur(i) 1 imperare  solet, ut iralicium 2 vocet, non accenso aut praeconi.  Id inceptum credo, cum non adesset accensus ; et  nihil intererat cui imperaret, et dicis causa fieba(n)t 3   3 Laetus, for censorem. 4 Scaliger, for lustraret.   § 94. 1 Vertranvus, for cum. 2 L. Sp., for qui ros.  3 Aldus, for uocari. 4 Victor -ins, for iobis uisa ara.   §95. 1 Victorius, for augur. 2 B, Laetus, for is licium.  3 Aug., with B, for fiebat.     6 This statement refers to the consul only ; the part de-  fining the dictator's powers seems to have fallen out of the  text.   § 94. " Trag. Rom. Frag., page 272 Ribbeck 3 , of an un-  known poet ; unless Chorus Proserpinae is a substitute name  for Eumenides, a tragedy of Ennius. " Trag. Rom. Frag.,  verses 170-171 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 226-227 Warmington.  c A popular etymology only, since Jupiter could hardly be   260     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 93-95     censor, the consul, the dictator, the interrex can,  because the censor arranges in centuries the citizen-  army for a period of five years, when he must cere-  monially purify it and lead it to the city under its  standards ; the dictator and the consul do so every  year, 6 because the latter can order the citizen-army  where it is to go, a thing which they are accustomed  to order on account of the centuriate assembly.   91. Therefore there is no doubt that this is the  inUcium, when they go around the walls that the  people may inlici 1 be enticed ' before the eyes of  the magistrate who has the authority to call the men  into that place from which the voice of the one who is  calling them to the gathering can be heard. There-  fore there come from the same source also illici 1 to be  enticed ' and inlicis ' thou enticest,' which are in the  Chorus of Proserpina, a and pellexit ' lured,' which is in  the Hermiona, when Pacuvius says 6 :   Desire for another's kingdom lured him on.   So also the altar of Jupiter Elicius ' the Elicited ' on  the Aventine, from elicere ' to lure forth.' c   95. This is now done otherwise than it was of old,  because the augur is present with the consul when the  citizen-army is summoned, and says in advance the  formulas which he is to say. The consul regularly  gives order to the augur, not to the assistant nor to  the herald, that he shall call the inlicium ' invitation.'  I believe that this was begun on an occasion when the  assistant was not present ; it really made no difference  to whom he gave the order, and it was for form's sake   ' tricked ' ; according to G. S. Hopkins, Indo-European  deiwos and Related Words, 27-32, Elicius is a derivative of  liquere ' to be liquid,' and Jupiter Elicius is a rain-god.   261     VARRO     quaedam neque item facta neque item dicta semper.  Hoc ipsum inlieium scriptum inveni in M. Iunii Com-  mentariis ; quod tamen (inlex apud Plautum in Persa  est qui legi non paret), 4 ibidem est quod illicit illex,  (f)it quod 5 (I) 6 cum E et C cum G magnam habet  co(m)munitatem.   X. 96. Sed quoniam in hoe de paucis rebus verba  feci plura, de pluribus rebus verba faciam pauca, et  potissimum quae in Graeea lingua putant Latina, ut  sealpere a o-KaAeveiv, 1 sternere a a-rpwvvf.iv, 2 lingere  a Xixfiaadai? i ab W(t), i ite ab Ttc, 5 gignitur toris. 6 Non reprehendendum igitur in illis  qui in scrutando verbo litteram adiciunt aut demunt,  quo 7 facilius quid sub ea voce subsit viden' 8 possit :  ut* enim facilius obscuram operam (M)yrmecidw 10 ex   1 The lost heading is restored after that of Book VI. 2 F  contains this statement of loss; B and the Leipzig codex  contain an interpolated beginning : Temporum vocabula et  eorum quae coniuncta sunt, aut in agendo fiunt, aut cum  tempore aliquo enuntiantur, priore libro dixi. In hoc dicam  de poeticis vocabulis et eorum originibus, in quis multa  difficilia : nam, after which comes repens ruina aperuit.   266     MARCUS TERENTIUS VARRO'S  ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE     BOOK VI ENDS, AND HERE BEGINS  BOOK VII   AT THIS POINT, IN THE MODEL COPY, ONE LEAF IS  LACKING, ON WHICH IS THE BEGINNING OF BOOK VII   I. 1. The words of the poets are hard to expound.  For often some meaning that was fixed in olden times  has been buried by a sudden catastrophe, or in a word  whose proper make-up of letters is hidden after some  elements have been taken away from it, the intent of  him who applied the word becomes in this fashion  quite obscure. There should be no rebuking then of  those who in examining a word add a letter or take  one away, that what underlies this expression may be  more easily perceived : just as, for instance, that the  eyes may more easily see Myrmecides' indistinct     § 1. 1 Proposed by A. Sp., as the most probable indication  of what immediately preceded. * Turnebus, for aperuit.  s A. Sp., for ut. * Turnebus, for sit. 5 Aldus, 11, for  obscurius. 6 Victorius, for in posterioris. 7 Turnebus,  for quid. 8 L. Sp., for uidere. ' Victorius, for et.  10 L. Sp. ; Myrmetidis Aldus ; for yrmeci dum.   267     VARRO     ebore oculi videant, extrinsecus admovent nigras  setas.   2. Cum haec amminicula addas ad eruendum  voluntatem impositoris, tamen latent multa. Quod  si poetice (quae) 1 in carminibus servant 2 multa prisca  quae essent,sic etiam cur essent posuisset^yecundius 4  poemata ferrent fructum ; sed ut in soluta oratione  sic in poematis verba (non) 5 omnia quae habent 8  ervfxa possunt dici, neque multa ab eo, quern non  erunt in lucubratione litterae prosecutae, multum  licet legeret. AeliV hominis in primo in litteris  Latinis exercitati interpretationem Carminum Salio-  rum videbis et exili littera expedita(m) 8 et praeterita  obscura 9 multa.   3. Nec mirum, cum non modo Epemenides 1  (s)opor(e) 2 post annos L experrectus a multis non  cognoscatur, sed etiam Teucer Livii post XV annos  ab suis qui sit ignoretur. At 3 hoc quid ad verborum  poeticorum aetatem ? Quorum si Pompili regnum  fons in Carminibus Saliorum neque ea ab superioribus   § 2. 1 Added by L. Sp. 2 Victorius, for servabit.  3 Victorius, for posuissent. 4 Laetns, for secundius.  6 Added by line. 6 For haberent. 7 H, B, Ed. Veneta,  for helii. 8 Laetus, for expedita. 9 For praeteritam  obscuram.   §3. 1 Aug., icith B, for Epamenidis. 2 GS., for opos.  3 Victorius, for ad.     § 1. ° Cf. ix. 108 ; his carvings were so tiny that the  detail in the white ivory could be seen only against a black  background.   §3. ° A Cretan poet and prophet, reputed to have cleansed  Athens of a plague in 596 b.c According to one story, in his  boyhood he went into a cave to escape the noonday sun, and  fell into a sleep that lasted fifty-seven years. When he awoke,   268     OX THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 1-3     handiwork in ivory, men put black hairs behind the  objects.   2. Even though you employ these tools to unearth  the intent of him who applied the word, much remains  hidden. But if the art of poesy, which has in the  verses preserved many words that are early, had in  the same fashion also set down why and how they  came to be, the poems would bear fruit in more pro-  lific measure ; unfortunately, in poems as in prose,  not all the words can be assigned to their primitive  radicals, and there are many which cannot be so  assigned by him whom learning does not attend with  favour in his nocturnal studies, though he read pro-  digiously. In the interpretation of the Hymns of the  Saltans, which was made by Aelius, an outstanding  scholar in Latin literature, you will see that the inter-  pretation is greatly furthered by attention to a single  poor letter, and that much is obscured if such a letter  is passed by.   3. Nor is this astonishing : for not only were there  many who failed to recognize Epimenides ° when he  awoke from sleep after fifty years, but even Teucer's  own family, in the play of Livius Andronicus, 6 do not  know who he is after his absence of fifteen years.  But what has this to do with the age of poetic words ?  If the reign of Numa Pompilius c is the source of those  in the Hymns of the Saltans and those words were not  received from earlier hymn-makers, they are none the   everything was changed ; his younger brother had become an  old man. * Livius Andronicus, T rag. Rom. Frag., page 7  Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 14-15 Warmington. Teucer, son of  Telamon king of Salamis, was absent from home during  the Trojan War, and again during his exile after his return  from that war. e Second king of Rome, founder of the  Salian priesthood.   269     VARRO     accepta, tamen habent DCC annos. Quare cur  scriptoris industriam reprehendas qui herois tritavum,  atavum non potuerit reperire, cum ipse tui tritavi  matrem dicere non possis ? Quod intervallum multo  tanto propius nos, quam hinc ad initium Saliorum,  quo Romanorum prima verba poetica dicunt Latina.   4. Igitur de originibus verborum qui multa dix-  erit commode, potius boni consulendum, quam qui  aliquid nequierit reprehendendum, praesertim quom  dicat etymologice 1 non omnium verborum posse dici  causa 2 natura in caelo, ab  auspiciis in terra, a similitudine sub terra. In caelo  te(m)plum dicitur, ut in .Hecuba :   O magna templa caelitum, commixta stellis splendidis.   In terra, ut in Periboea :   Scrupea saxea Ba(c)chi  Templa prope aggreditur.   Sub terra, ut in Andromacha :   Acherusia templa alta Orci, salvete, infera.   7. Quaqua 1 initi erat 2 oculi, a tuendo  primo templum dictum : quocirca caelum qua attui-  mur dictum templum ; sic :   Contremuit templum magnum Iovis altitonantis,   2 Sciop., for excidit.   § 6. 1 Groth, with V, p, for auspicendo. 2 Added by  L. Sp.   % 7. 1 Aug., for quaquia. 2 Sciop., for initium erat.     § 6. ° Said of Romulus, by Ennius, Ann. 65-66 Vahlen 2 ;  R.O.L. i. 22-23 Warmington ; quoted without templa by  Ovid, Met. xiv. 814 and Fast. ii. 487. » Properly a  ' limited space,' for divination or otherwise ; from the root  tern- 'cut.' c Page 18 Regell. d That is, likeness to a  templum in the sky or on the earth. ' Ennius, Trag.  Rom. Frag. 163 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. i. 292-293 Warmington.   272     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 5-7   that if any word lies outside this fourfold division, I  shall still include it in the account.   6. I shall begin from this :   One there shall be, whom thou shalt raise up to sky's  azure temples."   Templum 6 ' temple ' is used in three ways, of nature,  of taking the auspices, 6 from likeness d : of nature, in  the sky ; of taking the auspices, on the earth ; from  likeness, under the earth. In the sky, templum is  used as in the Hecuba e :   O great temples of the gods, united with the shining  stars.   On the earth, as in the Periboea f :   To Bacchus' temples aloft   On sharp jagged rocks it draws near.   Under the earth, as in the Andromacha :   Be greeted, great temples of Orcus,  By Acheron's waters, in Hades.   7. Whatever place the eyes had iniuiti ' gazed  on,' was originally called a templum ' temple,' from  tueri ' to gaze ' ; therefore the sky, where we  attuimur ' gaze at ' it, got the name templum, as in  this ° :   Trembled the mighty temple of Jove who thunders  in heaven,   ' Pacuvius, Tray. Rom. Frag. 310 Ribbeck*; R.O.L. ii. 278-  279 Warmington ; anapaestic; said of a Bacchic rout.  ' Ennius, Trag. Rom. Frag. 70-71 Ribbeck*; R.O.L. i. 254-  255 Warmington ; anapaestic ; quoted more fully by Cicero,  Tusc. Disp. i. 21. 48.   §7. "Ennius, Ann. 541 Vahlen*; R.O.L. i. 450-451  Warmington.   vol. i T 273     VARRO     id est, ut ait Naevius,   HemispAaerium 3 ubi conca*  Caerulo 6 septum stat.   Eius templi partes quattuor dicuntur, sinistra ab  oriente, dextra ab occasu, antica ad meridiem, postica  ad septemtrionem.   8. In terris dictum templum locus augurii aut  auspicii causa quibusdam conceptis verbis finitus.  Concipitur verbis non isdem 1 usque quaque ; in  Arce sic :   Tem tescaque 2 me ita sunto, quoad ego- ea rite 3  lingua 4 nuncupavero.   Olla t'er(a) 6 arbos quirquir est, quam me sentio  dixisse, templum tescumque me esto 6 in sinistrum.   Olla ver(&} 7 arbos quirquir est, quam 6 me sentio  dixisse, te(m)plum tescumque me esto 6 (in) 9 dextrum.   Inter ea conregione conspicione cortumione, utique  ea (rit)e dixisse me 10 sensi.   9. In hoc templo faciundo arbores constitui fines  apparet et intra eas regiones qua oculi conspiciant, id   3 Turnebns, B, for hiemisferium. 4 Mue., for conca.  6 For cherulo.   §8. 1 Mue., for hisdem. 2 Turnebus,for item testaque.  3 ea rite L. Sp., for eas te. 4 Victorius, p, for linquam.  6 Kent, for ullaber. 6 tescum Turnebus, -que me Fay, esto  Scaliger and Turnebns, for tectum quern festo. 7 Kent,  for ollaner. 6 Mue., for quod. . 9 Added by B, Laetus.  10 L. Sp., ; ea dixisse me Sciop. ; for ea erectissime.     b An uncertain fragment, not listed in the collections of the  fragments of Naevius. c Cf. p. 18 Regell.   § 8. Page 18 Regell. 6 Text and translation both  very problematic. I take me as dative (cf Fest. 160. 2) ;  regard quirquir as equal to quisquis, either by manuscript  corruption or with rhotacism in the phrase quisquis est,   274     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 7-9     that is, as Naevius says, 6   Where land's semicircle lies,  Fenced by the azure vault.   Of this temple c the four quarters are named thus :  the left quarter, to the east ; the right quarter, to  the west ; the front quarter, to the south ; the back  quarter, to the north.   8. On the earth, templum is the name given to a  place set aside and limited by certain formulaic  words for the purpose of augury a or the taking of the  auspices. The words of the ceremony are not the  same everywhere ; on the Citadel, they are as  follows 6 :   Temples and wild lands be mine in this manner, up to  where I have named them with my tongue in proper  fashion.   Of whatever kind that truthful' tree is, which I con-  sider that I have mentioned, temple and wild land be  mine to that point on the left.   Of whatever kind that truthful tree is, which I consider  that I have mentioned, temple and wild land be mine to  that point on the right.   Between these points, temples and wild lands be mine  for direction, for viewing, and for interpreting, and just  as I have felt assured that I have mentioned them in  proper fashion.   9. In making this temple, it is evident that the  trees are set as boundaries, and that within them the  regions are set where the eyes are to view, that is we   becoming quisquir est (so Fay, Amur. Journ. Phil. xxxv.  253) ; take as datives the three words in -one in the last  sentence (meanings, vii. 9), supplying after them templa  tescaque me sunto. For meaning of tescum, cf. vii. 10-11.  ' That is, lending itself to true predictions through the  auspices.   275     VARRO     est tueamur, a quo templum dictum, et contemplare,  ut apud Ennium in Medea :   Contempla et templum Cereris ad laevam aspice.  Contempla et conspicare id(em) 1 esse apparet, ideo  dicere turn, cum te(m)plum 2 facit, augurem con-  spicione, qua oculorum conspectum fmiat. Quod  cum dicunt conspicionem, addunt cortumionem,  dicitur a cordis visu : cor enim cortumionis origo.   10. Quod addit templa ut si(n)t 1 tesca, 2 aiunt  sancta esse qui glossas scripserunt. Id est falsum :  nam Curia Hostilia templum est et sanctum non est ;  sed hoc ut putarent aedem sacram esse templum,  . 14   Quare haec quo(d) tesca dixit, non erravit, neque  ideo quod sancta, sed quod ubi mysteria fiunt at-  tuentur, 15 tuesca dicta.   12. Tueri duo significat, unum ab aspectu ut dixi,  unde est Ennii 1 illud :   Tueor te, senex ? Pro Iupiter !   § 11. 1 Laetus, for ut. 2 Aldus, for philocto etatem.   3 Aldus, for appones (cf. adportas Festus, 356 a 26 31.).   4 Added by Mue. 6 Aug., with B, for prest olitor a rarat.  6 For teues. 7 Aldus, for castris. 8 For uolgania.  9 Added by Ribbeck. 10 Aug., with B, for lumine.   11 Vertranius {from Cicero, Tusc. ii. 10. .23), for ignes.   12 Aldus, for clauet. 13 Added by Victorius (from Cicero,  I.e.). 14 Turnebus (from Cicero, I.e.), for diuis. 15 Mue..  for aut tuentur.   § 12. 1 Sciop., for enim.     § 11. » Trag. Bom. Frag. 554 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 514-  515 Warmington. 6 Trag. Bom. Frag. 525-534 Ribbeck 3 ;  278     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 11-12     11. For there is the following in Accius, in the  Philoctetes of Lemnos a :   What man are thou, who dost advance  To places desert, places waste ?   What sort of places these are, he indicates when he  says 6 :   Around you you have the Lemnian shores,  Apart from the world, and the high-seated shrines  Of Cabirian Gods, and the mysteries which  Of old were expressed with sacrifice pure.   Then :   You see now the temples of Vulcan, close by  Those very same hills, upon which he is said  To have fallen when thrown from the sky's lofty sill. e   And :   The wood here you see with the smoke gushing forth,  Whence the fire — so they say — was secretly brought  To mankind.*   Therefore he made no mistake in calling these lands  tesca, and yet he did not do so because they were con-  secrated ; but because men attuentur ' gaze at ' places  where mysteries take place, they were called tuesca. 6   12. Tueri has two meanings, one of ' seeing ' as I  have said, whence that verse of Ennius ° :   I really see thee, sire? Oh Jupiter !   R.O.L. ii. 506-507 Warmington ; anapaestic. e He fell on  Lemnos, as related in Iliad, i. 590-594. d This last portion  is quoted by Cicero, Tusc. Disp. ii. 10. 23, who continues  with a summary of the story of Prometheus. * Varro  means that tesca is for tuesca, waste or wild land where men  may look at (attueri) celebrations of religious mysteries : an  incorrect etymology.   § 12. ° Trag. Rom. Frag. 335 Ribbeck 8 ; R.O.L. i. 290-  291 Warmington.   279     VARRO     Et :   Quis pater aut cognatus volet vos 2 contra tueri ?   Alterum a curando ac tutela, ut cum dicimus " vellet 3  tueri villain," a quo etiam quidam dicunt ilium qui  curat aedes sacras cedituum, non aeditamuiw ; sed  tamen hoc ipsum ab eadem est profectum origine,  quod quern volumus domum curare dicimus " tu domi  videbis," ut Plautus cum ait :   Intus para, cura, vide. Quod opus(t> 5 flat.   Sic dicta vestis(pi)ca,* quae vestem spiceret, id est  videret vestem ac tueretur. Quare a tuendo et  templa et tesca dicta cum discrimine eo quod dixi.  13. Etiam indidem illud EnmV 1 :   Extemplo acceptam 2 me necato 3 et filiam. 4  Extemplo enim est continuo, quod omne te(m)plum  esse debet conti(nu)o septum nec plus unum in-  troitum habere.   2 Aug., with B, for nos. 3 Ellis, for bell . . et {vacant  space for two letters). 4 For aeditomum. 6 From  Plautus, Men. 352, for quid opus. 6 Aldus, for vestisca.   § 13. 1 Scaliger, for enim. 2 Voss, for acceptum.   3 Scaliger, for negato. 4 Bothe,for filium / cf. Euripides,  Hecuba, 391.     » Ann. 463 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 172-173 Warmington.  * Aeditumus is original, with the second part of uncertain  origin. d Varro compares the two meanings of tueri  with the two meanings of videre, ' to see ' and ' to see after,  care for.' * Men. 352.   280     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 12-13     And 6 :   Who will now wish, though father or kinsman, to look  on your faces ?   The other meaning is of ' caring for ' and tutela  ' guardianship,' as when we say " I wish he were will-  ing tueri ' to care for ' the farmhouse," from which  some indeed say that the man who attends to con-  secrated buildings is an aedituus and not an aedi-  tumus c ; but still this other form itself proceeded from  the same source, because when we want some one to  take care of the house we say " You will see to d  matters at home," as Plautus does when he says * :   Inside prepare, take pains, see to 't ;  Let that be done, that's needed.   In this way the vestispica ' wardrobe maid ' was named,  who was spicere ' to see ' the vestis ' clothing,' that is,  was to see to the clothing and tueri 1 guard ' it. There-  fore, both temples and tesca ' wastes ' were named  from tueri, with that difference of meaning which I  have mentioned.   13. Moreover, from the same source comes the  word in Ennius a :   Extemplo take me, kill me, kill my daughter too.   For extemplo 6 ' on the spot ' is continuo ' without in-  terval,' because every templum ought to be fenced  in uninterruptedly and have not more than one  entrance.   § 13. a Trag. Rom. Frag. 355 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. i. 380-  381 Warmington; perhaps spoken by the captive Hecuba,  who gave her name to a tragedy by Ennius. 6 Templum  denotes a limited portion of time as well as of space ; in  extemplo the application is to time.   281     VARRO   14. Quod est apud Accium :   Pervade polum, splendida mundi  Sidera, bigis, (bis) 1 continues )  Se(x ex)pkti $ign\s,*   polus Graecum, id significat circum caeli : quare quod  est pervade polum valet 3 vade irepl ttoXov. Signa  dicuntur eadem et sidera. Signa quod aliquid  significent, ut libra aequinoctium ; sidera, quae  (qua)si 4 insidunt atque ita significant aliquid in terris  perurendo aliave 5 qua re : ut signum candens in  pecore.   15. Quod est :   Terrarum anfracta revisam, 1   anfractum est flexum, ab origine duplici dictum, ab  ambitu et frangendo : ab eo leges iubent in directo  pedum VIII esse (viam), 2 in anfracto XVI, id est in  flexu.   16. Ennius :   Ut tibi   Titanis Trivia dederit stirpem liberum.  Titanis Trivia Diana est, ab eo dicta Trivia, quod in   § 14. 1 Added by Kent ; cf. GS., note. 2 Continui se  cepit spoliis F ; continuis sex apti signis Scaliger ; picti  Ribbeck, exceptis Fay, expicti Kent. 3 Victoritis, for  valde. 4 quae quasi GS. ; quod quasi L. Sp. ; for quae  si. 5 A. Sp., for aliudue.   § 15. 1 Aug., with B, for anfractare visum. 2 Added  by GS ; following Sciop., who added viam after iubent.     § 14. ° Trag. Rom. Frag. 678-680 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L.  ii. 572-573 Warmington ; anapaestic. The passage is appar-  ently addressed to Phaethon, but possibly to the Sun-God or  to the Moon-God. The twelve signs of the zodiac are con-  ceived as taken by the Universe and worn by it as a girdle.  6 Properly 1 white-hot ' ; the Roman poets often speak of   282     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 14-16     14. As for what is in Accius,°   With thy team do thou go through the sky, through  the bright   Constellations aloft, which the universe holds,  Adorned with its twice six continuous signs,   the word polus ' sky ' is Greek, it means the circle  of the sky : therefore the expression pervade polum  ' traverse the sky ' means ' go around the -oAos.'  Signa 1 signs of the zodiac ' means the same as sidera  ' constellations.' Signa are so called because they  significant ' indicate ' something, as the Balance marks  the equinox ; those are sidera which so to speak in-  sidunt ' settle down ' and thus indicate something on  earth by burning or otherwise : as for example a  signum candens ' scorching sign,' 6 in the matter of  the flocks.   15. In the phrase   Again of the land I shall see the anfracta,"   anfractum means ' bent or curved,' being formed from  a double source, from ambitus ' circuit ' and frangere  ' to break.' Concerning this the laws 6 bid that a road  shall be eight feet wide where it is straight, and six-  teen at an anfractum, that is, at a curve.   16. Ennius says ° :   As surely as to thee  Titan's daughter Trivia shall grant a line of sons.   The Trivian Titaness is Diana, called Trivia from the   the flocks as being burned by the heat of Canicula ' the  Dog-star,' which is visible while the sun is in the sign of Leo.   § 15. • Accius, Trag. Rom. Frag. 336 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L.  ii. 440-141 Warmington. 6 Cf. XII Tabulae, page 138  Schoell.   § 16. ■ Trag. Rom. Frag. 362 Ribbeck*; R.O.L. i. 260-  261 Warmington.   283     VARRO   trivio ponitur fere in oppidis Graecis, vel quod luna  dicitur esse, quae in caelo tribus viis movetur, in  altitudinem et latitudinem et longitudinem. Titanis  dicta, quod earn genuit, ut ai(t) 1 Plautus, Lato ; ea,  ut scribit Manilius,   Est Coe(o> creata 2 Titano.   Ut idem scribit :   Latona pari(e)t 3 casta complexu Iovis  Deliadas 4 geminos,   id est Apollinem et Dianam. Dii, quod Titanis  aX6si 1 :   /iellespontum et claustra.   (Claustra), 2 quod Xerxes 3 quondam eum locum   clausit : nam, ut Ennius ait,   Isque Hellespont*) pontem contendit in alto.   Nisi potius ab eo quod Asia et Europa ibi cow(c)ludi-   t(ur> 4 mare ; inter angustias facit Propontidis fauces.   §19. 1 Ribbeck, for quid. 2 Ribbeck ; aequam pugnam  Mue. ; aequom palam Bothe ; for quam pudam. 3 Laetus,  for his locis.   § 20. 1 For piple. ide ( = id est) espiades, with h above the  e of esp-.   § 21. 1 Mue. ; Cassius Sciop. ; for quasi. 2 Added by  Scaliger. 3 Bentinus, for exerses. 4 A. Sp. ; con-  clude Ijaetus ; for colludit.     c Trag. Rom. Frag. 349 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. i. 272-273  Warmington. d At the trial of Orestes for the murder  of his mother.   §20. "Ennius, Ann. 1 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 2-3 War-  mington ; opening the poem. * As home of the gods.  c That is, not merely the Greeks. a Pipleides or Pim-   288     OX THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 19-21     In the verse of Ennius, c   Since the Areopagites have cast an equal vote,*   Areopagitae ' Areopagites ' is from Areopagus ; this is  a place at Athens.   20. Muses, ye who with dancing feet beat mighty  Olympus."   Olympus is the name which the Greeks give to the  sky, b and all peoples c give to a mountain in Mace-  donia ; it is from the latter, I am inclined to think,  that the Muses are spoken of as the Olympiads : for  they are called in the same way from other places on  earth the Libethrids, the Pipleids, d the Thespiads,  the Heliconids. e   21. In this phrase of Cassius,   The Hellespont and its barriers,   claustra ' barriers ' is used because once on a time  Xerxes clausit ' closed ' the place by barriers b : for,  as Ennius says, c   He, and none other, on Hellespont deep did fasten  a bridgeway.   Unless it is said rather from the fact that at this place  the sea concluditur ' is hemmed in ' by Asia and Europe ;  in the narrows it forms the entrance to the Propontis.   pleides. e Respectively from Libethra, a fountain sacred  to the Muses, near Libethmm and Magnesia, in Mace-  donia ; Pimpla, a place and fountain in Pieria, in Mace-  donia ; Thespiae, a town of Boeotia at the foot of Helicon ;  and Helicon, a mountain-range in Boeotia.   §21. 8 Trag. Rom. Frag. inc. inc. 106 Ribbeck* ; with  the text as here emended, it belongs to Cassius. * Cf.  Herodotus, vii. 33-36. e Ann. 378 Vahlen*; R.O.L. i.  136-137 Warming-ton.   vol. I U 289     VARRO     22. Pacui :   Li 2 nos esse   (Camenas). 2   Ca(s)menarum 3 priscum vocabulum ita natum ac  scriptum est alibi ; Carmenae ad eadem origine sunt  declinatae. In multis verbis in quo 4 antiqui dicebant  S, postea dicunt R, ut in Carmine Saliorum sunt haec :   10 This statement is in the margin of F, opposite a blank space  which amounts to one and one half pages.   § 24. 1 Added by L. Sp. and by Bergk. 2 Mue., for  infulas hostiis. 3 For sepulchrum. 4 L. Sp. and Rib-  beck, for lanas. 6 L. Sp. and Ribbeck, for frondentis  comas.   § 25. 1 GS. (cornutam umbram L. Sp. ; cornutarum  umbram Victor hi s ; iacit Scaliger), for cornua taurum  umbram iaci.   § 26. 1 Scaliger, for curuamus ac (which includes the last  word of § 25). 2 Additions by Jordan. 3 Laetus, for  camenarum. 4 Later codd.,for quod F.     § 24. a Trag. Rom. Frag. inc. inc. 220-221 Ribbeck 3 .   § 25. ° Trag. Rom. Frag. inc. inc. 222 Ribbeck 3 .  6 Cornu and curvus are not connected etymologically.   § 26. a Ennius, Ann. 2 Vahlen 2 . 6 Perhaps of Etruscan  origin ; at any rate, not connected with canere ' to sing.'  c A spelling caused by association with carmen and Car-   292     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 23-26     HERE OXE LEAF IS LACKING IX THE MODEL COPY   III. 2 k ... it is clear that agrestes ' rural '  sacrificial victims were so called from ager ' field-  land ' ; that infulatae ' filleted ' victims were so called,  because the head-adornments of wool which are put  on them, are infulae ' fillets ' : therefore then, with  reference to the carrying of leafy branches and flowers  to the burial-place, he added a :   Decked not with wool, but with a hair-like shock  of leaves.   25. The horned shadow lures the bull to fight.   It is clear that cornuta ' horned ' is said from cormia  ' horns ' ; cornua is said from curvor ' curvature,'  because most horns are curva ' curved.' 6   26. Learn that we, the Camenae, are those whom   they tell of as Muses.   Casmenae b is the early form of the name, when it  originated, and it is so written in other places ; the  name Carmenae c is derived from the same origin. In  many words, at the point where the ancients said S,  the later pronunciation is R, d as the following in the  Hymn of the Saltans e :   menta ; though no etymological connexion with them exists.  d The well-known phenomenon of rhotacism, the change of  intervocalic S to R. • Fragy. 2-3, pp. 332-335 Mauren-  brecher ; page 1 Morel. It is hazardous in the extreme to  attempt to restore and interpret the text of the Hymn. These  sentences seem to invoke Mars not as God of War, but in his  old Italic capacity of God of Agriculture, spoken of in several  functions. It was the view of L. Spengel, approved by A.  Spengel, that this verbatim text of the Hymn was an inter-  polation, and that foedesum foederum of § 27 immediately  followed in Carmine Saliorum sunt haec.   293     VARRO     Cozevi o6orieso. Omnia vero ad Patulc(ium)   co»imisse.  Ianeus iam es, duonus Cerus es, du(o)nus Ianus.  Ven(i)es po(tissimu)m melios eum recum . . . 5   IIIC SPATIUM X LINEARUM RELICTUM ERAT IN  EXEMPLARI 6   27. . . . f(o)edesum foederum, 1 plusima plu-  rima, meliosem meliorem, asenam arenam, ianitos  ianitor. Quare e 2 Casmena Carmena,  3 Carmena 4  R extrito Camena factum. Ab eadem voce canite,  pro quo in Saliari versu scriptum est cante, hoc  versu :   Divum em pa 5 cante, divum deo supplicate. 6   28. In Carmine Priami 1 quod est :  Veteres Casmenas cascam rem volo profarier, 2   5 F has : Cozeulodori eso. Omnia uero adpatula coemisse.  ian cusianes duonus ceruses, dunus ianusue uet pom melios  eum recum. This is here emended as follows : Cozevi Havet ;  oborieso Kent; Patulcium Kent, after Bergk ; commissei  Kent; Ianeus GS., cf Festus, 103. 11 31.; iam es Kent;  duonus Cerus es, duonus Ianus Bergk; ueniet V, venies  Kent ; potissimum, cf Festus, 205 all 31. 6 At this point,  the remainder of the line and the next four lines are vacant in  F, with traces of writing in the last empty line, which must  have given the data for this statement, found in II and a.   §27. 1 For faederum. 2 A. Sp. ; ex Ursinus ; for e  (=est). 3 Added by A. Sp. * A. Sp., for carmina  carmen. 5 Bergk, for empta. 6 Grotefend, for sup-  plicante.   § 28. 1 At this point, the rest of the page (three and one-  third lines) remains vacant in F, but there is no gap in the  text. 2 Scaliger,for profari et.   ' Cozevi, voc. of Consivius (epithet of Janus, in Macrobius,  Sat. i. 9. 15), with NS developing to NTS as in Umbrian,  the N not written before the consonants (cf. Latin cosol for  consul), and z having the value of ts, as in the Umbrian   294     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 2&-28     O Planter God/ arise. Everything indeed have I  committed unto (thee as) the Opener." Now art  thou the Doorkeeper, thou art the Good Creator,  the Good God of Beginnings. Thou'lt come especi-  ally, thou the superior of these kings * . . .   HERE A SPACE OF TEX LIXES WAS LEFT VACANT IX  THE MODEL COPY *   27. . . . (In the Hymn of the Saltans are found  such old forms as) foedesum for foederum ' of treaties,'  plusima for plurima ' most,' meliosem for meliorem  ' better,' asenam for arenam ' sand,' ianitos for ianitor °  ' doorkeeper.' Therefore from Casmena came Car-  viena, and from Carmena, with loss of the R, came  Camena. b From the same radical came canite ' sing  ye,' for which in a Salian verse c is written cante, and  this is the verse :   Sing ye to the Father d of the Gods, entreat the God  of Gods.*   28. In The Song of Priam there is the following ° :  I wish the ancient Muses to tell a story old.   alphabet. 9 Epithet of Janus, in Macrobius, Sat. i. 9. 15.  * The god is addressed as more powerful than all earthly  lords, whether kings or (perhaps) priests. The gen. plural  eum, equal to eorum. is elsewhere attested. ' The vacant  lines in the model copy may have represented more of the  text of the Hymn, too illegible to copy.   § 27. a Fragg. 4, 7, 20, 26, 27, pages 335, 339, 347, 349  Maurenbrecher. Ianitos is an incorrect form, since the word  had an original R ; but all the other words have R from  earlier S. » Cf. § 26, note 6. e Frag. 1, page 331  Maurenbrecher ; page 1 Morel. * Here em pa stands for  in patrem ; so Th. Bergk, Zts.f. Altertumswiss. xiv. 138 =  Kleine Philol. Schriften, i. 505, relying on Festus, 205 all M.,  pa pro parte (read patre) et po pro potissimum positum est in  Saliari Carmine. * Equal to ' father of the gods.'   § 28. a Frag. Poet. Lat., page 29 Morel.   295     VARRO   primum cascum significat vetus ; secundo eius origo  Safeina, quae usque radices in Oscam linguam egit.  Cascum vetus esse significat Ennius quod ait :   Quam Prisci casci populi tenuere 3 Latini.  Eo magis Manilius quod ait :   Cascum duxisse cascam non mirabile est,  Quoniam cariosas 4 conficiebat nuptias.   Item ostendit Papini epigrammation, quod in adole-  scentem fecerat Cascam :   Ridiculum est, cum te Cascam tua dicit arnica, 5  Fili(a> 6 Potoni, sesquisenex' puerum.   Die tu illam 8 pusam : sic net " mutua 9 muli " :  Nam vere pusns tu, tua arnica senex.   29. Idem ostendit quod oppidum vocatur Casinum  (hoc enim ab Sabinis orti Samnites tenuerunt) et 1  nostri etiam nunc Forum Vetus appellant. Item  significat 2 in Atellanis aliquot Pappum, senem quod  Osci 3 casnar appellant.   3 Columna, for genuere. 4 L. Sp. and Lachmann, for  carioras. 6 Laetus, B, for amici. 6 Popma, for fili.  7 Turnebus, for potonis es qui senex. 8 Turnebus, for dicit  pusum puellam. 9 Pantagatkus, for mutuam.   § 29. 1 L. Sp. deleted nunc after et. 2 For significant.  3 For ostii.     * The native Latin word was canus 1 grey-haired,' from  casnos, with the same root as in cascus, but a different suffix.  e Sabine was not a dialect of Oscan, but stood on an equal  footing with it. d Ann. 24 Vahlen 2 ; B.O.L. i. 12-13  Warmington. ' Frag. Poet. Lat., page 52 Morel.  1 Frag. Poet. Lat., page 42 Morel ; the poet's name is  doubtful : Priscian, ii. 90. 2 K., calls him Pomponius, and  Bergk, Opusc. i. 88, proposes Pompilius. 9 Casca was  a male cognomen in the Servilian gens only ; for this reason  Potonius is rather to be taken as a jesting family name of  the arnica. h Pusum puellam (see crit. note) was origin-   296     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 28-29   First, cascum means ' old ' ; secondly, it has its origin  from the Sabine language, 6 which ran its roots back  into Oscan. c That cascum is ' old,' is indicated by the  phrase of Ennius a :   Land that the Early Latins then held, the long-ago  peoples.   It is even better shown in Manilius's utterance e :   That Whitehead married Oldie is surely no surprise :  The marriage, when he made it, was aged and decayed.   It is shown likewise in the epigram of Papinius/ which  he made with reference to the youth Casca :   Funny it is, when your mistress tenderly calls you her  " Casca " 3 :   Daughter of Rummy she, old and a half — you a boy.  Call her your " laddie " A ; for thus there will be the   mule's trade of favours ' :  You're but a lad, to be sure ; Oldie's the name for   your girl.   29. The same is shown by the fact that there is a  town named Casinum, a which was inhabited by the  Samnites, who originated from the Sabines, 6 and we  Romans even now call it Old Market. Likewise in  several Atellan farces c the word denotes Pappus, an  old man's character, because the Oscans call an old  man casnar.   ally a marginal gloss to pusam, since pusus had no normal  feminine form ; cf. French la garqonne. But the gloss  crept into the text. ' Proverbial phrase, equal to ' tit for  tat,' or ' an eye for an eye.'   § 29. A town of southeastern Latium, on the borders of  Samnium. b The Samnites and the Sabines were separate  peoples, but their names are etymologically related, and so  presumably were the two peoples. e Com. Rom. Frag,  inc. nom. vii. p. 334 Ribbeck 3 ; these farces were named  from Atella, an Oscan town in Campania a few miles north  of Naples.   297     VARRO   30. Apud Lucilium :   Quid tibi ego ambages Ambiv(i) 1 scribere coner ?   Profectum a verbo ambe, quod inest in ambitu et  ambitioso.   31. Apud Valerium Soranura :   Vetus adagio est, O Publi 1 Scipio,  quod verbum usque eo evanuit, ut Graecum pro eo  positum magis sit apertum : nam id(em) est 2 quod  Trapoi/xiav vocant Graeci, ut est :   Auribus lupum teneo ;  Canis caninam non est.   Adagio est littera commutata a(m)bagio, 3 dicta ab  eo quod ambit orationem, neque in aliqua una re  consistit sola. (Amb)agio 4 dicta ut a(m)6ustum, 5  quo(d) 6 circum ustum est, ut ambegna 7 bos apud  augures, quam circum aliae hostiae constituuntur.   32. Cum tria sint coniuncta in origine verborum  quae sint animadvertenda, a quo sit impositum et in  quo et quid, saepe non minus de tertio quam de  primo dubitatur, ut in hoc, utrum primum una canis   § 30. 1 Laetus, for ambiu.   § 31. 1 Abbreviated to P in F. 2 idem est Mve. ; idem  early edd., with later codd. ; for id est F. 3 Tvrnebus,  for abagio. 4 L. Sp. ; adagio Laetus ; for agio. 8 Aug.,  for adustum. 6 Laetus, M, for quo. 7 Tvrnebus, with  Festus, 4. 16 M., for ambiegna.     § 30. ° 1281 Marx. 6 If the text is correctly restored,  this is L. Ambivius Turpio, famous stage director and actor  of Caecilius Statius and of Terence ; Lucilius puns on his  name. c Equal to Greek a^i, and found in Latin only  as a prefix.   § 31. "A little-known writer of the second century b.c. ;  Frag. Poet, Lat., page 40 Morel. b Adagio, gen. -onis ; not   298     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 30-32     30. In Lucilius ° :   Why should I try to tell to you Roundway's * round-  about speeches ?   The word ambages ' circumlocutions ' comes from the  word ambe c ' round about,' which is present in ambitus  ' circuit ' and in ambitiosus ' going around (for votes),  ambitious.'   31. In Valerius of Sora a is the following :   It is an old adagio, 1 * Publius Scipio.   This word has gone out of use to such a,point that the  Greek word put for it is more easily understood : for  it is the same as that which the Greeks call Trapoifita  ' proverb,' as for example :   I'm holding a wolf by the ears, c  Dog doesn't eat dog-flesh.   Now adagio d is only ambagio with a letter changed,  which is said because it ambit ' goes around ' the dis-  course and does not stop at some one thing only."  Ambagio resembles ambustum, which is ' burnt around,'  and an ambegna cow f in the augural speech, 9 which is  a cow around which other victims are arranged.   32. Whereas there are three things combined  which must be observed in the origin of words, namely  from what the word is applied, and to what, and what  it is, often there is doubt about the third no less than  about the first, as in this case, whether the word  for dog in the singular was at first canis or canes :   the more usual adagium. e Terence, Phor. 506, etc.  4 Really from ad ' thereto ' and the root of aio 'I say.'  e That is, it applies also to other things than that which it  specifically mentions. ' ' Having a lamb {agna) on each  side.' 8 Page 17 Regell.   299     VARRO   aut canes si^ 1 appellata : dicta enim apud veteres una  canes. Itaque Ennius scribit :   Tantidem quasi feta 2 canes sine dentibus latrat.   Lucilius :   Nequam et magnus homo, laniorum immams 3 canes ut.   Impositio unius debuit esse canis, plurium canes ; sed  neque Ennius consuetudinem illam sequens repre-  hendendus, nec is qui nunc dicit :   Canis canina(m> 4 non est.   Sed canes quod latratu 5 signum dant, ut signa canunt,  canes appellatae, et quod ea voce indicant noctu quae  latent, latratus appellatus.   33. Sic dictum a quibusdam ut una canes, una  trabes :   (Trabes) 1 remis rostrata per altum.   Ennius :   Utinam ne in nemore Pelio 2 securibiis  Caesa accidisset abiegna ad terram trabes,   cuius verbi singularis casus rect«s 3 correptus 4 ac facta  trabs.   § 32. 1 For sic. 2 For faeta. 3 Aug., with B, for  immanes. 4 Laetus, for canina. 6 M, V,p, Laetus,for  latratus.   § 33. 1 Added by Colnmnn. 2 For polio. 3 Sciop.,  for recte. 4 Laetus, for correctus.     §32. ° Ann. 528 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 432-433 Warming-  ton. 6 Her bark is worse than her bite, as a pregnant  bitch was proverbially harmless ; cf. Plautus, Most. 852,  Tarn placidast {ilia canis) quam feta quaevis. e 1221   300     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 32-33   for in the older writers the expression is one canes.  Therefore Ennius writes the following, using canes a :   Barks just as loud as a pregnant bitch : but she's  toothless. 6   Lucilius also uses canes :   Worthless man and huge, like the monstrous dog  of the butchers.   When applied to one, the word should have been  cams, and when applied to several it should have been  canes ; but Ennius ought not to be blamed for follow-  ing the earlier custom, nor should he who now says :   Canis ' dog ' doesn't eat dog-flesh.   But because dogs by their barking give the signal, as  it were, canunt ' sound ' the signals, they are called  canes ; and because by this noise they make known  the things which latent ' are hidden ' in the night, their  barking is called latratus. d   33. As some have said canes in the singular, so  others have said trabes ' beam, ship ' in the singular :   The beaked trabes is driven by oars through the waters.   Ennius used trabes in the following 6 :   I would the trabes of the fir-tree ne'er had fall'n  To earth, in Pelion's forest, by the axes cut !   But now the nominative singular of this word has lost  a vowel and become trabs.   Marx. d Canis is not etymologically connected with  canere, nor tat rat us with latere.   §33. ° Ennius, Ann. 616 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 458-459  Warmington. * Medea Exul, Trag. Rom. Frag. 205-  206 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. i. 312-313 Warmington; that is,  " would that the ship Argo had never been built."   301     VARRO   34. In Medo :   Caelitum Camilla, expectata advenis : salve, Aospita.  Camilla(m) 1 qui glos(s)emata interpretati dixerunt  administram ; addi oportet, in his quae occultiora :  itaque dicitur nuptiis camillus 2 qui cumerum 3 fert, in  quo quid sit, in ministerio plerique extrinsecus  neim 1 :   Subulo quondam marinas propter astabat plagas. 2  Subulo dictus, quod ita dicunt tibicines Tusci : quo-  circa radices eius in Etr(ur)ia, non Latio quaerundae. 3   36. Versibus quo(s) 1 olim Fauni 2 vatesque canebant.   Fauni dei Latinorum, ita ut et Faunus et Fauna sit ;  hos versibus quos vocant Saturnios in silvestribus  locis traditum est solitos fari (futura, 3 a) 4 quo fando   § 34.. 1 Mue., for Camilla. 2 Turnebus, for scamillus.  3 Turnebus, for quicum merum. 4 Turnebus, for nectunc.  6 For casmillus.   § 35. 1 Laetus, for enim. 2 Mue., from Fest. 309 a 5  M., for aquas. 3 Victorius, for querunda e.   §36. 1 Aldus, for quo. 2 Laetus deleted et after Fauni,  following Cicero, Div. i. 50. 114, Brut. 18. 71, Orator, 51. 171.  3 Added by Mue., from Serv. Dan. in Georg. i. 11. 4 Added  by Aug.     §34. "Pacuvius, Trag. Rom. Frag. 232 Ribbeck 3 ;  R.O.L. ii. 256-257 Warmington. 6 Page 112 Funaioli.  c Probably certain belongings of the bride. d Identified  with Hermes, the messenger of the gods, according to Ma-  crobius, Sat. iii. 8. 6. ' More probably Etruscan than  Greek : there were Etruscans on Lemnos, not far from  Samothrace, which may explain the use of the similar word   302     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 34-36     34. In the Medus a :   Long awaited, Camilla of the gods, thou comest ;  guest, all hail !   A Camilla, according to those who have interpreted 6  difficult words, is a handmaid assistant ; one ought to  add, in matters of a more secret nature : therefore at  a marriage he is called a camillus who carries the box  the contents of which c are unknown to most of the  uninitiated persons who perform the service. From  this, the name Casmilus is given, in the Samothracian  mysteries, to a certain divine personage who attends  upon the Great Gods.  6 poematis cum scribam  ostendam.   37. Corpore Tartarino prognata Pallida virago.  Tartarino dictj^m) 1 a Tartaro. Plato in IIII de  fluminibus apud inferos quae sint in his unum Tar-  tarum appellat : quare Tartari origo Graeca. Paluda  a paludamentis. Haec insignia atque ornamenta  militaria : ideo ad bellum cum exit imperator ac  lictores mutarunt vestem et signa incinuerunt, palu-  datus dicitur proficisci ; quae propter quod con-  spiciuntur qui ea habent ac fiunt palam, paludamenta  dicta.   38. Plautus :   Epeum fumificum, qui legioni nostrae habet  Coctum cibum.   Epeum fumificum cocum, ab Epeo illo qui dicitur ad  Troiam fecisse Equum Troianum et Argivis cibum  curasse.   39. Apud Naevium :   Atque 1 prius pariet lucusta 2 Lucam bovem.   Luca bos elepAans ; cur ita sit dicta, duobus modis   5 Canal and L. Sp., for antiquos. 6 Added by L. Sp., cf.  vi. 52.   § 37. 1 Laetus, for dicta.   § 39. 1 For at quae. 2 For lucustam.   c This applies both to words and to music. d Page 213  Funaioli.   §37. "Ennius, Ann. 521 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 96-97  Warmington; referring to Discordia, an incarnation of chaos.  b Phaedo, 112-113; in Thrasyllus' numbering of Plato's  dialogues, the Phaedo was the fourth in the first tetralogy.  But in Plato's account, Tartarus is not a river of Hades, but  the abyss beneath, into which all the rivers of Hades empty.  c Of unknown etymology ; not from palam.     304.      ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 36-39     rates ' poets,' the old writers used to give this name to  poets from viere ' to plait ' c verses, as I shall show  when I write about poems. d   37. Born of a Tartarine body, the w arrior maiden   Paluda.   Tartarinum ' Tartarine ' is derived from Tartarus.  Plato in his Fourth Dialogue,* speaking of the rivers  which are in the world of the dead, gives Tartarus as  the name of one of them ; therefore the origin of  Tartarus is Greek. Paluda c is from paludamenta,  which are distinguishing garments and adornments  in the army ; therefore when the general goes forth  to war and the lictors have changed their garb and  have sounded the signals, he is said to set forth palu-  datus ' wearing the pahdamentum.' The reason why  these garments are called paludamenta is that those  who wear them are on account of them conspicuous  and are made palam ' plainly * visible.   38. Plautus has this a :   Epeus the maker of smoke, who for our army gets  The well-cooked food.   Epeus fumificus ' the smoke-maker ' was a cook,  named from that Epeus who is said to have made the  Trojan Horse at Troy and to have looked after the  food of the Greeks. 6   39. In Naevius is the verse a :   And sooner will a lobster give birth to a Luca bos.  Luca bos is an elephant ; why it is thus called, I have   § 38. Fab. inc. frag. 1 Ritschl. * Epeus is not else-  where said to have been a cook, though he is said to have  furnished the Atridae with their water supply.   § 39. « Frag. Poet. Jxit., page 28 Morel; R.O.L. ii. 72-73  Warmington.   vol. I x 305     VARRO     inveni scriptum. Nam et in Cornelii Commentario  erat ab Libycis Lucas, et in Vergilu 3 ab Lucanis  Lucas ; ab co quod nostri, cum maximam quadri-  pedem quam ipsi habercnt vocarent bovem et in  Lucanis PyrrAi bello primum vidissent apud hostis  elep^antos, id est 4 item quadripedes cornutas (nam  quos dentes multi dicunt sunt cornua), Lucanam  bovem quod putabant, Lucam bovem appellasse(nt). 5   40. Si ab Libya dictae essent Lucae, fortasse an  pantherae quoque et leones non Africae bestiae  dicerentur, sed Lucae ; neque ursi potius Lucani  quam Luci. Quare ego 1 arbitror potius Lucas ab  luce, quod longe relucebant propter inauratos regios  clupeos, quibus eorum turn ornatae erant turres.   41. Apud Ennium :   Orator sine pace redit regique refert rem.  Orator dictus ab oratione : qui enim verba 1 haberet  publice adversus eum quo legabatur, 2 ab oratione  orator dictus ; cum res maior erat (act)iom', 3 lege-   3 For uirgilius. 4 Aug. deleted non after est. 5 O, H,  Mue., for appellasse.   § 40. 1 G, H, M, for ergo.   §41. 1 Sciop. deleted orationum after verba. 2 Seal i-  ger, for legebatur. 3 GS. (maior erat Turn.), for maiore  ratione.     6 Cf. v. 150. " An otherwise unknown author; page 106  Funaioli. a Varro is wrong ; elephants' tusks are teeth.  * Apparently correct ; iAicanus was in Oscan Jsucans, pro-  nounced Lucas by the Romans, to which a feminine form  Lnica was made.  306     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 39-41     found set forth by the authors hi two ways. For in  the Commentary of Cornelius 6 was the statement that  Lucas is from Libyci ' the Libyans,' and in that of Ver-  gilius, c that Lucas was from Lucani ' the Lucanians ' :  from the fact that our compatriots used to call the  largest quadruped that they themselves had, a bos  ' cow ' ; and so, when among the Lucanians, in the  war with Pyrrhus, they first saw elephants in the  ranks of the enemy — that is, horned quadrupeds like-  wise (for what many call teeth are really horns riai. 1  Olli valet dictum illi ab olla et olio, quod alterum  comitiis cum recitatur a praecone dicitur olla centuria,  non ilia ; alterum apparet in funeribus indictivis, quo  dicitur   Ollus leto 2 datus est,  quod Graecus dicit ^jOy, id est oblivioni.   43. Apud Ennium :   Mensas constituit idemque ancilia (primus. 1  Ancilia) 2 dicta ab ambecisu, quod ea arma ab utraquc  parte ut TTzracum incisa.   44. Libaque, 1 fictores, Argeos et tutulatos.  Liba, quod libandi causa fiunt. Fictores dicti a fin-  gendis libis. Argei ab Argis ; Argei fiunt e scir-  peis, simulacra hominum XXVII ; ea quotannis de   § 42. 1 Victor his, for egria i. 2 For laeto.  § 43. 1 Added by Scaliger. 2 Added by B, Laetns.  § 44. 1 Victorius, for incisa saliba quae {which includes  the end of § 43).   c Ann. 582 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 438-439 Warmington.   § 42. ° Ann. 119 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 42-43 Warmington ;  a conversation between Numa Pompilius and his adviser,  the nymph Egeria. 6 Fest. 254 a 34 M. inserts Quirts  in this formula after ollus. c Of uncertain etymology,  but not from the Greek.   § 43. ° Ann. 120 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 42-43 Warmington ;  enumerating the institutions of Numa Pompilius. 6 Of  the priests ; cf. Livy, i. 20. e Cf vi. 22.   §44. "Ennius, Ann. 121 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 42-43   308     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 41-44     port, those were selected for the pleading who could  plead the case most skilfully. Therefore Ennius  says c :   Spokesmen, learnedly speaking.   42. In Ennius is this a :   Olli answered Egeria's voice, speaking softly and sweetly.   Olli ' to him ' is the same as Mi, dative to feminine olla  and to mascuhne ollus. The one of these is said by  the herald when he announces at the elections " Olla  ' that ' century," and not Ma. The other is heard in  the case of funerals of which announcement is made,  wherein is said   Ollus h ' that man ' has been given to letum e ' death,'  which the Greek calls XrjOrj, that is, oblivion.   43. In Ennius this verse is found a :   Banquets 6 he first did establish, and likewise the  shields c that are holy   The ancilia ' shields ' were named from their ambe-  cisus ' incision on both sides,' because these arms  were incised at right and left like those of the  Thracians.   44. Cakes and their bakers, Argei and priests with   conical topknots."   Liba ' cakes,' so named because they are made  libare ' to offer ' to the gods. 6 Fictores ' bakers ' were  so called irom Jingere ' to shape ' the liba. Argei from  the city Argos c : the Argei are made of rushes, human  figures twenty-seven d in number ; these are each   Warmington; continuing the list of Numa's institutions.  * Libare is derived from liba I c Etymology of Argei and  of tutulus quite uncertain. * On the number, see v. 45,  note a.   309     VARRO   Ponte Sublicio a sacerdotibus publice dezci 2 solent in  Tiberim. Tutulati dicti hi, qui in sacris in capitibus  habere solent ut metam ; id tutulus appellatus ab eo  quod matres familias crines convolutos ad verticem  capitis quos habent vit(ta} 3 velatos 4 dicebantur tutuli,  sive ab eo quod id tuendi causa capilli fiebat, sive ab  eo quod altissimum in urbe quod est, Arcs, 5 tutis-  simum vocatur.   45. Eundem Pompilium ait fecisse flamines, qui  cum omnes sunt a singulis deis cognominati, in qui-  busdam apparent erv/xa, ut cur sit Martialis et Quiri-  nalis ; sunt in quibus flaminum cognominibus latent  origines, ut in his qui sunt versibus plerique :   Volturnalem, Palatualem, Furinalem,  Floralemqu^ 1 Falacrem et PomonaJem fecit  Hie idem,   quae o(b>scura sunt ; eorum origo Volturnus, diva  Palatua, Furrina, Flora, Falacer pater, Pomona. 2   46. Apud Ennium :   lam cata signa ferae 1 sonitum dare voce parabant.   Cata acuta : hoc enim verbo dicunt Sa&ini : quare   Catus Melius Sextus   2 Rhoh, for duci. 3 Mue. ; vittis Popma ; for uti.  4 Laetus, for velatas. 5 For ares.   § 45. 1 Mue., for floralem qui. 2 Turnebus, for pomo-  rum nam.   § 46. 1 So F ; but fera {agreeing with voce) Mue.     " See § 44 note c.   §45. "Ennius, Ann. 122-124 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 44-45  Warmington. 6 The protecting spirit of the Palatine.   §46. Ann. 459 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 182-183 "Warming-  ton. "Ennius, Ann. 331 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 120-121   310     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 44-46     year thrown into the Tiber from the Bridge-on-Piles,  by the priests, acting on behalf of the state. These  are called tutulati ' provided with tutuli,' since they at  the sacrifices are accustomed to have on their heads  something like a conical marker ; this is called a  tutulus from the fact e that the twisted locks of hair  which the matrons wear on the tops of their heads  wrapped with a woollen band, used to be called tutuli,  whether named from the fact that this was done for  the purpose of tueri ' protecting ' the hair, or because  that which is highest in the city, namely the Citadel,  was called tutissimum ' safest.'   45. He says ° that this same Pompilius created  the flamens or special priests, every one of whom gets  a distinguishing name from one special god : in cer-  tain cases the sources are clear, for example, why one  is called Martial and another Quirinal ; but there are  others who have titles of quite hidden origin, as most  of those in these verses :   The Volturnal, Palatual, the Furinal, and Floral,  Falacrine and Pomonal this ruler likewise created ;   and these are obscure. Their origins are Volturnus,  the divine Palatua, 6 Furrina, Flora, Father Falacer,  Pomona.   46. In Ennius is this verse ° :   Now the beasts were about to give cry, their shrill-toned  signals.   In this, cata ' shrill-toned ' is acuta ' sharp or pointed,'  for the Sabines use the word in this meaning ; there-  fore   Keen Aelius Sextus *   Warmington ; Sextus Aelius Paetus, consul 198, censor  194, a distinguished writer on Roman law.   311     VARRO     non, ut aiunt, sapiens, sed acutus, et quod est :   Tunc cepit memorare simul cata 2 dicta,  accipienda acuta dicta.   47. Apud Lucilium :   Quid est P 1 Thynno capto co&ium 2 excludunt foras,   et   Occidunt, Lupe, saperdae te 3 et iura siluri   et   Sumere te atque amian.  Piscium nomina sunt eorumque in Groecia origo.   48. Apud Ennium :   Quae cava corpore caeruleo (c)orh'na receptat. 1  Cava cortina dicta, quod est inter terram et caelum  ad similitudinem cortinae Apollinis ; ea a eorde, quod  inde sortes primae existimatae.   49. Apud Ennium :   Quin inde invitis sumpserwnt 1 perduellibus.   2 Bergk filled out the verse by reading simul stulta et cata ,  Vahlen, by proposing simul lacrimans cata.   § 47. 1 L. Sp., for quidem. 2 Mue., for corium.   3 Turnebus, for lupes aper de te.   § 48. 1 Mue. (following Turnebus in cava and cortina  receptat, and Scaliger in deleting in and caelo; he himself  deleted que and transposed corpore cava), for quaeque in  corpore causa ceruleo caelo orta nare ceptat.   § 49. 1 M, Laetus, for sumpserint.     "Page 115 Funaioli. d Ennius, Ann. 529 Vahlen 2 ;  R.O.L. i. 458-459 Warmington.   § 47. a Respectively 938, 54, 1304 Marx. 6 Lucilius  puns on iura, 'sauces ' and ' rights, justice,' and on Lupe, a  man's name and also a kind of fish. Respectively Ovwos  ' tunny,' called horse-mackerel and tuna in America ; Kw&og  ' sand-goby,' a worthless fish ; o. 3   Roram 1 dicti ab rore qui bellum committebant, ideo  quod ante rorat quam plu«7. 4 Accensos 5 ministra-  tores Cato esse scribit ; potest id (ab censione, id  est) 6 ab arbitrio : nam ide(m) 7 ad arbitrium eius  cuius minister.   59- Pacuvius :   Cum deum triportenta . .  60. In Mercatore :   Non tibi 1 istuc magis dividiaest 2 quam mihi hodie fuit.   (Eadem (vi) 3 hoc est in Corollaria Naevius (usus). 4 )  Dividia ab dividendo dicta, quod divisio distractio est  doloris : itaque idem in Curculione ait :   Sed quid tibi est ? — Lien enecat, 5 renes dolent,  Pulmones distrahuntur.   § 58. 1 RhoL, for rorani. 2 F 2 , for an F 1 . 3 Added  by Kent, to complete verse metrically. 4 H 2 and p, for  plusti. 5 For acensos F 1 , adcensos F 2 . 6 Added by GS.  7 Brakmann, for inde.   § 59. 1 Lacuna marked by Scaliger.   § 60. 1 L. Sp. deleted in mercatore non tibi, here repeated  in F. 2 Aug., for diuidia est, from the text of Plautus.  3 Added by GS. 4 Added by L. Sp. 5 b, for liene negat.     b That is, not to be retained in the hand during use.   § 58. a Plautus, Friv. frag. IV Ritschl. 6 Page 81. 14  Jordan. e For correct etymology, see vi. 89, note a.   §59. a Trag. Rom. Frag. 381 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 304-   320     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 57-60     empty and profitless ; or because those were called  ferentarii cavalrymen who had only weapons which  ferrentur ' were to be thrown,' 6 such as a javelin.  Cavalrymen of this kind I have seen in a painting in  the old temple of Aesculapius, with the label "feren-  tarii."   58. In The Story of the Trifles a :   Where are you, rorarii ? Behold, they're here.  Where are the accensi ? See, they're here.   Rorarii ' skirmishers ' were those who started the  battle, named from the ros ' dew-drops,' because it  rorat ' sprinkles ' before it really rains. The accensi,  Cato writes, 6 were attendants ; the word may be  from censio ' opinion,' that is, from arbitrium ' de-  cision,' for the accensus c is present to do the arbitrium  of him whose attendant he is.   59- Pacuvius says a :   When the gods' portents triply strong . . .   60. In The Trader a :  That's no more a dividia to you than 'twas to me to-day.  (This word was used by Naevius in The Story of the  Garland, b in the same meaning.) Dividia ' vexation '  is said from dividere ' to divide,' because the distractio  ' pulling asunder ' caused by pain is a division ;  therefore the same author says in the Curculio e :   But what's the matter ? — Stitch in the side, an aching  back,   And my lungs are torn asunder.   305 Warmington ; perhaps referring to portents of the in-  fernal deities.   § 60. Plautus, Merc. 619. " Cam. Rom. Frag. IX  Ribbeck*. e Plautus, Cure. 236-237 ; literally, ' my  spleen kills me, my kidneys hurt me.'   vol. 1 Y 321     VARRO   61. In Pagone :   Honos syncerasto peri(i>t, x pernis, gla stribula 1 (a)ut 2 de lumbo obscena viscera. 3  Stribula, ut Opil/us 4 scribit, circum coxendices 5 sunt  bovis e ; id Graecum est ab eius loci versura.   68. In (N)ervolaria 1 :   Scobina 2 ego illu?i(c) 3 actutum adrasi (s)enem. 4  Scobinam a scobe : lima enim materia(e) 5 fabrilis est.   69. In Penulo :   Vinceretis cerium curs?* 1 vel gralatorem 2 gradu. 3  Gral(l)ator 2 a gradu 3 magno dictus.   70. In Truculento :   Sine virtute argutum civem mihi habeam pro praefica.  (Praefica) 1 dicta, ut Aurelius scribit, mulier ab luco  quae conduceretur quae ante domum mortui laudis   ' Added by Mue., whose et was changed to ut by GS.   § 67. 1 Buecheler, for distribute. 2 Sciop., for ut.  3 Mue., for obscenabis cera, with o above first e and v above  second b, F 1 . 4 GS. (cf. vii. 50), for opilius. 5 Aldus,  for coxa indices. 6 Sciop., for uobis.   § 68. 1 Aldus, for eruolaria. 2 Sciop., for scobinam.  3 A. Sp., metri gratia, for ilium. 4 Lachmann, for enim.  5 Canal, for materia.   §69. 1 Aldus, from Plautus, for circumcurso. 2 -1I-,  from Festns, 97. 12 M. 3 Aldus, from Plautus, for gradum.   § 70. 1 Added by B, Aldus.   c Page 97 Funaioli.   § 67. ° Plautus, Frag. 52 Ritschl. 6 Page 92 Funaioli.  c Of uncertain etymology ; Festus, 313 a 34 M ., has strebula,  and calls it an Umbrian word. d Varro perhaps derived  it from Greek orpefiXos ' twisted.'  326     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 66-70   Claudius c writes that women who make joint en-  treaties are clearly shown to be axitiosae ' united,  unionist.' Axitiosae is from agere ' to act ' : as fac-  tiosae ' partisan women ' are named from facere  ' doing ' something in unison, so axitiosae are named  from agere ' acting ' together, as though actiosae.   67. In the Cesistio a :   For the gods the thigh-meats or the lewd parts from  the loins.   Stribula ' thigh-meats,' as Opillus 6 - writes, are the  fleshy parts of cattle around the hips ; the word c is  Greek, derived from the fact that in this place there  is a socket-joint. d   68. In The Story of the Prison Ropes a :   At once I with my rasp did scrape the old fellow clean.   Scobina ' rasp,' from scobis ' sawdust ' ; for a file belongs  to a carpenter's equipment.   69- In The Little Man from Carthage a :   You'd outdo the stag in running or the stilt-walker  in stride.   Grallator ' stilt-walker ' is said from his great gradus  ' stride.'   70. In The Rough Customer a :   Although without a deed of bravery I may have  A clear-toned citizen as leader of my praise.   Praefica ' praise-leader,' as Aurelius 6 writes, is a name  applied to a woman from the grove of Libitina, 6 who  was to be hired to sing the praises of a dead man in   § 68. ° Plautus, Frag. 94 Ritschl.  § 69. ° Plautus, Poen. 530.   § 70. ° Plautus. True. 495. " Page 90 Funaioli.  c Where the wailing-women had their stand ; cf. Dionysius  Halic iv. 15.   327     VARRO   eius caneret. Hoc factitatum Aristoteles scribit in  libro qui (in)scribitur 2 No/xi/m (3apj3apiKa, 3 quibus  testimonium est, quod (in) Freto est 4 Noevii :   Haec quidem hercle, opinor, praefica est : nam  mortuum collaudat.   Claudius scribit :   Quae praeficeretur ancillis, quemadmodum  lamentarentur, praefica est dicta.   Utrumque ostendit a praefectione praeficam dictam.  71. Apud Ennium :   Decern Coclites quas montibus summis  Ripaeis fodere. 1   Ab oculo codes, ut ocles, dictus, qui unum haberet  oculum : quocirca in Curculione est :   De Coclitum prosapia  2 esse arbitror :  Nam hi sunt unoculi.   IV. 72. Nunc de temporibus dicam. Quod est  apud Cassium :   Nocte intempesta nostram devenit domum,   intempesta nox dicta ab tempestate, tempestas ab   2 Aug., with B, for scribitur. 3 Turnebus, for nomina  barbarica. 4 GS. ; Freto inest Canal ; for f return est.   § 71. 1 a, Ttirnebvs,for federe. 2 Added by Aug., from  Plautus.     d Frag. 604, page 367 Rose. " Coin. Rom. Frag. 129  Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 142-143 Warmington. 'Page 98  Funaioli.   § 71. ° Sat. 67-68 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 392-393 Warming-  ton. The one-eyed Arimaspi of northern Scythia (where the  Rhipaean or Rhiphaean mountains were located) were said  to have taken much gold from their neighbours the Grypes  (or Griffins); cf. Herodotus, iii. 116, iv. 13, iv. 27, who   328     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 70-72   front of his house. That this was regularly done, is  stated by Aristotle in his book entitled Customs of  Foreign Nations d ; whereto there is the testimony  which is in The Strait of Naevius e :   Dear me, I think, the woman's a praefica : it's a dead  man she is praising.   Claudius writes f :   A woman who praeficeret ur ' was to be put in charge '  of the maids as to how they should perform their  lamentations, was called a praefica.   Both passages show that the praefica was named from  praefectio ' appointment as leader.'  71. In Ennius we find ° :   Treasures which ten of the Coclites buried,  High on the tops of Rhiphaean mountains.   Codes ' one-eyed ' was derived from ociilus ' eye,' as  though ocles, b and denoted a person who had only  one eye ; therefore in the Curculio c there is this :   I think that you are from the race of Coclites ;  For they are one-eyed.   IV. 72. Now I shall speak of terms denoting time.  In the phrase of Cassius,"   By dead of night he came unto our home,   intempesta nox ' dead of night ' is derived from tem-  pestas, and tempestas from tempus ' time ' : a nox   quotes (with incredulity) from a poem by Aristeas of Procon-  nesus. Fodere = infodere. * Varro means, from co-ocles  ' with an eye ' ; but the word is derived from Greek kvkXcdi/i,  through the Etruscan. e Plantus, Cure. 393-394.   § 72. ° Accius, Com. Rom. Frag. Praet. V, verse 41 Rib-  beck 8 ; R.O.L. ii. 562-563 Warmington ; repeated from  vi. 7, where see note a on authorship.   329     VARRO   tempore ; nox intempesta, quo tempore nihil 1  agitur.   73. Quid noctis videtur ? — In altisono  Caeli clipeo temo superat  Stellas sublime(n) 1 agens etiam  Atque etiam noctis iter.   Hie multam noctem ostendere volt a temonis motu ;  sed temo unde et cur dicatur latet. Arbitror antiques  rusticos primum notasse quaedam in caelo signa, quae  praeter alia erant insignia atque ad aliquem usum,  (ut) 2 culturae tempus, designandum convenire  animadvertebantur.   74. Eius signa sunt, quod has septem Stellas  Graeci ut Homcrus voca(n)t a/jui^ar 1 et propinquum  eius signum {3qwti)v, nostri eas septem Stellas  (t)r(i)o«es 2 et temonem et prope eas axem : triones  enim et boves appellantur a bubulcis etiam nunc,  maxime cum arant terra??* 3 ; e quis ut dicti   Valentes glebarii,  qui facile proscindunt glebas, sic omnes qui terram  arabant a terra terriones, unde triones ut dicerentur   detrito. 4   75. Temo dictus a tenendo : is enim continet  § 72. 1 For nichil.   §73. 1 Skutsch, after Buecheler, for sublime. 2 Added  by Mue.   §74. 1 For AMA2AN. 2 L. Sp.,/or boues. 3 For  terras. 4 A tig., for de tritu.   §73. "Ennius, Trag. Rom. Frag. 177-180 Ribbeck 3 ;  R.O.L. i. 300-301 Warmington; freely adapted from Euri-  pides, Iphig. in Aid. 6-8; anapaestic. Cf. v. 19, above.  6 Signa in this and the following seems to vary in meaning  between ' signs = marks ' and ' signs = constellations.'   § 74. " E.g., Od. v. 272-273. 6 Charles' Wain, or the  Great Dipper ; and other parts of the constellation Ursa   330     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 72-75     intempesta ' un-timely night ' is a time at which no  activity goes on.   73. What time of the night doth it seem ? — In the shield  Of the sky, that soundeth aloft, lo the Pole   Of the Wain outstrippeth the stars as on high  More and more it driveth its journey of night."   Here the author -wishes to indicate that the night is  advanced, from the motion of the Temo ' Wagon-  Pole ' ; but the origin of Temo and the reason for its  use, are hidden. My opinion is that in old times the  farmers first noticed certain signs 6 in the sky which  were more conspicuous than the rest, and w T hich were  observed as suitable to indicate some profitable use,  such as the time for tilling the fields.   74. The marks of this one are, that the Greeks, for  example Homer, call these seven stars the Wagon 6  and the sign that is next to it the Ploughman, while  our countrymen call these seven stars the Triones  ' Plough-Oxen ' and the Temo ' Wagon-Pole ' and near  them the Axis ' axle of the earth, north pole * c : for  indeed oxen are called triones by the ploughmen even  now, especially when they are ploughing the land ;  just as those of them which easily cleave the glebae  ' clods of earth ' are called   Mighty glebarii ' clod-breakers,'   so all that ploughed the land were from terra ' land '  called terriones, so that from this they were called  triones, d with loss of the E.   75. Temo is derived from tenere ' to hold ' ° : for it   Major. e Or perhaps even the Pole-Star itself. d Trio  is a derivative of terere ' to tread,' cf. perf. trivi and ptc.  tritus.   § 75. ° Wrong etymology.   331     VARRO   iugum et plaustrum, appellatum a parte 1 totum, ut  multa. Possunt triones dicti, VII quod ita sitae  stellae, ut ternae trigona faciant.   76. Aliquod lumen — iubarne ? — in caelo cerno.   Iubar dicitur stella Lucifer, quae in summo quod  habet lumen diffusum, ut leo in capite iubam. Huius  ortus significat circiter esse extremam noctem.  Itaque ait Pacuius :   Exorto iubare, noctis decurso itinere.   77. Apud Plautum in Parasito Pigro :   Inde hie bene potus 1 primo 2 crepusculo.   Crepusculum ab Saftinis, et id dubium tempus noctis  an diei sit. Itaque in Condalio est :   Tarn crepusculo, ferae 3 ut amant, lampades accendite.   Ideo (d)ubiae res 4 creperae dictae.   78. In Trinummo :   Concubium sit noctis priusquam (ad) 1 postremum  perveneris.   Concubium a concubitu dormiendi causa dictum.  § 75. 1 B, Laetus,for aperte.   § 77. 1 Pius, for de nepotus. 2 Scaliger, for primo.  3 Buecheler, for fere. 4 Laetus, for ubi heres.  § 78. 1 Added by Aug., from Plautus.   6 Wrong etymology.   § 76. ° Ennius, Trag. Rom. Frag. 336 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L.  i. 226-227 Warmington; cf. vi. 6 and vi. 81. 6 Iubar and  iuba are not etymologically connected. c That is, shortly  before sunrise, when it is visible in the eastern sky.  d Trag. Rom. Frag. 347 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 320-321  Warmington : cf. vi. 6.  332     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 75-78     continet ' holds together ' the yoke and the cart, the  whole being named from a part, as is true of many  things. The name triones may perhaps have been  given because the seven stars are so placed that the  sets of three stars make triangles. 1 *   76. I see some light in the sky — can it be dawn ? °   The morning-star is called iubar, because it has at the  top a diffused light, just as a lion has on his head a  tuba ' mane.' 6 Its rising c indicates that it is about  the end of the night. Therefore Pacuvius says d :   When morning-star appears and night has run her  course.   77. Plautus has this in The Lazy Hanger-on a :   From there to here, right drunk, he came, at early  dusk.   Crepusculum ' dusk ' is a word taken from the Sabines,  and it is the time when there is doubt whether it  belongs to the night or to the day. 6 Therefore in  The Finger-Ring there is this c :   So at dusk, the time when wild beasts make their  love, light up your lamps.   Therefore doubtful matters were called creperae. b   78. In The Three Shillings ° :   General resting time of night 'twould be, before you  reached its end.   Concubium ' general rest ' is said from concubitus  ' general lying-down ' for the purpose of sleeping. 6   § 77. ° Frag. I, verse 107 Ritschl. * Cf. vi. 5 and notes.  e Plautus, Frag. 60 Ritschl.   § 78. a Plautus, Trin. 8S6 ; that is, " if I should try to  tell you my name." * Cf. vi. 7 and note c.   333     VARRO     79. In Asinaria :   Videbitur, factum volo : redito 1 conticim'o. 2   Putem a conticiscendo conticinn/m 3 sive, ut Opil/us 4  scribit, ab eo cum conticuerunt homines.   V. 80. Nunc de his rebus quae assignificant ali-  quod tempus, cum dicuntur aut fiunt, dicam.   Apud Accium :   Reciproca tendens nervo equino concita  Tela.   Reciproca est cum unde quid profectum redit eo ; ab  recipere reciprocare Actum, aut quod poscere procare 1  dictum.   81. Apud Plautum :   Ut 1 transversus, 2 non proversus cedit quasi cancer  solet.   (Proversus) 3 dicitur ab eo qui in id quod est (ante,  est) 4 versus, et ideo qui exit in vestibulum, quod est  ante domum, prodire et procedere ; quod cum lerao 5  non faceret, sed secundum parietem transversus iret,   § 79. 1 A. Sp. ; redito hue Vertranius, from Plautus ; at  redito Rhol. ; for ad reditum. 2 Laetus, for conticinno.  3 Laetus, for conticinnam. 4 GS.,for o pilius ; cf. vii. 50,  vii. 67.   § 80. 1 B, Aldus, for prorogare.   § 81. 1 Bentinus,for aut. 2 Aug., for transuersum ;  the mss. of Plautus have non prorsus uerum ex transuerso  cedit ... 3 Added by L. Sp. 4 Added by Christ.  5 Aldus, for lemo.     § 79. Plautus, Asin. 685 ; where the text is redito hue.  Cf. vi. 7. 6 Page 88 Funaioli.   § 80. a That is, words of actions, whether or not they are  verbs. 6 Philoctetes, Trag. Rom. Frag. 545-546 Ribbeck 3 ;  Ji.O.L. ii. 512-513 Warmington. Reciproca tela is properly   334     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 79-81     79- In The Story of the Ass there is this verse a :   I'll see to it, I wish it done ; come back at conticinium.   I rather think that conticinium ' general silence ' is  from conticiscere ' to become silent,' or else, as Opillus 6  writes, from that time when men conticuerunt ' have  become silent.'   V. 80. Now I shall speak of those things which  have an added meaning of occurrence at some special  time, when they are said or done.   In Accius b :   The elastic weapon bring into action, bending it  With horse-hair string.   Reciproca ' elastic ' is a condition which is present  when a thing returns to the position from which it has  started. Reciprocare ' to move to and fro ' is made c  from recipere ' to take back,' or else because procare  was said for poscere ' to demand.' d  81. InPlautus :   How sidewise, as a crab is wont, he moves,  Not straight ahead.   Proversus ' straight ahead ' is said of a man who is  turned toward that which is in front of him ; and  therefore he who is going out into the vestibule,  which is at the front of the house, is said prodire ' to  go forth ' or procedere ' to proceed.' But since the  brothel-keeper was not doing this, but was going  sidewise along the wall, Plautus said " How sidewise   only the Homeric (Iliad, viii. 266, x. 459) iraAlmova t6£cl  ' backward-stretched bow,' and not as Varro interprets it.  e Probably from reque proque ' backward and forward ' ;  not as Varro interprets it. d That is, ' demand return.'   §81. " Pseud. 955; said of the brothel-keeper as he  enters.   335     VARRO     dixit " ut transversus cedit quasi cancer, non pro-  versus ut homo."   82. Apud Ennium :   Andromachae nomen qui indidit, recte 1 indidit.  Item :   Quapropter Parim pastores nunc Alexandrum vocant.   Imitari dum volm't* Eurip/den 3 et ponere ervfiov, est  lapsus ; nam Euripides quod Graeca posuit, eTv/ia  sunt aperta. Ille ait ideo nomen additum Andro-  machae, quod ai'S/yt ^a^eTca 4 : hoc Enni?/(m) 5 quis  potest intellegere in versu 6 significare   Andromachae nomen qui indidit, recte indidit,  aut Alexandrum ab eo appellatum in Graecia qui  Paris fuisset, a quo Herculem quoque cognominatum  aX^iKaKov, ab eo quod defensor esset hominum ?   83. Apud Accium :   Iamque Auroram rutilare procul  Cerno.   Aurora dicitur ante solis ortum, ab eo quod ab igni  solis turn aureo aer aurescit. Quod addit rutilare, est  ab eodem colore : aurei enim rutili, et inde equam 1 lymphata (aut Bacchi sacris  Commota.   Lymphata) 2 dicta a hympha ; (lympha) 3 a Nympha,  ut quod apud Graecos 9eT 5 spe quidem id successor* tibi ;  apud Pompilium :   Heu, qua me causa, Fortuna, infeste premis 7 ?   Quod ait iurgio, id est litibus : itaque quibus res erat  in controversia, ea vocabatur lis : ideo in actionibus  videmus dici   quam rem sive litem 8 dicere oportet.   Ex quo licet vidcre iurgare esse ab iure dictum, cum  quis iure litigaret ; ab quo obiurgat is qui id facit  iuste.   94. Apud LuczVium 1 :   Atque aliquo(t) sibi 2 , 8 osmen, e  quo S 9 extritum.   98. Apud Plautum :   Quia ego antehac te amavi o 5 quidem nos pretio (facile 8   0>ptanti est 7 frequentare :   Ita in prandio nos lepide ac nitide   Accepisti,   apparet dicere : facile est curare ut (adsidue) 8 adsi-  mus, cum tarn 9 bene nos accipias.   100. Apud Ennium :   Decretum est stare i muset 1 obrutum.   §99. 1 Aug., for quo desimi. 2 Ellis ; fere quom  Canal; for ferret quern. 3 Aug., with B, for his.  4 Added by L. Sp. 5 GS. (pol istoc Aug., from Plautus),  for dicunto. 8 Added by Aug., from Plautus. 7 Schoell  (after A. Sp., icho proposed and rejected optanti), for ptanti  F, with p deleted by cross-lines. 8 Added by GS. ' Aug.,  for iam.   § 100. 1 GS., after Fest. 84. 7 M. ; est stare et fossari  Bergk ; est fossare B, Vertranius ; for est stare.   § 101. 1 L. Sp. ; fac is musset Mue. ; face musset Turne-  bus ; for facimus et.     § 99 ° Plautus, Cist. 6. b Frequens usually means  ' in numbers ' (that is, many at one place at the same time)  352     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 99-101   99- In the same author, the word frequentem b  frequent ' in   Frequent aid you gave me   means assiduam ' busily present ' : therefore he who is  at hand assiduus ' constantly present ' fere et quom  ' generally and when ' he ought to be, he is frequens,  as the opposite of which infrequens c is wont to be used.  Therefore that which these same girls say d :   Dear me, at that price that you say it is easy  For one who desires it to be frequently with us ;  So nicely and elegantly you received us  At luncheon,   clearly means : it is easy to get us to be constantly  present at your house, since you entertain us so well.   100. In Ennius ° :   Resolved are they to stand and be dug through their  bodies with javelins.   This verb Jbdare ' to dig ' which Ennius used, was made  from fodere ' to dig,' from which comes fossa ' ditch.'   101. In Ennius ° :   With words destroy him, crush him if he make a sound.   and not ' frequent ' (that is, one in the same place at many  different times), which is why the word here needs explana-  tion. Varro takes it as a shortening of the phrase fere et  quom=f , r , e'qu(ym+s, which needs no refutation. " Used  especially of a soldier qui abest afuitve a signis ' who is or has  been absent from his place in the ranks ' (Festus, 112. 7 M.).  d Cist. 8-11, with omissions ; anapaestic and bacchiac verses  alternately.   §100. 'Ann. 571 Vahlen*; B.O.L. i. 190-191 Warm-  ington.   § 101. » Trag. Rom. Frag. 393 Ribbeck 8 ; R.O.L. i. 378-  379 Warmington.   VOL. I 2 A 353     VARRO   Mussare dictum, quod muti non amplius quam fxv  dicunt ; a quo idem dicit id quod minimum est :   Neque, ut aiunt, (iD facere audent.   102. Apud Pacuium :   Di 1 monerint meliora atque amentiam averruncassint  (tuam. 2   Ab) 3 avertendo averruncare, ut deus qui in eis rebus  praeest Averruncus. Itaque ab eo precari solent, ut  pericula avertat.   103. In Aulularia :   Pipulo te 1 differam ante aedis,  id est convicio, declinatum a pi(p)atu 2 pullorum.  Multa ab animalium vocibus tralata in homines,  partim quae sunt aperta, partim obscura ; perspicua,  ut Ennii :   Animus cum pectore latrat.   Plauti :   Gannit odiosus omni totae familiae.  (Cae)cilii 3 :   Tantum rem dibalare ut pro nilo habuerit.   § 102. 1 For dim. 2 Added from Festus, 373. 4 M.  3 Added by Turnebus.   § 103. 1 So F ; but pipulo te hie Nonius, 152. 5 31., pipulo  hie Plautus. 2 Aldus, for piatu. 3 Laetus, for cilii.     6 Onomatopoeic, as Varro indicates. c Ennius, Inc. 10  Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 438-439 Warmington.   §102. a Trag. Rom. Frag. 112 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii.  206-207 Warmington; quoted by Festus, 373. 4 M., with  tuam, and by Nonius, 74. 22 M. (who assigns it to Lucilius,  Bk. XXVI.) with meam. b Monerint is perf. subj. of  monere, a form known from other sources also. e The  word combines averrere ' to sweep away ' with runcare  ' to remove weeds.' d Mentioned elsewhere only by  354     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 101-103   Mussare 6 ' to make a sound ' is said because the muti  ' mute ' say nothing more than mu ; from which the  same poet uses this for that which is least c :  And, as they say, not even a mu dare they utter.   102. In Pacuvius a :   May the gods advise * thee of better things to  do, and thy madness sweep away !   Averruncare e ' to sweep away ' is from avertere ' to  avert,' just as the god who presides over such matters  is called Averruncus.  neque 12 in  Iudicium ^4esopi nec theatri trittiles.   105. In Colace :   Nexum . . .   (Nexum) 1 Mawilius 2 scribit omne quod per libram et  aes geritur, in quo sint mancipia ; Mucius, quae per  aes et libram fiant ut obligentur, praeter quom 3  mancipio detur. Hoc verius esse ipsum verbum  ostendit, de quo quaerit(ur) 4 : nam id aes 5 quod  obligatur per libram neque suum fit, inde nexum  dictum. Liber qui suas operas in servitutem pro  pecunia quam debebat (nectebat), 6 dum solveret,  nexus vocatur, ut ab aere obaeratus. Hoc C. Poetelio   9 GS., after Mati Mue., for Maccius. 10 Baehrens, for  sues. 11 Mue. ; a volucri L. Sp. ; for auoluerat.  12 Kent, for tradedeque inreneque.   § 105. 1 Added by L. Sp., who recognized the lacuna.  2 Laetus, for mamilius. 3 Huschke, for quam. 4 Aug.,  for querit. 5 Mommsen, for est. 6 debebat nectebat  Kent ; debeat dat Aug. ; for debebat.     ' Plautus, Cas. 267 ; the more common orthography is  fringilla and friguttis. k Frag. Poet. Lat., page 54  Morel ; wrongly listed by Ribbeck 3 as Juventius, Com.  Rom. Frag. IV. 1 Trit, the sound made by the crushing  or breaking of a hard grain or seed, as by the strong-beaked  birds. If the text is correctly restored, the passage refers  to a complaint against trittiles, that is, persons who made  similar noises and thereby disturbed a theatrical perform-  ance ; the poet says that he will refer the complaint to a  regular law-court, and not to the prejudiced decision of the   358     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 10Jr-105     That of Maccius in the Casina, from finches 3 :   What do you twitter for ? What's that you wish so  eagerly ?   That of Sueius, from birds * :   So he'll bring the snappers 1 fairly into court and not  To the judgement of Aesopus m and the audience.   105. In The Flatterer a :   A bound obligation . . .   Xexum ' bound obligation,' Manilius 6 writes, is every-  thing which is transacted by cash and balance-scale, c  including rights of ownership ; but Mucius d defines  it as those things which are done by copper ingot and  balance-scale in such a way that they rest under  formal obligation, except when delivery of property is  made under formal taking of possession. That the  latter is the truer interpretation, is shown by the very  word about which the inquiry is made : for that copper  which is placed under obligation according to the  balance-scale and does not again become independent  (nec suum) of this obligation, is from that fact said to  be nexum ' bound.' A free man who, for money which  he owed, nectebat ' bound ' his labour in slavery until  he should pay, is called a nexus ' bondslave,' just as a  man is called obaeratus ' indebted,' from aes ' money-  debt.' When Gaius Poetelius Libo Visulus * was   offended actor and of the annoyed fellow - spectators.  m Famous tragic actor of Cicero's time.   § 105. ° Plautus, Frag. IV Ritschl ; but possibly from  the Colax of Naevius. 6 Page 6 Huschke. e That is,  by agreement to pay a sum of money, measured by weight.  * Page 18 Huschke. • Consul in 346, 333 (?), 326 (Liyy,  viii. 23. 17), and dictator in 313 (Livy, ix. 28. 2), in which  Varro sets the abolition of slavery for debt, though Livy,  viii. 28, sets it in his third consulship.   359     VARRO   (Li)bone Ftsolo 7 dictatore sublatum ne fieret, et  omnes qui Bonam Copiam iurarunt, ne essent nexi  dissoluti.   106. In Ca(sina) :   Sine ame^, 1 sine quod lubet id facial, 2  Quando tibi domi nihil 3 delicuum est.   Dictum ab eo, quod (ad) deliquandum non sunt, ut  turbida quae sunt deliquantur, ut liquida fiant.  Aurelius scribit delicuum esse 1 ab liquido ; Cla(u)dius  ab eliquato. Si quis alterutrum sequi malet, 5 habebit  auctorem.   Apud Atilium :   Per laetitiam liquitur  Animus.  Ab liquando liquitur fictum.   VI. 107. Multa apud poetas reliqua esse verba  quorum origines possint dici, non dubito, ut apud  Naevium in ^4esiona mucro 1 gladii " lingula " a  lingua ; in Clastidio " vitulantes " a Vitula ; in Dolo   7 Poetelio Libone Visolo Lachmann ; Poetelio Visolo Aug. ;  for popillio vocare sillo.   § 106. 1 In CasinaiW^M*, sine a.met Aldus (from Plautus),  for in casineam esses. 2 Aug. (from Plautus), for facias.  3 Plautus has nihil domi. 4 For est. 5 Laetus, for  mallet.   § 107. 1 Aesiona Buecheler, mucro Groth, for esionam  uero.     ' That is, swore that they were not regular slaves, but were  held in slavery for debt only. 9 Mentioned also by Ovid,  Met. ix. 88.   § 106. ° Plautus, Cas. 206-207 ; anapaestic. * Appar-  ently meant by Plautus as ' lacking,' from delinquere ' to  lack,' and so understood by Festus, 73. 10 M., who glosses it  with minus. Varro has taken it as ' strainable, subject to  straining (for purification),' and has connected it with liquare  and liquere ' to strain, purify,' also ' to melt.' c Page   360     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 105-107     dictator, this method of dealing with, debtors was  done away with, and all who took oath f by the Good  Goddess of Plenty 3 were freed from being bond-  slaves.   106. In the Casino. a :   Let him go and make love, let him do what he will,  As long as at home you have nothing amiss.   Nihil delicuum 6 ' nothing amiss ' is said from this, that  things are not ad deliquandum ' in need of straining  out ' the admixtures, as those which are turbid are  strained, that they may become liqvida ' clear.'  Aurelius c writes that delicuum is from liquidum ' clear ' ;  Claudius, 4 * that it is from eliquatum ' strained.' Any-  one who prefers to follow either of them will have an  authority to back him up.   In Atilius e :   With joy his mind is melted.  Liquitur ' is melted ' is formed from liquare ' to melt.'   VI. 107. I am quite aware ° that there are many  words still remaining in the poets, whose origins  could be set forth ; as in Naevius, 6 in the Hesione, 6  the tip of a sword is called lingula, from lingua  ' tongue ' ; in the Clastidium, d vitulantes ' singing songs   89 Funaioli. d Page 97 Funaioli. • Com. Rom. Frag.,  inc. fab. frag. II, page 37 Ribbeck*.   § 107. » Cf the beginning of § 109. * All the citations  in § 107 and § 108 are from Naevius; R.O.L. ii. 88-89, 92-93,  96-97, 104-105, 136-137, 597-598 Warmington. c Trag.  Rom. Frag. 1 Ribbeck 8 ; for the spelling of the title, cf  Buecheler, Rh. Mus. xxvii. 475. d Trag. Rom. Frag.,  Praet. I Ribbeck* ; vitulari was glossed by Varro with TrauwC-  £«v, according to Macrobius, Sat. iii. 2. 11. It is difficult  to connect the two words with Latin rictus and victoria, so  that the resemblance may be fortuitous — unless Vitula be a  dialectal word, with CT reduced to T.   361     VARRO   " caperrata fronte " a caprae fronte ; in Demetrio  " persibus " a perite : itaque sub hoc glossema  ' callide ' subscribunt ; in Lampadione " protinam  a protinus, continuitatem significans ; in Nagidone  " c/u(ci)datfus " 3 suavis, tametsi a magistris accepi-  mus mansuetum ; in Romulo " (con)sponsus " 3 contra  sponsum rogatus ; in Stigmatia " praebia " a prae-  bendo, ut sit tutus, quod si(n)t 4 remedia in collo  pueris ; in Technico 5 " confidant" 6 a conficto con-  venire dictum ;   108. In Tarentilla " p(r)ae(l)u(c)idum Ml a luce,  illustre ; in Tunicularia :   ecbolas 2 aulas quassant   quae eiciuntur, a Graeco verbo ck/JoA?? 3 dictum ; in  Bello Punico :   nec satis sardare 4   2 Scallger, for caudacus. 3 JYeukirch, with Popma, for  sponsus. 4 Laetus, for sit. 5 For thechnico. 6 Turne-  bus, for conficiant.   § 108. 1 Mue., for pacui dum. 2 Kent, for exbolas,  metri gratia. 3 Aldus, for exbole. 4 A. Sp. {from  Festus, 323. 6 M.), for sarrare.     * Com. Rom. Frag, after 49 Ribbeck 3 ; caperrata may be  related to capra only by popular etymology. ' Com. Rom.  Frag, after 49 Ribbeck 3 ; persibus is seemingly an Oscan  perfect participle active, cf. Oscan sipus, from which perhaps  it is to be corrected to persipus. 9 Page 113 Funaioli.  h Com. Rom. Frag, after 60 Ribbeck 3 . * Com. Rom.  Frag, after 60 Ribbeck 3 ; clucidatus is a participle to a Latin  verb borrowed from Greek yAu/a'£eiv ' to sweeten.' ' Trag.  Rom. Frag., Praet. IT Ribbeck 3 ; for consponsus, cf. vi. 70.   * Com. Rom. Frag. 71 Ribbeck 3 . 1 Com. Rom. Frag, after  93 Ribbeck 3 ; confidant, derived from confingere.   362     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 107-108   of victory,' from Vitula 'Goddess of Joy and Victory ' ;  in The Artificer caperrata f route ' with wrinkled fore-  head,' from the forehead of a capra ' she-goat ' ; in  the Demetrius/ persibus ' very knowing,' from perite  ' learnedly ' : therefore under this rare word they  write 9 collide' shrewdly ' ; in the Lampadio, h protinam  ' forthwith ' from protinus (of the same meaning),  indicating lack of interruption in time or place ; in  the Nagido,* clucidatus ' sweetened,' although we have  been told by the teachers that it means ' tame ' ; in  the Romulus,' consponsus, meaning a person who has  been asked to make a counter-promise ; in The  Branded Slave, k praebia ' amulets,' from praebere ' pro-  viding ' that he may be safe, because they are prophy-  lactics to be hung on boys' necks ; in The Craftsman, 1  confidant ' they unite on a tale,' said from agreeing on  a confictum ' fabrication.'   108. Also, in The Girl of Tarentum, a praelucidum  ' very brilliant,' from lux ' light,' meaning ' shining ' :  in The Story of the Shirt, b   They shake the jars that make the lots jump out,   ecbolicas ' causing to jump out,' because of the lots  which are cast out, is said from the Greek word  eK/SoXi] ; and in The Punic War c   Not even quite sardare ' to understand like a Sardinian,'   § 108. ° Com. Rom. Frag, after 93 Ribbeck 3 . h Com.  Rom. Frag. 103 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 106-107 Warming-  ton (with different interpretation). e Frag. Poet. Rom.  53-54 Baehrens; R.O.L. ii. 72-73 Warmington. According  to Festus, 322 a 24 and 323. 6 M., sardare means intel-  legere, perhaps 'to understand like a Sardinian,' that is,  very poorly, for the Sardinians had in antiquity a bad re-  putation in various lines. The verse of Naevius runs :  Quod bruti nec satis sardare queunt.   363     VARRO     ab serare dictum, id est aperire ; hinc etiam sera, 5  qua remota fores panduntur.   VII. 109. Sed quod vereor ne plures sint futuri  qui de hoc genere me quod nimium multa scripseriwz 1  reprehendant quam quod 2 reliquerim 3 quaedam  accusent, ideo potius iam reprimendum quam pro-  cudendum puto esse volumen : nemo reprensus qui e  segete ad spicilegium reliquit stipulam. Quare in-  stitutis sex libris, quemadmodum rebus Latina  nomina essent imposita ad usum nostrum : e quis tn's 4  scripsi Po. 5 Septumio qui mihi fuit quaestor, tris tibi,  quorum hie est tertius, prior es de disciplina verborum  originis, posterior es de verborum originibus. In illis,  qui ante sunt, in primo volumine est quae dicantur,  cur ervfj-oXoyiKr) 6 neque ar(s> sit 7 neque ea utilis sit,  in secundo quae sint, cur et ars ea sit et (ut)ilis 8 sit,  in tertio quae forma etymologiae. 9   110. In secundis tribus quos ad te misi item  generatim discretis, primum in quo sunt origines  verborum 1 locorum et earum rerum quae in locis  esse solent, secundum quibus vocabulis te(m)pora  sint notata et eae res quae in temporibus hunt, tertius   5 Ed. Veneta, for serae.   §109. 1 Laetus,for rescripserint. 2 quam quod A Idus,  for quamquam. 3 For reliquerint. 4 Laetus, for tres.   5 po stands here in F, but with lines drawn through the letters.   6 L. Sp.,for ethimologice. 7 ars sit V, p, L. Sp.,for ansit.  8 et utilis Turnebus; et illis utilis V; for et illis F. 9 For  ethimologiae.   § 110. 1 Crossed out by F 1 , but required by the meaning.   d In such an etymology, Varro is operating on the basis that  things may be named from their opposites; cf. Festus, 122.  16 M., ludum dicimus, in quo minime luditur.  § 109. ° A liber or ' book ' was calculated to fill a volumen   364     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 108-110     where sardare is said from serare ' to bolt,' d that is,  sardare means ' to open ' ; from this also sera ' bolt,'  on the removal of which the doors are opened.   VII. 109- But because I fear that there will be  more who will blame me for writing too much of this  sort than will accuse me of omitting certain items, I  think that this roll must now rather be compressed  than hammered out to greater length a : no one is  blamed who in the cornfield has left the stems for the  gleaning. 6 Therefore as I had arranged six books c on  how Latin names were set upon things for our use d :  of these I dedicated three to Publius Septumius who  was my quaestor," and three to you, of which this is  the third — the first three on the doctrine of the  origin of words, the second three f on the origins of  words. Of those which precede, the first roll con-  tains the arguments which are offered as to why  Etymology is not a branch of learning and is not  useful ; the second contains the arguments why it is  a branch of learning and is useful ; the third states  what the nature of etymology is.   110. In the second three which I sent to you, the  subjects are likewise divided off: first, that in which  the origins of words for places are set forth, and for  those things which are wont to be in places ; second,  with what words times are designated and those  things which are done in times ; third, the present   or ' roll ' of convenient size for handling. * That is, who  has cut off the ears of standing grain and left the stalks.  e Books II.-VII. ; cf. v. 1. d This sentence is resumed at  Quocirca, in the middle of § 1 10. * Varro held office in the  war against the pirates and Mithridates in 67-66, under  Pompey, and again in Pompey's forces in Spain in 49 and  at Pharsalus in 48 ; but it is unknown in which of these he  had Septumius as quaestor. ' Books V.-VII.   365     VARRO     hie, in quo a poetis item sumpta ut il/a 2 quae dixi in  duobus libris solwta 3 oratione. Quocirca quoniam  omnis operis de Lingua Latina tris feci partis, primo  quemadmodum vocabula imposita essent rebus,  secundo quemadmodum ea in casus declinarentur,  tertio quemadmodum coniungerentur, prima parte  perpetrata, ut secundam ordiri possim, huic libro  faciam finem.   8 Victorius, for utilia. 3 Sciop., for solita.     366      ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 110     book, in which words are taken from the poets in  the same way as those which I have mentioned in  the other two books were taken from prose writings.  Therefore," since I have made three parts of the  whole work On the Latin Language, first how names  were set upon things, second how the words are  declined in cases, third how they are combined into  sentences — as the first part is now finished, I shall  make an end to this book, that I may be able to  commence the second part.   §110. "This resumes the sentence interrupted at the  middle of § 109.     367     Printed in Great Britain by R. & R. 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ROUSE, litt.d.     VARRO   ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE     II     VAKRO   ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE   WITH AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION BY  ROLAND G. KENT, Ph.D.   PROFESSOR OF COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY IX THE  UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   IN TWO VOLUMES  II   BOOKS VIII.- X.  FRAGMENTS     CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS   HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS   LONDON   WILLIAM HEINEMANN LTD   MCMXXXV1II     v.i.     V ^>0     Printed in Great Britain     CONTENTS   PAGE   De Lingua Latina, Text and Translation   Book VIII 370   Book IX. ....... 440   Book X 534   Fragments 5gg   Comparative Table of the Fragment Numbers 630   Indexes   Index of Authors and Works . . .631  Index of Latin Words and Phrases . . 634  Index of Greek Words .... 675     M. TERENTI VARRONIS  DE LINGUA LATINA     LIBER VII EXPLICIT ; INCIPIT   LIBER VIII   QUAE DICANTUR CUR NON SIT ANALOGIA LIBER I   I. 1. Quom oratio natura tripertita esset, ut su-  perioribus libris ostendi, cuius prima pars, quemad-  modum vocabula rebus essent imposita, secunda, quo  pacto de his declinata in discrimina iermt, 1 tertia, ut  ea inter se ratione coniuncta sententiam efferant,  prima parte exposita de secunda incipiam hinc. Ut  propago omnis natura secunda, quod prius illud  rectum, unde ea, sic declinata : itaque declinatur in  verbis : rectum homo, obliquum hominis, quod de-  clinatum a recto.   § 1. 1 Sciop.,for ierunt.   § 1. a That is, bent aside and downward, from the vertical.  The Greeks conceived the paradigm of the noun as the upper  right quadrant of a circle : the nominative was the vertical  radius, and the other cases were radii which 4 declined 1 to  the right, and were therefore called m-coous 'fallings,' which  the Romans translated literally by casus. The casus rectus  is therefore a contradiction in itself. The Latin verb de-  370     MARCUS TERENTIUS VARRCTS  ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE   BOOK VII ENDS HERE, AND HERE BEGINS   BOOK VIII   One Book of Arguments which are ad-  vanced AGAINST THE EXISTENCE OF THE   Principle of Analogy   I. 1. Speech is naturally divided into three parts,  as I have shown in the previous books : its first part  is how names were imposed upon things ; its second,  in what way the derivatives of these names have  arrived at their differences ; its third, how the words,  when united with one another reasoningly, express an  idea. Having set forth the first part, I shall from  here begin upon the second. As every offshoot is  secondary by nature, because that vertical trunk from  which it comes is primary, and it is therefore  declined a : so there is declension in words : homo  1 man * is the vertical, kominis * man's ' is the oblique,  because it is declined from the vertical.   clinare is used in the meanings * to decline (a noun)/ * to  conjugate (a verb),' and * to derive ' in general, as well as  * to bend aside and down * in a literal physical sense : it  therefore offers great difficulties in translating.   371     VARRO     2. De huiusce(modi) 1 multiplici natura discrimi-  num (ca)wsae 2 sunt hae, cur et quo et quemadmodum  in loquendo declinata sunt verba. De quibus duo  prima duabus causis percurram breviter, quod et turn,  cum de copia verborum scribam, erit retractandum et  quod de tribus tertium quod est habet suas permultas  ac magnas partes.   II. 3. Declinatio inducta in sermones non solum  Latinos, sed omnium hominum utili et necessaria de  causa : nisi enim ita esset factum, neque di(s)cere 1  tantum numerum verborum possemus (infinitae enim  sunt naturae in quas ea declinantur) neque quae  didicissemus, ex his, quae inter se rerum cognatio  esset, appareret. At nunc ideo videmus, quod simile  est, quod propagatum : legi (c)um (de lego) 2 de-  clinatum est, duo simul apparent, quodam modo  eadem dici et non eodem tempore factum ; at 3 si  verbi gratia alterum horum diceretur Priamus, alterum  fiecuba, nullam unitatem adsigniflcaret, quae ap-  paret in lego et legi et in Priamus Priamo.   4. Ut in hominibus quaedam sunt agnationes ac 1  gentilitates, sic in verbis : ut enim ab AemiMo homines  orti ^emilii ac gentiles, sic ab ^emilii nomine de-  clinatae voces in gentilitate nominali : ab eo enim,   § 2. 1 Added by L. Sp. 2 L. Sp., for orae.   § 3. 1 Mue. t for dicere ; cf, § 5. 2 GS.,for legium F ;  cf. declinatum est ab lego Aug. from B, and last sentence of  this section. 3 Mue., for ut.   §4. 1 L. Sp. t for ad.     § 2. a Cf. viii. 9 in quas. b That is, the collective  vocabulary;.   § 3. a The term ' inflection ' will be convenient oftentimes  to express declinatio, including both declension of nouns and  conjugation of verbs.  372     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VIII. 2-i     2. From the manifold nature of this sort there  are these causes of the differences : for what reason,  and to what product, a and in what way, in speaking,  the words are declined. The first two of these I shall  pass over briefly, for two reasons : because there will  have to be a rehandling of the topics when I write of  the stock of words, 6 and because the third of them has  numerous and extensive subdivisions of its own.   II. 3. Inflection a has been introduced not only  into Latin speech, but into the speech of all men,  because it is useful and necessary ; for if this system  had not developed, we could not learn such a great  number of words as we should have— for the possible  forms into which they are inflected are numerically  unlimited — nor from those which we should have  learned would it be clear what relationship existed  between them so far as their meanings were con-  cerned. But as it is, we do see, for the reason that  that which is the offshoot bears a similarity to the  original : when legi ' I have gathered ' is inflected  from lego ' I gather,' two things are clear at the same  time, namely that in some fashion the acts are said to  be the same, and yet that their doing did not take  place at the same time. But if, for the sake of a  word, one of these two related ideas was called  Priamus and the other Hecuba, there would be no  indication of the unity of idea which is clear in lego  and legi, and in nominative Priamus, dative Priamo.   4. As among men there are certain kinships, either  through the males or through the clan, so there are  among words. For as from an Aemilius were sprung  the men named Aemilius, and the clan-mcmbers of the  name, so from the name of Aemilius were inflected  the words in the noun-clan : for from that name which     373     VARRO     quod est impositum recto casu ^emilius, orta ^emilii,  ^emilium, ^emilios, ^4emiliorum et sic reliquae eius-  dem quae sunt*stirpis.   5. Duo igitur omnino verborum principia 3 im-  positio (et declinatio), 1 alterum ut fons, alterum ut  rivus. Impositicia nomina esse voluerunt quam  paucissima, quo citius ediscere possent, declinata  quam plurima, quo facilius omncs quibus ad usum  opus esset 2 dicerent. 3   6. Ad illud genus, quod prius, historia opus est :  nisi dzscendo 1 enim aliter id non* pervenit ad nos ; ad  reliquum genus, quod posterius. ars : ad quam opus  est paucis praeceptis quae sunt brevia. Qua enim  ratione in uno vocabulo declinare didiceris, in infinito  numero nominum uti possis : itaque novis nominibus  allatis 3 (in) 4 consuetudinem sine dubitatione eorum  declinatus statim omnis dicit populus ; etiam novicii  servi empti in magna familia cito omnium conser-  vorum (n)om{i)na 5 recto casu accepto in reliquos  obliquos declinant.   7. Qui s(i) 1 non numquam offendunt, non est  mirum : et enim ille 2 qui primi nomina imposuerunt  rebus fortasse an in quibusdam sint lapsi : voluis(se)  enim putant(ur) 3 singularis res notarc, ut ex his in  multitudine(m) 4 declinaretur, ab homine homines ;   § 5. 1 Added by L. Sp., V, p. 2 Canal, for essent.  3 Ed. Veneta, for dicerentur.   § 6. 1 Stephanus, for descendendo. 2 For idum.  3 For allatius. 4 Added by Aug. 6 Aug., for omnes.   § 7. 1 Aldus, for quid. 2 Aldus, for ilia. 3 Ellis,  for putant. % 4 -dinem H, for -dine F and other codd.     § 7. ° That is, in the singular.  374     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VIII. 4r-7     was imposed in the nominative case as Aemilius were  made Aemilii, Aemilium, Aemilios, Aemiliorum, and in  this way also all the other words which are of this  same line.   5. The origins of words are therefore two in num-  ber, and no more : imposition and inflection ; the one  is as it were the spring, the other the brook. Men  have wished that imposed nouns should be as few as  possible, that they might be able to learn them more  quickly ; but derivative nouns they have wished to be  as numerous as possible, that all might the more easily  say those nouns which they needed to use.   6. In connexion with the first class, a historical  narrative is necessary, for except by outright learning  such words do not reach us ; for the other class, the  second, a grammatical treatment is necessary, and for  this there is need of a few brief maxims. For the  scheme by which you have learned to inflect in the  instance of one noun, you can employ in a countless  number of nouns : therefore when new nouns have  been brought into common use, the whole people at  once utters their declined forms without any hesita-  tion. Moreover, those who have freshly become slaves  and on purchase become members of a large house-  hold, quickly inflect the names of all their fellow-  slaves in the oblique cases, provided only they have  heard the nominative.   7. If they sometimes make mistakes, it is not  astonishing. Even those who first imposed names  upon things perhaps made some slips in some in-  stances : for they are supposed to have desired to  designate things individually, that from these inflec-  tion might be made to indicate plurality, as homines  ' men * from homo ' man.' They are supposed to have   375     VARRO     sic mares liberos voluisse notari, ut ex his feminae  declinarentur, ut est ab Terentio Terentia ; sic in  recto casu quas imponerent voces, ut illinc e sent  futurae quo declinarentur : sed haec in omnibus  tenere nequisse, quod et una(e) et (binae) 5 dicuntur  scopae, et mas et femina aquila, et recto et obliquo  vocabulo vis.   8. Cur haec non tarn si(n)t x in culpa quam putant,  pleraque solvere non difficile, sed nunc non necesse :  non enim qui potuerint adsequi sed qui voluerint, ad  hoc quod propositum refert, quod nihilo minus 2 de-  clinari potest ab eo quod imposuerunt 3 scopae scopa-  (rum), 4 quam si imposuissent scopa, ab eo scopae, sic  alia.   III. 9. Causa, inquam, cur eas 1 ab impositis  nominibus declinarint, quam ostendi ; sequitur, in  quas voluerint 2 declinari aut noluerint, ut generatim  ac summatim item informem. Duo enim genera  verborum, unum fecundum, 3 quod declinando multas  ex se parit disparilis formas, ut est lego legi 4 legam,   5 Mette ; unae et duae A. Sp. ; unae Mue. ; for una et.   § 8. 1 Aug.) with for sit. 2 For nichiloniinus.  3 For imposiuerunt. 4 Reitzenstein, for scopa.   § 9. 1 Laetus, M,for earn. 2 Laetits deleted declinarint  after voluerint. 3 JlhoL, for fcmndum. 4 L. Sp., for  legis ; cf. § 3, end.     1 The genitive.  376     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VIII. 7-9     desired that male children be designated in such a  way that from these the females might be indicated  by inflection, as the feminine Terentia from the  masculine Terentivs ; and that similarly from the  names which they set in the nominative case, there  might be other forms to which they could arrive by  inflection. But they are supposed to have been  unable to hold fast to these principles in every-  thing, because the plural form scopae denotes either  one or two brooms, and aquila ' eagle ' denotes both  the male and the female, and vis * force ' is used  for the nominative and for an oblique case b of  the word.   8. Why such words are not so much at fault as  men think, it is in most instances not hard to explain,  but it is not necessary to do so at this time ; for it is  not how they have been able to arrive at the words,  but how they wished to express themselves, that is of  import for the subject which is before us : inasmuch  as genitive scoparum can be no less easily derived from  the plural scopae which they did impose on the object  as its name, than if they had given it the name scopa  in the singular, and made the genitive scopae from  this — and other words likewise.   III. 9- The reason, I say, why they made these  inflected forms a from the names which they had set  upon things, is that which I have shown ; the next  point is for me to sketch by classes, but briefly, the  forms a at which they have wished to arrive by inflec-  tion, or have not wished to arrive. For there are two  classes of words, one fruitful, which by inflection pro-  duces from itself many different forms, as for example  lego ' I gather/ legi * I have gathered,' legam * I shall   § 9. a Understand voces with eas and with quas.   377     VARRO   sic alia, alterum genus sterile, quod ex se parit nihil, 5  ut est et iam 6 vix eras 7 magis cur.   10. Quarum rerum usus erat simplex, (simplex) 1  ibi etiam vocabuli declinatus, ut in qua domo unus  servus, uno servili opwst 2 nomine, in qua 3 multi, pluri-  bus. Igitur et in his rebus quae 4 sunt nomina, quod  discrimina vocis plura, propagines plures, et in his  rebus quae copulae sunt ac iungunt 5 verba, quod non  opus fuit declinari in plura, fere singula sunt : uno  enim loro alligare possis vel hominem vel equum vel  aliud quod, quicquid est quod cum altero potest  colligari. Sic quod dicimus in loquendo " Consul fuit  Tullius et Antonius," eodem illo ' et ' omnis binos  consules colligtfre 6 possumus, vel dicam amplius,  omnia nomina, atque «deo 7 etiam omnia verba, cum  fulmentuw 8 ex una syllaba illud ' et ' maneat unum.  Quare duce natura (factum)s/,* quae imposita essent  vocabula rebus, ne ab omnibus his declina/us 10 puta-  r emus. 11   IV. 11. Quorum 1 generum declinationes oriantur,  partes orationis sunt duae, (ni)si 2 item ut Dzon in  tris diviserimus partes res quae verbis significantur :   6 For nichil. 6 GS., for etiam. 7 L. Sp., for vixerat ;  cf. vix magis eras Aug., with B.   § 10. 1 Added by Sciop. 2 servili L. Sp., opust Sciop.,  for seruilio post. 3 B, for quam. 4 L. Sp.^for quorum.  6 Mue. f for hmguntur. 6 Aug., for colligere. 7 Sciop.,  for ideo. 6 Mue., for fulmen tunc. 9 L. Sp., for si.  10 Laetus, for declinandus. 11 Fay, for putarent.   § 11. 1 Laetus, for quarum. 2 Roehrscheidt, for si.   6 The invariable and indeclinable words.   § 10. a ~Cf. the Marcipor ' Marcus' boy,' of earlier times.  6 In 63 b.c. ; the example compliments Cicero, to whom the  work is addressed. c That is, we should expect some words  to be invariable and uninflected.     378     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VIII. 9-11     gather/ and similarly other words ; and a second  class which is barren, 5 which produces nothing from  itself, as for example et * and/ tarn * now/ vix ' hardly/  eras ' to-morrow/ magis * more/ cur 'why/   10. In those things whose use was simple, the  inflection of the name also was simple ; just as in a  house where there is only one slave there is need of  only one slave-name, a but in a house where there are  many slaves there is need of many such names. There-  fore also in those things which are names, because the  differentiations of the word are several, there are more  offshoots, and in those things which are connectives  and join words, because there was no need for them  to be inflected into several forms, the words generally  have but one form : for with one and the same thong  you can fasten a man or a horse or anything else,  whatever it is, which can be fastened to something  else. Thus, for example, we say in our talking,  " Tullius et * and ' Antonius were consuls " 6 : with  that same et we can link together any set of two con-  suls, or — to put it more strongly — any and all names,  and even all words, while all the time that one-syllabled  prop-word et remains unchanged. Therefore under  nature s guidance it has come about that we should  not think that there are inflected forms from all these  names which have been set upon things.   IV. 11. In the word-classes in which inflections  may develop, the parts of speech are two, unless,  following Dion, a we divide into three divisions the  ideas which are indicated by words : one division   §11. ° An Academic philosopher of Alexandria, who  headed an embassy to Rome in 56 to seek help against the  exiled king Ptolemy Auletes, and was there poisoned by the  king's agents.   379     VARRO     unam 3 quae adsignificat casus, 4 alteram 5 quae tem-  pora, tertia(m) 6 quae neutrum. De his Aristoteles  orationis duas partes esse dicit : vocabula et verba,  ut homo et equus, et legit et currit.   12. Utriusque generis, et vocabuli et verbi, quae-  dam priora, quaedam posteriora ; priora ut homo,  scribit, posteriora ut doctus et docte : dicitur enim  homo doctus et scribit docte. Haec sequitur locus et  tempus, quod neque homo nec scribi(t) 1 potest sine  loco et tempore esse, ita ut magis sit locus homini  coniunctus, tempus scriptioni.   13. Cum de his nomen sit primum (prius enim  nomen est quam verbum temporale et reliqua pos-  terius quam nomen et verbum), prima igitur nomina :  quare de eorum declinatione quam de verborum ante  dicam.   V. 14. Nomina declinantur aut in earum rerum  discrimina, quarum nomina sunt, ut ab Terentius  Terenti(a), 1 aut in ea(s) 2 res extrinsecus, quarum ea  nomina non sunt, ut ab equo equiso. In sua dis-  crimina declinantur aut propter ipsius rei naturam de   3 i?, for unum. 4 Laetus, for capus. 5 Laetus, B, for  alterum. 6 Mue.^for tertia.  § 12. 1 B, II, Laetus, for scribi.   § 14. 1 Reitzenstein, for Tcrenti; cf. ix. 55, 59. 2 V,  p, Laetus^ for ea.     b A division into nouns, verbs, and convinct tones went back  to Aristotle, according to Quintilian, Inst, Oral. i. 4. 18 {cf  also Priscian, ii. 54. 5 Keil) ; but more detailed classifications  of the parts - of speech had also been made before Varro's  time. e Rhet. iii. 2 ; but cf. preceding note.   § 19. ° That is, grammatically subordinate in the phrase.   § 13. ° Since verbum means both ' word ' in general, and   380     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VIII. 11-14     which indicates also case, a second which indicates  also time, a third which indicates neither. 6 Of these,  Aristotle c says that there are two parts of speech ;  nouns, like homo * man * and equus ' horse/ and verbs,  like legit * gathers ' and currit ' runs.*   12. Of the two kinds, noun and verb, certain  words are primary and certain are secondary a :  primary like homo ' man * and scribit * writes/ and  secondary like doctus * learned * and docie * learnedly/  for we say homo doctus ' a learned man * and scribit  docie * writes learnedly.* These ideas are attended  by those of place and time, because neither homo nor  scribit can be asserted without the presupposition of  place and of time — yet in such a way that place is  more closely associated with the idea of the noun  homo, and time more closely with the act of writing.   13. Since among these the noun is first — for the  noun comes ahead of the verb, a and the other words  stand later relatively to the noun and the verl> — the  nouns are accordingly first. Therefore I shall speak  of the form-variations b of nouns before I take up  those of verbs.   V. 14. Nouns are varied in form either to show  differences in those things of which they are the  names, as the woman's name Terentia from the man's  name Tereniius, or to denote those things outside, of  which they are not the names, as equiso ' stable-boy *  from equus * horse.* To show differences in them-  selves they are varied in form either on account of the  nature of the thing itself about which mention is   ' verb * specifically, Varro here writes verbum temporale to  avoid any ambiguity. * Declinatio denotes not only de-  clension, but conjugation of verbs, derivation by prefixes  and suffixes, and composition.   381     VARRO     qua 3 dicitur aut -propter illius (usum) 4 qui dicit.  Propter ipsius rei discrimina, aut ab toto (aut a parte.  Quae a toto, declinata sunt aut propter multitudinem  aut propter exiguitatem. Propter exiguitatem), 5 ut  ab homine homunculus, ab capite capitulum ; propter  multitudinem, ut ab homine homines ; ab eo (abeo)*  quod alii dicunt cervices et id Hortensius in poematis  cervix.   15. Quae a parte 1 declinata, aut a corpore, ut a  mamma mammosae, a manu manubria, aut ab animo,  ut a prudentia pruden(te)s, 2 ab ingenio ingeniosi.  Haec sine agitationibus ; at ubi motus maiores, item  ab animo (aut a corpore), 3 ut ab strenuitate et nobili-  tate strenui et nobiles, sic a pugnando et currendo  pugiles et cursores. Ut aliae dechnationes ab animo,  aliae a corpore, sic aliae quae extra hominem, ut  pecimiosi, agrarii, quod foris pecunia et ager.   VI. 16. Propter eorum qui dicunt usum 1 declinati  casus, uti is qui de altero diceret, distinguere posset,   3 Vert ran ius, for quo. 4 Added by GS., following Reitzen-  stein, who added it after dicit. 5 Added by Reitzenstein ;  aut a parte, ab toto added by L. Sp., after Aug.* who  added aut a parte, a toto, suggested to him by B aut a parte  aut ab animo. a toto. • Added by Fay.   § 15. 1 For aperte. 1 L. Sp. t for prudens. 3 Added  by L. Sp.   § 16. 1 Vert ranius, for dicuntur sum.     § 14. a That is, syntactical variations, indicated by  the  case-forms. b Other categories resulting in variations  might have been listed. e Frag. Poet. Lat.^ page 91 Morel.  d As did also Ennius and Pacuvius, before Hortensius ; the  plural was the only regularly used form, outside the poets.   § 15. ° We expect rather a plural adjective meaning * big-  handed.* 6 The long abstract nouns are of course derived  from the adjectives. e Or perhaps in the original meaning  * farmers.*  332     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VIII. 14-16     made, or on account of the use to which the speaker  puts the word. a On account of differences in the  thing itself, the variation is made either with reference  to the whole thing, or with reference to a part of it.  Those forms which concern the whole are derived  either on account of plurality or on account of small-  ness. 6 On account of smallness, homunculus * mani-  kin ' is formed from homo * man/ and capitulum * little  head ' from caput 4 head.' On account of plurality,  homines 4 men ' is made from homo 4 man ' ; I pass by  the fact that others use cervices 4 back of the neck ' in  the plural, and Hortensius c in his poems uses it in the  singular cervix. d   15. Those which are derived from a part, come  either from the body, as mammosae * big-breasted  women ' from mamma * breast ' and manubria a   * handles ' from manus * hand/ or from the mind, as  prudentes 4 prudent men * from prudentia * prudence '   and ingeniosi * men of talent ' from ingenium 4 innate   .... .  ability.' The preceding are quite apart from move-  ments ; but where there are important motions, the  derivatives are similarly from the mind or from the  body, as strenui 4 the quick ' and nobiles * the noble/  from strenuitas 4 quickness ' and nobilitas 4 nobility/ b  and in this way also pugiles 4 boxers * and cursores   * runners * from pugnare 4 to fight ' and currere 4 to  run.' As some derivations are from the mind and  others from the body, so also there are others which  refer to external things, as pecuniosi 4 moneyed men '  and agrarii c 4 advocates of agrarian laws/ because  pecunia * money * and ager * field-land ' are exterior to  the men to whom the derivatives are applied.   VI. 16. It was for the use of the speakers that the  case-forms were derived, that he who spoke of another   383     VARRO     cum vocaret, cum daret, cum accusaret, sic alia  eiusdem (modi) 2 discrimina, quae nos et Graecos ad  declinandum duxerunt. Sine 3 controversia (sunt  obliqui, qui nascuntur a recto : unde rectus an sit  casus) 4 sunt qui quae(rant. Nos vero sex habemus,  Graeci quinque) 4 : quis vocetur, ut 7/ercules ; quem-  admodum vocetur, ut 7/ercule ; quo vocetur, ut ad  7/crculem ; a quo vocetur, ut ab 7/ercule ; cui voce-  tur, ut 7/erculi ; cuius vocetur, ut 7/erculis.   VII. 17. Propter ea verba quae erant proinde ac  cognomina, ut prudens, candidus, strenuus, quod in  his praeterea sunt discrimina propter incrementum,  quod maius aut minus in his esse potest, accessit  declinationum genus, ut a candido candidius candi-  dissimum sic a longo, divite, id genus aliis ut fieret.   18. Quae in eas res quae extrinsecus declinantur,  sunt ab equo equile, ab ovibus ovile, sic alia : haec  contraria illis quae supra dicta, ut a pecunia pecunio-   2 Added by Mue. 3 For sinae. 4 Added by Schoell  apud GS. ; cf. note b.   § 16. ° Vocative, dative, accusative cases ; the accusative  was in Latin a poorly named case, through a mistranslation  of its Greek name. b The only controversy was whether  or not the nominative was to be called a case, and the  text must be expanded to conform to this basic fact ; cf.  Charisius, i. 154. 6-8 Keil, Priscian, ii. 185. 12-14 Keil, etc.  Cf. viii. 1 note a, above. c The Greeks had no ablative  case.   § 17. a Nowhere recorded as a cognomen, despite Varro.  b Recorded as a cognomen in the Claudian and the Julian  gentes, and in several others. c Not recorded as a cog-  nomen. d Namely, comparison of adjectives. * For  such cognomina, c/. Fulvius Nobilior and Fabius Maximus.  f i.e., adjectives.  384     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VIII. 16-18     might be able to make a distinction when he was  calling, when he was giving, when he was accusing,"  and other differences of this same sort, which led us as  well as the Greeks to the declension of nouns. The  oblique forms which develop from the nominative are  without dispute to be called cases ; but there are  those who question whether the nominative is properly  a case. 6 At any rate, we have six forms, and the  Greeks five e : he who is called, as (nominative) Her-  cules ; how the calling is done, as (vocative) Hercule ;  whither there is a calling, as to (accusative) Herculem ;  by whom the calling is done, as by (ablative) Hercule ;  to or for whom there is a calling, as to or for (dative)  Herculi ; of whom the calling or called object is, as of  (genitive) Herculis.   VII. 17. There are certain words which are like  added family names, such as Prudens ° * prudent,*  Cajididus b * frank/ Strenuus e * brisk,* and in them  differences may be shown by a suffix, since the quality  may be present in them to a greater or a smaller  degree : therefore to these words a kind of inflection d  is attached, so that from candidum 1 shining white '  comes the comparative candidius and the superlative  candidissimumf formed in the same way as similar  forms from longum * long,' dives 1 rich,' and other  words of this kind/   18. The terms which are derived for application  to exterior objects, are for example equile ' horse-  stable ' from equus ' horse,' ovile ' sheepfold * from  oves 1 sheep,' and others in this same way ; these are  the opposite of those which I mentioned above, such   § 18. ° Here, objects named by derivation from living  beings ; in § 15, living beings named by derivation from  inanimate objects.   vol. ti c 385     VARRO     sus, ab urbe urbanus, ab atro atratus : ut nonnunquam  ab homine locus, ab eo loco homo, ut ab Romulo  Roma, ab Roma Romanus.   19. Aliquot modis declinata ea quae foris : nam  aliter qui a maioribus suis, Laton{i)us 1 et Priamidae,  aliter quae (a) 2 facto, ut a praedando praeda, a  merendo merces ; sic alia sunt, quae circum ire non  difficile ; sed quod genus iam videtur et alia urgent,  omitto.   VIII. 20. In verborum genere quae tempora ad-  significant, quod ea erant tria, praeteritum, praesens,  futurum, declinatio facienda fuit triplex, ut ab saluto  salutabam, salutabo ; cum item personarum natura  triplex esset, qui loqueretur, (ad quern), 1 de quo, haec  ab eodem verbo declinata, quae in copia verborum  explicabuntur.   IX. 21. Quoniam dictum de duobus, declinatio 1  cur et in qua(s) 2 sit facta, 3 tertium quod relinquitur,   § 19. 1 p, Laetus, for latonus F. 2 Added by Aug.,  with B.   % 20. 1 Added by Laetus after de quo, and transferred to  this position by Mue.   § 21. 1 Mue., for duabus declinationibus. 2 KenU for  qua ; cf in quas viii. 9. 3 A. Sp.,for fama.     b Romulus is derived from Roma, not the reverse, as Varro  has it.   § 19. Apollo ; but oftener Latonia (fern.), Diana.  b Especially Hector, Paris, Helenus, Deiphobus. e Cf v. 44.   § 20. a That is, verbs.  386     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VIII. 18-21     as pecuniosus ' moneyed man * from pecunia 1 money/  urbanus 1 city man ' from urbs 1 city/ atraius * clad in  mourning ' from atrum ' black.' Thus sometimes a  place is named from a man, and then a man from this  place, as Rome from Romulus b and then Roman  from Rome.   19. The nouns which relate to exterior objects are  derived in sundry ways : those like Latonias ' Latona's  child * a and Priamidae ' Priam's sons/ b which are  derived from the names of their progenitors, are  formed in one way, and those which come from an  action are made in another way, such as praeda  ' booty ' from praedari * to pillage * and merces ' wages ' c  from mereri ' to earn. 1 In the same way there are  still others, which can be enumerated without diffi-  culty ; but because this category of words is now  clear to the understanding and other matters press  for attention, I pass them by.   VIII. 20. Inasmuch as in the class of words which  indicate also time-ideas a there were these three  time-ideas, past, present, and future, there had to be  three sets of derived forms, as from the present saluto  ' I salute ' there are the past salutabam and the future  salutabo. Since the persons of the verb were likewise  of three natures, the one who was speaking, the one  to whom the speaking was done, and the one about  whom the speaking took place, there are these deriva-  tive forms of each and every verb ; and these forms  will be expounded in the account of the stock of verbs  which is in use.   IX. 21 . Since two points have been discussed, why  derivation exists and to what products it eventuates,  the remaining third point shall now be spoken of,  namely, how and in what manner derivation takes   387     VARRO     quemadmodum, nunc dicetur.* Declinationum genera  sunt duo, voluntarium et naturale ; voluntarium est,  quo ut cuiusque tulit voluntas declinavit. Sic tres  cum emerunt Ephesi singulos servos, nonnunquam  alius declinat nomen ab eo qui vendit Artemidorus,  atque Artemam appellat, alius a regione quod ibi  emit, ab Ion(i)a 5 Iona,* alius quod Ephesi Ephesium,  sic alius ab alia aliqua re, ut visum est.   22. Contra naturalem declinationem dico, quae  non a singulorum oritur voluntate, sed a com(m)uni  consensu. Itaque omnes impositis nominibus eorum  item declinant casus atque eodem modo dicunt huius  Artemidori 1 et huius Ionis et huius Ephesi, 2 sic in  casibus aliis.   23. Cum utrumque nonnunquam accidat, et ut in  voluntaria declinatione animadvertatur natura et in  naturali voluntas, quae, cuiusmodi sint, aperientur  infra ; quod utraque declinatione alia fiunt similia,  alia dissimilia, de eo Graeci Latinique libros fecerunt  multos, partim cum alii putarent in loquendo ea verba  sequi oportere, quae ab similibus similiter essent  declinata, quas appellarunt dvaXoylas, 1 alii cum id   4 Aitg., for dicitur. 5 Laetus, for Iona. 6 Mue., for  Ionam.   §22. 1 Apparently Varro^s own slip for Artemae.  2 Rhol.,for Ephesis.  § 23. 1 For analogiias.     § 21. a This term includes both word-formation and word-  inflection. 6 Practically equal to subjective and objective.  C A common type of hypocoristic or nickname, cf. Demas  from Demvcritus and similar names, Hippias from Hip-  parchus, etc.   § 22. a This is inflection. b Specifically, declension.  §23. a Cf. viii. 15-16, 51. b Cf. page 118 Funaioli.  388     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VIII. 21-23     place. There are two kinds of derivation, voluntary  and natural. b Voluntary derivation is that which is  the product of the individual person's volition, direct-  ing itself apart from control by others. So, when  three men have bought a slave apiece at Ephesus,  sometimes one derives his slave's name from that of  the seller Artemidorus and calls him Artemas c ;  another names his slave Ion, from Ionia the district,  because he has bought him there ; the third calls his  slave Ephesius, because he has bought him at Ephesus.  In this way each derives the name from a different  source, as he preferred.   22. On the other hand I call that derivation  natural, which is based not on the volition of indivi-  duals acting singly, but on general agreement. So,  when the names have been fixed, they derive the  case-forms of them in like fashion, 5 and in one and the  same way they all say in the genitive case Artemidori,  Ionis, Ephesi ; and so on in the other cases.   23. Sometimes both are found together, and in  such a way that in the voluntary derivation the pro-  cesses of nature are noted, and in the natural deriva-  tion the effects of volition ; of what sort these are,  will be recounted below. Since in the two kinds of  derivation some things approach likeness and others  become unlike, the Greeks and the Latins b have  written many books on the subject : in some of them  certain writers express the idea that in speaking men  ought to follow those words and forms which are  derived in similar fashion from like starting-points—  which they called the products of Analogy c ; and   e The regularizing principle which tends to eliminate irre-  gular forms of less frequent occurrence, still called Analogy,  by scientific linguists.   389     VARRO     ncglegendum putarent ac potius sequendam (dis)-  similitudinem, 2 quae in consuetudine est, quam  vocaruwtf 3 d(v)o)fxakiav , 4 cum, ut ego arbitror, utrum-  que sit nobis sequendum, quod (in) 5 declinatione  voluntaria sit anomalia, in naturali magis analogia.   24. De quibus utriusque generis declinationibus  libros faciam bis ternos, prioris tris de earum declina-  tionum disciplina, posteriores de 1 eius disciplinae  propaginibus. De prioribus primus erit hie, quae  contra similitudinem declinationum dicantur, secun-  dus, quae contra dissimilitudinem, tertius de simili-  tudinum forma ; de quibus quae expediero 2 singulis  tribus, turn de alteris totidem scribere ac dividere 3  incipiam.   X. 25. Quod huiusce 1 libri est dicere contra eos  qui similitudinem sequuntur, quae est ut in aetate  puer ad senem, (puella) 2 ad anum, in verbis ut est  scribo scribam, 3 dicam prius contra universam ana-  logiam, dein turn de singulis partibus. A natura  sermo(nis) 4 incipiam.   XI. 26. Omnis oratio cum debeat dirigi ad utili-  tatem, ad quam turn denique pervenit, si est aperta   2 Aug., with B t for similitudinem. 3 For vocarum.  4 Aldus* for AtoM AeNAN. 5 Added by Aug.   § 24. 1 L. Sp.,for ex. 2 Mue. ; expedierint Aug. ; for  experiero. 3 L. Sp. deleted incipimus after dividere.   g 25. 1 For huiuscae. 2 Added by Aldus. 3 L. Sp.  deleted dico after scribam. 4 Aug., for sermo.     d The irregularities summed up in this term are the products  of the regular working of ' phonetic law,' unrestrained by the  operation of Analogy ; the term Anomaly names it from  the product rather than from the working process. e It  seems better henceforth to translate analogia by Regularity  or the like, rather than to keep the word Analogy.   390     OX THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VIII. 23-26     others are of opinion that this should be disregarded  and rather men should follow the dissimilar and  irregular, which is found in ordinary habitual speech  — which they called the product of Anomaly.* But  in my opinion we ought to follow both, because in  voluntary derivation there is Anomaly, and in the  natural derivation there is even more strikingly  Regularity.*   24. About these two kinds of derivation I shall  write two sets of three books each : the first three  about the principles of these derivations, and the  latter set about the products of these principles. In  the former set the first book will contain the views  which may be offered against likeness in derivation  and declension ; the second will contain the argu-  ments against unlikeness ; the third will be about the  shape and manner of the likenesses. What I have  set in order on these topics, I shall write in the three  separate books ; then on the second set of topics I  shall begin to write, with due division into the same  number of books.   X. 25. Inasmuch as it is the task of this book to  speak against those who follow likeness a — which is  like the relation of boy to old man in the matter of  human life, and like that of girl to old woman, and in  verbs is the relation of scribo * I write * and scribam ' I  shall write * — I shall speak first against Regularity in  general, and then thereafter concerning its several  subdivisions. I shall begin with the nature of human  speech.   XI. 26. All speaking ought to be aimed at  practical utility, and it attains this only if it is clear   § 25. ° That is, regularity of paradigms resulting from  the process of Analogy.   391     VARRO     et brevis, quae petimus, quod obscurus 1 et longi(or) 2  orator est odio ; et cum efficiat aperta, ut intellegatur,  brevis, ut 3 cito intellegatur, et aperta(m) 4 consuetudo,  brevem temperantia loquentis, et utrumque fieri  possit sine analogia, nihil 5 ea opus est. Neque enim,  utrum Herculi an Herculis clavam dici oporteat, si  doceat analogia, cum utrumque sit in consuetudine,  non neglegendum, 6 quod aeque sunt et brevi(a) et  aperta.   XII. 27. Praeterea quoius 1 utilitatis causa quae-  que res sit inventa, si ex ea quis id sit consecutus,  amplius ea(m) 2 scrutari cum sit nimium otiosi, et cum  utilitatis causa verba ideo sint imposita rebus ut  ea(s) 3 significent, si id consequimur una consuetudine,  nihil 4 prodest analogia.   XIII. 28. Accedit 1 quod quaecumque usus causa  ad vitam sint assumpta, in his no(strumst) 2 utilitatem  quaerere, non similitudinem : itaque in vestitu cum  dissimillima sit virilis toga tunica(e), 3 muliebri(s) 4  stola pallio, tamen inaequabilitatem hanc sequiwur 5  nihilo 6 minus.   XIV. 29. In tfedificiis, quo?n 1 non videamus habere   § 26. 1 Aldus, for obscurum. 2 GS., for longi (Aldus  longus). 3 Aldus, for et. 4 Aug., for aperta. 5 For  nichiL 6 Aug. deleted sunt after neglegendum.   §27. 1 Mue. s for quod ius. 2 Aug., for ea. 3 Ver-  tranius, for ea. 4 For nichil.   § 28. 1 Aldus, for accidit. 2 Fay, for non. 3 Laetus,  for tunica. , 4 Cuper, for muliebri. 5 Aug., with B, for  sequitur. . 6 For nichilo.   § 29. 1 Mue. ; quod quom L. Sp. ; for quod.     392     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VIII. 2S-29     and brief : characteristics which we seek, because  an obscure and longish speaker is disliked. And  since clear speaking causes the utterance to be  understood, and brief speaking causes it to be under-  stood quickly, and since also habitual use makes the  utterance clear and the speaker's self-restraint makes  it brief, and both these can be present without Regu-  larity, there is no need of this Regularity. For if  Regularity should instruct us whether we ought to  say Herculi a or Hercitlis for the genitive, as in the  phrase * the club of Hercules,' we must not fail to  disregard its teaching, since both are in habitual use,  and both forms are equally short and clear.   XII. 27. Besides, if from a thing one has secured  that useful service for which it was invented, it is the  act of a person with a great deal of idle time, to  examine it further ; and since the useful service for  which names are set upon things is that the names  should designate the things, then if we secure this  result by habitual use alone, Regularity adds no gain.   XIII. 28. There is the additional fact that in  those things which are taken into our daily life for  use, it is our practice to seek utility and not to seek  resemblance ; thus in the matter of clothing, although  a man's toga a is very unlike his tunic, & and a woman's  stola c is very unlike a. pallium? we make no objection  to the difference.   XIV. 29. In the case of buildings, although we do   § 26. This form occurs in Plautus, Persa 2, Rudens 822,  and in other authors.   § 28. The formal outer garment of a Roman man.  * A shirt or undergarment. c The dress of a Roman  matron. d The long outer garment of the Greeks, properly  a man's garb only, but worn also by prostitutes both in  Greece and in Italy as a sign of their livelihood.   393     VARRO     (ad) 2 atrium 7reptcrTv\.ov z similitudinem ct cubiculum  ad equile, 4 tamen propter utilitatcm in his dissimili-  tudines potius quam similitudines seqm'mur 5 : itaque  et hiberna triclinia et aestiva non item valvata ac  fenestrata facimus.   XV. 30. Quare cum, ut 1 in vestitu aedificiis, sic in  supellectile cibo ceterisque omnibus quae usus (causa) 2  ad vitam sunt assumpta dominetur inaequabilitas, in  sermone quoquc, qui est usus causa constitutus, ea  non repudianda.   XVI. 31. Quod si quis duplicem putat esse sum-  mam, ad quas metas 1 naturae sit perveniendumin usu,  utilitatis et elegantiae, quod non solum vestiti esse  vol umus ut vitcmus frigus, sed etiam ut videamur vestiti  esse honeste, non domum habere ut simus in tecto et  tuto solum, quo 2 necessitas contruserit, sed etiam ubi  voluptas retineri possit, non solum vasa ad victum  habilia,sed etiam figura bella atqueab artifice (ficta), 3  quod aliud homini, aliud humanitati satis est ; quod-  vis sitienti homini poculum idoneum, humanitati  (ni)si 4 bellum  parum ; sed cum discessum e(s)t 5 ab  utilitate ad voluptatem, tamen in eo ex dissimilitudine  plus voluptatis quam ex similitudine saepe capitur.   32. Quo nomine et gemina conclavia dissimiliter   2 Added by L. Sp. 3 For ITePHCThAON. 4 Hue.  deleted quod after equile. 5 F, Mue., for sequamur.   § 30. 1 Stephanus, for et. 2 Added by L. Sp.   §31. 1 For maetas. 2 Aug. (quoting a friend), for  quod. 3 Fay ; facta L. Sp. ; to fill a blank space in F of  about 4 letters. 4 Aldus, for si. 5 Aug., with B,for et.     § 29. a Jhe garden in the rear part of the house, surrounded  by colonnaded porticos. 6 The main hall in the front of  the house, with a central opening to the sky under which  there was a rectangular water-basin built in the floor.  394.     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VIII. 29-32     not see the persistyle a bearing resemblance to the  atrium 6 nor the sleeping-room bearing resemblance  to the horse-stable, still, on account of the utility in  them we seek for unlikenesses rather than likenesses ;  so also we provide winter dining-rooms and summer  dining-rooms with a different equipment of doors and  windows.   XV. 30. Therefore, since difference prevails not  only in clothing and in buildings, but also in furniture,  in food, and in all the other things which have been  taken into our daily life for use, the principle of  difference should not be rejected in human speech  either, which has been framed for the purpose of use.   XVI. 31. But if one should think that the sum of  those natural goals to which we ought to attain in  actual use consists of two items, that of utility and  that of refinement, because we wish to be clothed not  only to avoid cold but also to appear to be honourably  clothed ; and we wish to have a house not merely that  we may be under a roof and in a safe place into which  necessity has crowded us together, but also that we  may be where we may continue to experience the  pleasures of life ; and we wish to have table- vessels  that are not merely suitable to hold our food, but also  beautiful in form and shaped by an artist — for one  thing is enough for the human animal, and quite  another thing satisfies human refinement : any cup  at all is satisfactory to a man parched with thirst, but  any cup is inferior to the demands of refinement unless  it is artistically beautiful : — but as we have digressed  from the matter of utility to that of pleasure, it is a  fact that in such a case greater pleasure is often got  from difference of appearance than from likeness.   32. On this account, identical rooms are often   395     VARRO     pohwnt 1 et leetos non omnis paris magnitudine ae  figura faeiunt. Quod (si) 2 esset 3 analogia petenda  supelleetili, omnis leetos haberemus domi ad unam  formam et aut eum fulcro aut sine eo, nee eum ad  trieliniarem gradum, non item ad cubicularem ; neque  potius delectaremur supellectile distincta quae esset  ex ebore (aliisve) 4 rebus disparibus figuris quam  grabatis, 5 qui dva koyov* ad similem formam plerum-  que eadem materia fiunt. Quare aut negandum  nobis disparia esse iucunda aut, quoniam necesse est  confiteri, dicendum verborum dissimilitudine(m),  quae sit in eonsuetudine, 7 non esse vitandam.   XVII. 33. Quod si analogia sequenda est nobis,  aut ea observanda est quae est in eonsuetudine aut  quae non est. Si ea quae est sequenda est, prae-  ceptis nihil 1 opus est, quod, eum eonsuetudinem  sequemur, ea nos sequetur ; si quae non est in eon-  suetudine, quflteremus : ut quisque duo verba in  quattuor formis finxen't 2 similiter, quamvis haee  nolemus, tamen erunt sequenda, ut Iuppit(r)i, 3  Marspitrem ? Quas si quis servet analogias, pro  insano sit reprehendendus. Non ergo ea est se-  quenda.   § 32. 1 Koeler, for pollent. 2 Added by Laetus.  3 Laetus, for essent. 4 Fay ; aliisque Laetus ; to fill a  blank space of about 4 letters in F ; cf ix. 47. 5 For  grabattis. 6 Mue., for analogon ; cf x. 2. 7 For  eonsuetudinem.   §33. 1 For nichil. 2 Vert ran ius, for finxerunt. 3 L.  Sp., for Iuppiti.     § 33. a Namely, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative,  from the nominative as starting-point. 6 Such forms,  retaining and inflecting the pater which forms the second   396     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VIII. 32-33     ornamented in unlike manner, and couches are not all  made the same in size and shape. But if Regularity  were to be sought in furniture, we should have all the  couches in the house made in one fashion, and either  with posts or without them, and when we had a couch  suited for use beside the dining-table, we should not  fail to have just the same for bedroom use ; nor should  we rather be delighted with furniture which was  decorated with varying figures of ivory or other  materials, any more than in camp-beds, which with  regularity are almost always made of the same  material and in the same shape. Therefore either we  must deny that differences give pleasure, or, since we  must admit that they do, we must say that the un-  likeness in words which is found in habitual usage, is  not something to be avoided.   XVII. 33. But if we must follow Regularity,  either we must observe that Regularity which is  present in ordinary usage, or we must observe also  that which is not found there. If we must follow that  which is present, there is no need of rules, because  when we follow usage, Regularity attends us. But if  we ought to follow the Regularity which is not present  in ordinary usage, then we shall ask, When any one  has made two words in four forms ° according to the  same pattern, must we employ them just the same,  even though we do not wish to — as for example a  dative Iuppitri and an accusative Marspiirem ? b If  any one should persist in using such * regular forms,*  he ought to be rebuked as crazy. This kind of  Regularity, therefore, is not to be followed.   part of Iuppiter and Marspiter, are quite abnormal, and are  found chiefly in the grammarians as examples of forms which  are not to be used.   397     VARRO     XVIII. 34. Quod si oportet id es(se), 1 ut a simili-  bus similiter omnia declinentur verba, sequitur, ut ab  dissimilibus 2 dissimilia debeant fingi, quod non fit :  nam et (ab) 3 similibus alia fiunt similia, alia dis-  similia, et ab dissimilibus partim similia partim dis-  similia. Ab similibus similia, ut a bono et malo  bonum malum ; ab similibus dissimilia, ut ab lupus  lepus lupo lepori. Contra 4 ab dissimilibus dissimilia,  ut Priamus Paris, Priamo Pari ; ab dissimilibus  similia, ut Iupiter ovis, lovi ovi.   35. Eo iam magis analogias (esse negandum, 1  quod non modo ab similibus) 2 dissimilia finguntur, sed  etiam ab isdem 3 vocabulis dissimilia neque a dis-  similibus similia, sed etiam eadem. Ab isdem 4 voca-  bulis dissimilia fingi apparet, quod, cum duae sint  Al&ae, ab una dicuntur Albani, ab altera Albenses ;  cum trinae fuerint Athenae, ab una dicti Athenae(i), 5  ab altera Athenaiis, a tertia Athenaeopolitae.   36. Sic ex diversis verbis multa facta in declinando  inveniuntur eadem, ut cum dico ab Saturni Lua Luam,   § 34. 1 id esse Canal ; ita esse Hue., for id est. 2 L.  Sp.,for his similibus. 3 Added by L. Sp. ; a Aug., with B.  4 Aug. , for contraria.   § 35. 1 Added by L. Sp. 2 Added by Christ, who has  non solum a., for which Groth, citing L. Sp., gives non modo  ab. 3 Mae. ; iisdem Laetus ; for hisdem. 4 For  hisdem. 8 Laetus, for Athenae.     § 34. a Or accusative masculine.   § 35. ° Inhabitants of Alba Longa. h Inhabitants of  Alba Fucens or Fucentia, among the Aequi on the borders of  the Marsi. c There were several cities named Athens,  only that in Attica being important ; the forms of the names  are uncertain, especially that of the second, which may  however stand for 'Adyvateis like Aeolis v. 25 for AtoXeis.  There were many ethnics in -tvs, plural -e?s.  398     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VIII. 3^36     XVI II. 34-. But if the proper thing is that all words  that start from similar forms should be inflected  similarly, it follows that from dissimilar starting forms  dissimilar forme should be made by inflection ; and  this is not what is found. For from like forms some  like forms are made, and other unlike forms, and from  unlike forms also come some like forms and some  unlike forms. For instance, from likes cume likes, as  from bonus * good ' and malus * bad * come the neuter a  forms bonum and malum ; also from likes come unlikes,  as from lupus * wolf * and lepus ' hare ' come the unlike  datives lupo and lepori. On the other hand, from  unlikes there are unlikes, as from the nominatives  Priamus and Paris come the datives Priamo and Pari ;  also from unlikes there are likes, as nominatives  Iupiter * Jupiter,* avis * sheep,' and datives Iovi and  aw.   35. So much the more now must it be denied  that Regularities exist, because not only are un-  likes made from likes, but also from identical  words unlikes are made, and not merely likes, but  identicals are made from unlikes. From identical  names unlikes, it is clear, are made, because while  there are two towns named Alba, the people of the  one are called Albani a and those of the other are  called Albenses b ; while there are three cities named  Athens, the people of the one are called Athenaei,  those of the second are Athenaiis, those of the third  A thenaeopolitae. c   36. Similarly, many words made in derivation  from different words are found to be identical, as  when I say accusative Luam from Saturn s Lua, a and   § 36. ° An old Italic goddess who expiated the blood shed  in battle ; her formulaic connexion with Saturn is uncertain.   399     VARRO     et ab solvendo luo 1 luam. 2 Omnia 3 fere nostra  (n)omina 4 wrilia 5 et muliebria multitudinis cum recto  casu fiunt dissimilia, e#(de)m (in) 6 danc?(i) 7 : dis-  similia, ut mares Terentiei, feminae Terentia(e), 8  eadem in dandi, vireis Terentieis et mulieribus  Terentieis. Dissimile Plautus et Plautius, (Marcus et  Marcius) 8 ; et co(m)mune, ut huius Plauti et Marci.   XIX. 37. Denique si est analogia, quod in multis  verbis e(s)t x similitudo verborum, sequitur, quod in  pluribus est dissimilitudo, ut non sit in sermone  sequenda analogia.   XX. 38. Postremo, si est in oratione, aut in  omnibus eius partibus est aut in aliqua 1 : at 2 in omni-  bus non est, in aliqua esse parum est, ut album esse  ^ethiopa 3 non satis est quod habet candidos dentes :  non est ergo analogia.   XXI. 39- Cum ab similibus verbis quae declinan-  tur similia fore polliceantur qui analogias esse dicunt,  et cum simile turn 1 denique dicant esse 2 verbo ver-  bum, ex eodem si 3 genere eadem figura transitum de  cassu in cassum similiter ostendi possit, qui haec  dicunt utrumque ignorant, et in quo loco similitudo  debeat esse, et quemadmodum spectari soleat, simile   § 36. 1 Suerdsioeus, for abluo. 2 Aug.,, for abluam.  3 For omina. 4 JO. Sp.^for omina. 5 Scaliger, for libe-  ralia. * L. Sp.,for eum. 7 Laetus,for dant. 8 Ixietus,  for femina e terentia. 9 Added by Groth.   §37. x Aug., for ^t.   § 38. 1 Aug., with B, deleted esse parum after aliqua.  2 Canal, for et. 3 Mue.,for ethiopam.   § 39. 1 Aug., with B, for simili laetum. 2 L. Sp., for  dicantes se. 3 L. Sp., for sit.     b Solvendo is here attached to luo as a grloss, just as Saturni is  attached to Lua. c The older spelling -EI, historically  correct in these forms, was normal after I until the end of the  400     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VIII. 35-39     also luam as future of luo 1 loosing.' b Almost all our  names of men and women are unlike in the nomina-  tive case of the plural, but are identical in the dative :  unlike, as the men Terentu, c the women Terentiae, but  identical in the dative, men Terentiis c and women  Terentiis. Unlike are Plautus and Plautius, Marcus  and Marcius ; and yet there is a form common to  both, namely the genitive Plauti and Marci. d   XIX. 37. Finally, if Regularity does exist for the  reason that in many words there is a likeness of the  word-forms, it follows that because there is unlikeness  in a greater number of words the principle of Regu-  larity ought not to be followed in actual talking.   XX. 38. In the last place, if Regularity does  exist in speech, it exists either in all its parts or in  some one part ; but it does not exist in all, and it is  not enough that it exists in some one part, just as the  fact that an Ethiopian has white teeth Is not enough  to justify us in saying that an Ethiopian is white :  therefore Regularity does not exist.   XXI. 39. Since those who declare that Regulari-  ties exist, promise that the inflected forms from  like words will be alike, and since they then say that  a word is like another word only if it can be shown  that starting from the same gender and the same  inflectional form it passes in like fashion from case to  case, those who make these assertions show their  ignorance both of that in which the likeness must be  found and of how the presence or absence of the like-  Republic, and was therefore Varro's regular orthography.  In the translation the standardized Latin forms are used.  d The contracted form ending in -I was practically the exclu-  sive form used as genitive of nouns ending in -I US in the  nominative, until the end of the Republic.   vol. 11 D 401     VARRO     sit necne. Quae cum ignorant, sequitur ut, cum  (de) analogia 4 dicere non possint, sequi (non) 6 de-  beamus.   40. Quaero enim, verbum utrum dicant vocem  quae ex syllabis est ficta, earn quam audimus, an quod  ea significat, quam intellegimus, an utrumque. Si  vox voci esse debet similis, nihil 1 refert, quod significat  mas an femina sit, et utrum nomen an vocabulum sit,  quod ilk' 2 interesse dicunt.   41. Sin illud quod significatur debet esse simile,  Diona et Theona quos dicunt esse paene ipsi geminos,  inveniuntur esse dissimiles, si alter erit puer, alter  senex, aut unus albus et alter ^ethiops, item aliqua  re alia dissimile(s). 1 Sin ex 2 utraque parte debet  verbum esse simile, non cito invenietur qui(n) 3 in  altera utra re claudicet, nec Perpenna et Alfen(a) 4  erit simile, quod alterum nomen virum, alterum  mulierem significat. Quare quoniam ubi similitudo  esse debeat nequeunt ostendere, impudentes sunt qui  dicunt esse analogias.   XXII. 42. Alterum illud quod dixi, quemad-  modum simile (s)pectari 1 oporteret, ignorare apparet  ex eorum praecepto, quod dicunt, cum transient e   4 GS.,for analogiam ; cf. viii. 43. 5 Added by Vertranius.   % 40. 1 For nichil. 2 Laetus, for illae.   §41. 1 Aug., for dissimile. 2 For ex ex. 3 Ed.  Veneta, for qui. 4 GS. ; Alphena L. Sp. ; Alphaena  Rhol. ; Alfaena Laetus ; for Alfaen.   § 42. 1 Victorias, for expectari.   § 41. ° These names were often used by the philosophers  as a typical pair in their discussions ; the accusatives Diona  and Theona in the text, instead of the nominative, are assimil-  402     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VIIL 39-42     ness is wont to be recognized. Since they are ignorant  of these matters, it follows that we ought not to  follow them, inasmuch as they are unable to pro-  nounce with authority on the subject of Regularity.   4-0. For I ask whether by a * word ' they mean  the spoken word which consists of syllables, that word  which we hear, or that which the spoken word indi-  cates, which we understand, or both. If the spoken  word must be like another spoken word, it makes no  difference whether what it indicates is male or female,  and whether it is a proper name or a common noun ;  and yet the supporters of Regularity say that these  factors do make a difference.   41. But if that which is denoted by like words  ought to be like, then Dion and Tkeon, a which they  themselves say are almost identical, are found to be  unlike, if the one is a boy and the other an old man,  or one is white and the other an Ethiopian 6 ; and  likewise if they are unlike in some other respect. But  if the word must be like in both directions, there will  not quickly be found one that is not defective in one  respect or the other, nor will Perpenna and Alfena  prove to be alike, because the one name denotes a  man and the other a woman. Therefore, since they  are unable to show wherein the likeness must exist,  those who assert that Regularities exist are utterly  shameless.   XXII. 42. The other matter that I have men-  tioned, how the likeness is to be recognized, they  clearly fail to appreciate in that they set up a precept  that only when the passage is made from the nomina-   ated to the immediately following relative. b For the same  contrast, yatic. &   XXXII. 57. The words which are made from  verbs are such as scriptor ' writer ' from scribere 1 to  write * and lector ' read er * from legere ' to read * ;  that those also do not preserve a likeness can be seen  from the following : although amator * lover ' from  amare * to love ' and salutator * saluter * from salutare  ' to salute * are formed in like manner, there is no  cantator ° ' singer * from cantare * to sing * ; and   § 56. a Wrong forms, formed for purposes of argument.  * Not Libyatici, but Libyci was the form in use.   § 57. a Up to Varro's time, only cantor was used ; can-  tator is a later word.     415     VARRO     cum dicatur lassus sum metendo ferendo, ex his voca-  bula non reddunt proportionem, quo(niam) 2 non fit  ut messor fertor. Multa sunt item in hac specie in  quibus potius consuetudinem sequimur quam ra-  tionem verborum.   58. Pr^eterea cum sint ab eadem origine ver-  borum vocabula dissimilia superiorum, quod simul  habent casus et tempora, quo vocantur participia, et  multa sint contraria ut amo amor, lego legor, 1 ab amo  et eiusmodi omnibus verbis oriuntur praesens et  futurum ut 2 amans et amaturus, 3 ab eis verbis tertium  quod debet fingi praeteriti, in lingua Latina reperiri  non potest : non ergo est analogia. Sic ab awor 4  legor et eiusmodi verbis 5 vocabulum eius generis  praeteriti te(m)poris fit, ut amatus, 6 neque praesentis  et futuri ab his fit.   59. Non est ergo analogia, praesertim cum tantus  numerus vocabulorum in eo genere interierit 1 quod  dicimus. In his verbis quae contraria non habent,  (ut) 2 loquor et venor, tamen dicimus loquens et  venans, locuturus (et venaturus, 3 locutus et venatus), 4  quod secundum analogias non est, quoniam dicimus   2 L. Sp., for quo.   § 58. 1 L. Sp. t /or amor amo seco secor. 2 Bentinus,for et.   3 H, B, Ixzetus, for ueta maturus. 4 Aug., for amabor.  5 Aug.> for uerbi est. 6 L. Sp.,for amaturus eram sum ero.   § 59. 1 Laetus, for inter orierit. 2 Added by L. Sp.  3 Added by Laetus. 4 Added by Fay.     b The corresponding noun of agency is lator.   § 58. a ,That is, active and passive voices. 6 Of the  active voice. c Of the passive voice. d Varro does not  consider the gerundive amandus to be a future passive par-  ticiple.  416     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VIII. 57-59     though we say " I am tired with metendo * reaping '  and ferendo * carrying,' " the words from these do not  represent a like relation, since there is no fertor b   * carrier ' made like messor ' reaper.' There are like-  wise many others of this class in which we follow usage  rather than conformity to the verbs.   58. Besides these there are other words which  also originate from verbs but are unlike those of which  we have already spoken, because they have both cases  and tenses, whence they are called participles. And  as many verbs have opposite forms, such as amo ' I  love,' amor * I am loved,* lego ' I read,' legor * I am  read,' from amo and all verbs of this kind 6 there  develop present and future participles, such as amans   * loving ' and amaturus * about to love,' but from these  verbs the third form which ought to be made, namely  the past participle, cannot be found in the Latin  language : therefore there is no Regularity. So also  from amor * I am loved,' legor * I am read,' and verbs  of this kind c the word of this class is made for past  time, as amatus ' loved,' but from them none is made  for the present and the future.*   59. Therefore there is no Regularity, especially  since such a great number of words has perished in  this class which we are mentioning. In these verbs  which have not both voices, such as loquor ' I speak '  and venor 1 I hunt,' b we none the less say loquens  1 speaking ' and venans ' hunting,' locutarus * about  to speak ' and venaturus * about to hunt,' locutus  ' having spoken ' and venatus * having hunted.' This  is not according to the Regularities, since we say   § 59. That is, many verbs lack a complete paradigm  that includes both active and passive forms. b Deponent  verbs.     VOL. 11     E     417     VARRO     loquor et venor, (non loquo et veno), 5 unde 8 ilia erant  superiora ; e(o) minus 7 servantur, quod 8 ex his quae  contraria verba non habent* alia efficiunt tenia, ut ea  quae dixi, alia bina, ut ea quae dicam : currens  ambulans, cursurus ambulaturus : tertia enim prae-  teriti non sunt, ut cursus sum, ambulatus sum.   60. Ne in his quidem, quae saepius quid fieri  ostendunt, servatur analogia : nam ut est a cantando  cantitans, ab amando amitans non est et sic multa.  Ut in his singularibus, sic in multitudinis : sicut enim  cantitantes seditantes 1 non dicuntur.   XXXIII. 61. Quoniam est vocabulorum genus  quod appellant compositicium et negant conferri id  oportere cum simplicibus de quibus adhuc dixi, de  compositis separatim dicam. Cum ab tibiis et canendo  tibicines dicantur, quaerunt, si analogias sequi opor-  teat, cur non a cithara et psalterio et pandura dicamus  citharicen et sic alia ; si ab aede et tuendo (aeditumus   5 Added by L. Sp. 6 venor unde Laetus, for uenerunt  de. 7 L. Sp., for eminus. 8 Mue. deleted cum after  quod. 9 Aug., with B,for habentur.  § 60. 1 M, Laetus, for sed ettitantes.     c That is, the deponent verbs, since they lack the active  forms otherwise, should not have the active participles  which actually they have. d Deponent verbs. e In-  transitive verbs of active form, which naturally have  no passive, and consequently no passive participle.  / Varro's logic here deserts him, since the deponent verbs  have a perfect participle of passive form and active mean-  ing, and there is no reason why intransitive verbs of active  form should not have a perfect participle passive in form  and active in meaning : in fact, such a participle is sometimes  found, like adultus * grown up,* from adoJescere 1 to grow up.'   418     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VIII. 59-61     loquor and venor, not loquo and veno, whence came the  forms given above. c The Regularities are the less  preserved, because some of the verbs which have not  both voices, make three participles each, like those  which I have named, d and other make only two each,*  such as those which I shall now name : currens   * running * and ambulans 1 walking,' cursurus ' about to  run ' and ambulaturus ' about to walk ' ; for the third  forms, those of the past, do not exist/ as in cursus sum   * I am run/ ambulatus sum 1 I am walked.'   60. But Regularity is not preserved even in those  which indicate that something is done with greater  frequency ; for though there is a cantitans ' repeatedly  singing * from caniare 1 to sing,' there is no amiians  1 repeatedly loving ' from amare * to love/ and simi-  larly with many others. The situation is the same in  the forms of the plural as in those of the singular :  though the plural caniitantes is used, seditantes*  1 sitting ' is not.   XXXIII. 61. Since there is a class of words which  they call compositional, saying that they ought not to  be grouped in the same category with the simple words  of which I have so far spoken, I shall deal separately  with these compounds. Since from tibiae * pipes * and  canere * to play * the tibicines 1 pipers ' are named, they  ask, If we ought to follow the Regularities, why then  from cithara * lute * and psalterium 1 psaltery ' and  pandura * Pans strings * should we not say citharicen a   * lute-player * and the rest in the same way ? If  from aedes * temple ' and tueri ' to guard * the aedi-   § 60. a The singular seditans also is not used, which is  implied by Varro, but not stated.   §61. • Citharista^ fern, citharistria, are used, both taken  from Greek.     419     VARRO     dicatur, cur non ab atrio et tuendo) 1 potius atritumus  sit quam atriensis ; si ab avibus capiendis auceps  dicatur, debuisse aiunt a piscibus capiendis ut aucu-  pem sic pisci(cu)pem 2 dici.   62. Ubi lavctur aes aerarias, non aerelavinas  nominari ; et ubi fodiatur argentum argentifodinas  dici, neque (ubi) 1 fodiatur ferrum ferrifodinas ; qui  lapides caedunt lapicidas, qui ligna, lignicidas non  dici ; neque ut aurificem sic argentificem ; non  doctum dici indoctum, non salsum insulsum. Sic ab  hoc quoque fonte quae profluant, (analogiam non  servare) 2 animadvertere est facile.   XXXIV. 63. Reliquitur de casibus, in quo Aris-  tarchei suos contendunt nervos. XXXV. Primum si  in his esset 1 analogia, dicunt de&ttisse 2 omnis nomi-  natus 3 et articulos habere totidem casus : nunc alios  habere unum solum, ut litteras singulas omnes, alios  tris, ut praedium praedii praedio, alios quattuor, ut   §61. 1 The omission in F (and all codd.) was filled by  Laetus with edituus est cur ab atrio et tuendo / Aldus inserted  non after tuendo ; Mue. wrote aeditumus and (with B) set  non after cur; A. Sp. proposed dicatur for sit. 2 Aug.,  with Btfor piscipem.   §62. 1 Added by Laetus. 2 Added by Christ.   § 63. 1 For essent. 2 Aldus, for de risse. 3 L. Sp. 9  for nominatiuos.     b The regular word is piscator ; one inscription has piscicapus.   §62. ° Regularly ferrariae * iron-mines.' b Regularly  lignatores 4 wood-cutters.' c Regularly argentarius 4 silver-  smith.' d The difference here consists in the change of the  radical vowel of salsus, when it comes to stand in a medial  syllable ; the process is called Vowel Weakening.   § 63. n Aristarchus, of Samothrace, famous grammarian  of Alexandria, lived about 216-144 b.c. He wrote many  commentaries on Greek authors, and many works on gram-  mar, in which he defended the principle of Regularity.   420     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VIII. 61-63     tumus * sacristan * is named, why from atrium ' main  hall * and tueri ' to guard ' is it not atriiumus ' butler '  rather than atriensis ? And if from avis caper e 4 to  catch birds * the auceps 4 fowler * is named, they say,  from pisds capere 4 to catch fish ' there ought to be a  pisciceps b * fisherman ' named like the auceps.   62. They remark also that establishments where  aes * copper * lavatur * is refined ' are called aerariae  4 smelters ' and not aerelavinae 4 copper-washery ' ;  and places where argentum 4 silver 1 foditur 4 is mined '  are called argentifodinae ' silver-mines,* but that  places where ferrum 4 iron ' is mined are not called  ferrifodinae a ; that those who caedunt 4 cut * lapides  * stones ' are called lapicidae * stone-cutters,' but that  those who cut lign a * firewood ' are not called ligni-  cidae b ; that there is no term argentifex e * silver-  smith ' like aurifex * goldsmith ' ; that a person who is  not doctus * learned ' is called indoctus, but one who is  not salsus * witty ' is called insulsus. d Thus the words  which come from this source also, it is easy to see, do  not observe Regularity.   XXXIV. 63. It remains to consider the problem  of the cases, on which the Aristarcheans a especially  exert their energies. XXXV. First, if in these there  were Regularity, they b say that all names and articles  ought to have the same number of cases ; but that as  things are some have one only, c like all individual  letters, others have three/ 1 like praedium praedii   Among his pupils were important scholars of the next genera-  tion. h Those who do not believe in the principle of Regu-  larity. c These are the indeclinable nouns. d Varro  counts only different case-forms : where he finds three, the  nom., acc., and voc. are identical, and the dat. and abl. are  identical ; etc.   421     VARRO     mel mellis melli melle, alios quinque, nt quintus  quinti quinto quintum quinte, alios sex, ut unus unius  uni unum line uno : non esse ergo in casibus analogias.   XXXVI. 64. Secundo quod Crates, 1 cur quae  singulos habent casus, ut litterae Graecae, non dican-  tur alpha alphati alphatos, si idem mihi respondebitur  quod Crateti, 2 non esse 3 vocabula nostra, sed penitus  barbara, qucreram, cur idem nostra nomina et Per-  sarum et ceterorum quos voeant barbaros cum easibus  dica(n)t. 4   65. Quare si essent in analogia, aut ut Poenicum  et ^/eg^ptiorum vocabula singulis easibus dicerent,  aut pluribus ut Gallorum ae eeterorum ; nam dicunt  alavda alauefcs 1 et sie alia. Sin 2 quod scrib?mt 3 dicent,  quod Poenicum si(n)t, 4 singulis casibus ideo eas lit-  teras Graecas nominari : sie Graeci nostra senis  easibus non quinis 5 dicere debebant ; quod eum non  faciunt, non est analogia.   XXXVII. 66. Quae si esset, 1 negant ullum casum  duobus modis debuisse dici ; quod fit contra. Nam  sine reprehensione vulgo alii dicunt in singulari hae   § 64. 1 Laetus, for grates. 2 Laetus, for grateti.   3 Aug., with B, for essent. 4 Laetus, for dicat.   § 65. 1 Scaliger, for alacco alaucus. 2 Popma, for  alias in. 3 Popma, M, for scribent. 4 lihol., for sit.  6 Laetus transposed quinis non.   § 66. 1 Laetus, for essent.   § 64. ° Crates of Mallos, head of the Pergamene school of  scholarship, was a contemporary and opponent of Aris-  tarchus, and championed the principle of Anomaly.  b Names of letters were indeclinable both in Greek and in  Latin.   § 65. a Not the Carthaginians, but the Phoenicians.  6 Varro knew that neither language had a case system.   422     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VIII. 63-66     praedio * farm,' others four, like mel mellis melli melle  ' honey/ others five, like qidntus quinti quinto quintum  quinie ' fifth,' others six, like units unius uni umim  une uno * one ' ; therefore in cases there are no  Regularities.   XXXVI. 64. Second, in reference to what Crates °  said as to why those which have only one case-form  each are not used in the forms alpha, dat. alphati, gen.  alphaios, because they are Greek letters b — if the  same answer is given to me as to Crates, that they are  not our words at all, but utterly foreign words, then I  shall ask why the same persons use a full set of case-  forms not only for our own personal names, but also  for those of the Persians and of the others whom they  call barbarians.   65. Wherefore, if these proper names were in a  state of Regularity, either they would use them with  a single case-form each, like the words of the Phoeni-  cians a and the Egyptians, b or with several, like those  of the Gauls and of the rest : for they say nom.  alauda c * lark,' gen. alaudas, and similarly other  words. But if, as they write, they say that the Greek  letters received names with but one case-form each  for the reason that they really belong to the Phoeni-  cians, then in this way the Greeks ought to speak our  words in six cases d each, not in five : inasmuch as  they do not do this, there is no Regularity.   XXXVII. 66. If Regularity existed, they say, no  case ought to be used in two forms ; but the opposite  is found to occur. For without censure quite com-  monly some say in the ablative singular ovi * sheep '   e The text is desperate here ; but at any rate alauda is Celtic.  d Greek had no form by which it might represent the Latin  ablative.   423     VARRO     ovi et avi, alii hac ove et ave ; in multitudinis hae  puppis restis et hae puppes restes ; item quod in  patrico 2 casu hoc genus dispariliter dicuntur civitatum  parentum et civitatium parentium, in accusandi hos  montes fontes et hos montis fontis.   XXXVIII. 67. Item cum, si sit analogia, debeant  ab similibus verbis similiter declinatis sirnilia fieri et  id non fieri ostendi possit, despiciendam earn esse  rationem. Atqui ostenditur : nam qui potest similius  esse quam gens, mens, 1 dens ? Cum horum casus  patricus et accusativus in multitudine sint dispariles 2 :  nam a primo fit gentium et gentis, utrubique ut sit  {I), 3 ab secundo mentium et mentes, 4 ut in priore solo  sit I, ab tertio dentum et dentes, ut in neutro sit.   68. Sic item quoniam simile est recto casu surus  lupus lepus, rogant, quor non dicatur proportione 1  suro lupo lepo. Sin respondeatur sirnilia non esse,  quod ea vocemus dissimiliter sure lupe lepus (sic enim  respondere voluit Aristarc^us Crateti : nam cum  scripsisset sirnilia esse Philomedes Heraclides Meli-  certes, dixit non esse sirnilia : in vocando enim cum   — and that both kinds are present in our  language also ?   32. For my part I have no doubt that you have  observed the countless number of likenesses in speech,  such as those of the three tenses of the verb, or its  three persons. XXV. Who indeed can have failed  to join you in observing that in all speech there are  the three tenses lego 1 I read/ legebam ' I was  reading/ legam * I shall read/ and similarly the  three persons lego 1 I read/ legis * thou readest/  legit ' he reads/ though these same forms may be  spoken in such a way that sometimes one only is  meant, at other times more ? Who is so slow-witted  that he has not observed also those likenesses which  we use in commands, those which we use in wishes,  those in questions, those in the case of matters not   peratives and subjunctives) exhibit certain regular resem-  blances ; and so do those used in wishes, etc.   461     VARRO     in interrogando, quibus in infectis rebus, quibus in  perfectis, sic in aliis discriminibus ?   XXVI. 33. Quare qui negant esse rationem 1  analogiae, non vide(n)t 2 naturam non solum ora-  tionis, sed etiam mundi ; qui autem vident et sequi  negant oportere, pugnant contra naturam, non contra  analogian, et pugnant volsillis, non gladio, cum pauca  excepta verba ex pelago sermonis (po)puli 3 minus  (usu) 4 trita afferant, cum dicant propterea analogias  non esse, similiter ut, si quis viderit mutilum bovem  aut luscum hominem claudicantemque equum, neget  in 5 bovum hominum et equorum natura similitudines  proportione constare.   XXVII. 34. Qui autem duo genera esse dicunt  analogiae, unum naturale, quod ut ex satis 1 nascuntur  (lentibus) 2 lentes 3 sic e.r (lupino) 4 lupinum, alterum  voluntarium, ut in fabrica, cum vident sctfenam ut  in dexteriore parte sint ostia, sic esse in sinisteriore  simili ratione factam, de his duobus generibus  naturalcm esse analogian, ut sit in motibus caeli,  voluntariam non esse, quod ut quo(i)que 5 fabro  lubitum sit possit facere partis scaenae : sic in homi-  num partibus esse analogias, quod ea(s) 6 natura  faciat, in verbis non esse, quod ea homines ad suam  quisque voluntatem fingat, itaque de eisdem rebus  alia verba habere Graecos, alia S?/ros, alia Latinos :  ego declinatus verbornm et voluntarios et naturalis   § 33. 1 For orationem. 2 For uidet. 3 Canal, for  puli. 4 Transferred to this place by Fay ; added by GS.  before populi. 5 Sciop, deleted cornibus after in.   §34. 1 Vertranius, after Aug., for natis. 2 Added by  L. Sp. 3 For lentis. 4 L. Sp. ; ex lupinis Aug., with  B ; for et. 5 B, for quoque. 6 Laetus, for ea.   § 34. a The expected continuation is, " They are in error."  462     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 32-34     completed and those for matters completed, and  similarly in other differentiations ?   XXVI. 33. Therefore those who say that there is  no logical system of Regularity, fail to see the nature  not only of speech, but also of the world. Those  who see it and say that it ought not to be followed,  are fighting against nature, not against the principle  of Regularity, and they are fighting with pincers,  not with a sword, since out of the great sea of speech  they select and offer in evidence a few words not  very familiar in popular use, saying that for this  reason the Regularities do not exist : just as if one  should have seen a dehorned ox or a one-eyed man  and a lame horse, and should say that the likenesses  do not exist with regularity in the nature of cattle,  men, and horses.   XXVII. 34. Those moreover who say that there  are two kinds of Regularity, one natural, namely  that lentils grow from planted lentils, and so does  lupine from lupine, and the other voluntary, as in the  workshop, when they see the stage as "having an  entrance on the right and think that it has for a like  reason been made with an entrance on the left ; and  say further, that of these two kinds the natural  Regularity really exists, as in the motions of the  heavenly bodies, but the voluntary Regularity is not  real, because each craftsman can make the parts of  the stage as he pleases : that thus in the parts of  men there are Regularities, because nature makes  them, but there is none in words, because men shape  them each as he wills, and therefore as names for the  same things the Greeks have one set of words, the  Syrians another, the Latins still another a — I firmly  think that there are both voluntary and natural   463     VARRO     esse puto, voluntarios quibus homines vocabula  imposwerint 7 rebus quaedam, ut ab Romulo Roma,  ab Tibure* TVburtes, naturales ut ab impositis vo-  cabulis quae inclinantur in tempore* aut in casus,  ut ab Romulo Romuli Romulum et ab dico dicebam  dixeram.   35. Itaque in voluntariis declinationibus incon-  stantia est, in naturalibus constantia ; quae utrasque  quoniam iei non debeant negare esse in oratione,  quom 1 in mundi partibus omnibus sint, et declina-  tiones verborum innumerabilcs, dicendum est esse  in his analogias. Neque ideo statim ea in omnibus  verbis est sequenda : nam si qua perperam declinavit  verba consuetudo, ut ea aliter (non possint efferri) 2  sine offensione multorum, hinc rationem 3 verborum  praetermittendam ostendit loquendi ratio.   XXVIII. 36. Quod ad universam pertinet cau-  sam, cur similitudo et sit in oratione et debeat  observari et quam ad finem quoque, satis dictum.  Quare quod sequitur de partibus singulis deinceps  expediemus ac singula crimina quae dicunt (contra) 1  analogias solvemus.   37. In quo animadvertito natura quadruplicem  esse formam, ad quam in declinando accommodari  debeant verba : quod debeat subesse res quae 1   7 For imposierint 8 For tybere. 9 For tempore.   § 35. 1 Mtie., with a, for quam. 2 Added by GS., after  Aldus efferri non possit (Aug., possint). 3 Sciop., a, for  orationem.   § 36. 1 Added by L. Sp. ; cf ix. 7.   §37. 1 RhoL, for resque.     § 35. ° That is, a regular form must be discarded in  464     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 3^-37   derivations of words, voluntary for the things on  which men have imposed certain names, as Rome  from Romulus and the Tiburfes ' men of Tibur ' from  Tibur, and natural as those which are inflected for  tenses or for cases from the imposed names, as  genitive Romuli and accusative Eomulum from  Romulus, and from dico ' I say ' the imperfect dicebam  and the pluperfect dixeram.   35. Therefore in the voluntary derivations there  is inconsistency, and in the natural derivations there  is consistency. Inasmuch as they ought not to deny  the presence of both of these in speech, since they are  in all parts of the world, and the derivative forms of  words are countless, we must say that in words also  the Regularities are present. And yet Regularity  does not for this reason have to be followed in all  words ; for if usage has inflected or derived any  words wrongly, so that they cannot be uttered without  giving offence to many persons, the logic of speaking  shows us that because of this offence the logic of the  words must be set aside.   XXVIII. 36. As far as concerns the general  cause why likeness is present in speech and ought to  be observed, and also to what extent this should be  done, enough has now been said. Therefore in the  following we shall set forth its several parts item by  item, and refute the individual charges which they  bring against the Regularities.   37. In this matter, you should take notice that by  nature there are four elements in the basic situation  to which words must be adjusted in inflection : there  must be an underlying object or idea to be de-  favour of an irregular form if the feeling (Sprachge/uhl) of  the speakers rebels against it.   vol. ii h 465     VARRO     designetur, 2 et ut sit ea res 3 in usu, et ut vocis natura  ea sit quae significavit, ut declinari possit, et simili-  tude* figura(e) 4 verbi ut sit ea quae ex se declinatw 5  genus prodere certum posset. 6   38. Quo neque a terra terrus ut dicatur postu-  landum est, quod natura non subest, ut in hoc alterum  maris, alterum feminae debeat esse ; sic neque  propter usum, ut Terentius significat unum, plures  Terentii, postulandum est, ut sic dicamus faba et  fabae : non enim in simili us(u) 1 utrumque ; neque  ut dicimus ab Terentius Terentium, sic postulandum  ut inclinemus ab A et B, quod non omnis vox natura  habet declinatus.   39. Neque in forma collata quaerendum solum,  quid habeat in figura simile, sed etiam nonnunquam  in eo quern habeat effectum. Sic enim lana Gallicana  et Apula videtur imperito similis propter speciem,  cum peritus Apulam emat pluris, quod in usu firmior  sit. Haec nunc strictim dicta apertiora fient infra.  Incipiam hinc.   XXIX. 40. Quod rogant ex qua parte oporteat  simile esse verbum, a voce an a 1 significatione, re-  spondemus a voce ; scd tamen nonnunquam quaerimus  genere similiane sint quae significantur ac nomen   2 Laetus, for design entur. 3 G, IJ, a, Laetus^ for cares.  4 Mite., for figura. 5 L. Sp.,for declinata. 6 Aug for  passu nt.   § 38. 1 L. Sp., for similius.   § 40. 1 After J^aetus, ab voce an, for aboceana.     § 38. a The singular faba was used also collectively for the  plural or mass idea ; cf. Priscian, ii. 176 Keil. b Names of  letters.   § 39. a Cf. § 92.   § 40. ° Cf viii. 40.   466     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 37-40     signated ; this object or idea must be in use ; the  nature of the utterance which has designated it,  must be such that it can be inflected ; and the re-  semblance of the word s form to other words must be  such that of itself it can reveal a definite class in  respect to inflection.   38. Therefore it is not to be demanded that from  terra * earth * there should be also a terms, because  there is no natural basis that in this object there  ought to be one word for the male and another for  the female. Similarly, with respect to usage, while  Terentius designates one person of the name and  Terentii designates several, it is not to be demanded  that in this way we should say faba * bean ' and Jabae  ' beans/ for the two are not subject to the same  use. a Nor is it to be demanded that as we say  acc. Tereniium from nom. Terentius, we should make  case-forms from A and B, b because not every utter-  ance is naturally fitted for declensional forms.   39. The likeness which the word has in its shape  must be investigated not in the comparison of the  basis merely, but also sometimes in the effect which it  has. For thus the Gallic wool and the Apulian wool  seem alike to the inexperienced on account of their  appearance, though the expert buys the Apulian at a  higher price because in use it lasts better. These  matters, which have been touched upon hastily  here, will become clearer in a later discussion.  Now I shall start.   XXIX. 40. To their question in what respect a  word ought to be similar, sound or meaning, we  answer that it should be so in sound. But yet some-  times we ask whether the objects designated are  like in kind, and compare a man's name with a man's,   467     VARRO     virile cum virili conferimus, feminae cum muliebri :  non quod id quod significant vocem commoveat, sed  quod nonnunquam in re dissim(ili par)ilis 2 figurae  formas in simile' 3 imponunt dispariles, 4 ut calcei mulie-  bres sint an viriles dicimus ad similitudinem figurae,  cum tamen sciamus nonnunquam et mulierem habere  calceos viriles et virum muliebris.   41. Sic dici virum Perpennam ut AZ/enam 1  muliebri forma 2 et contra parietem ut abietem esse  forma 8 similem, quo(m) 4 alterum vocabulum dicatur  virile, alterum muliebre et utrumque natura neutrum  sit. 5 Itaque ea virilia dicimus non quae virum'  significant, sed quibus proponimus hie et hi, et sic  muliebria in quibus dicere posswmus 7 haec aut hae.   XXX. 42. Quare nihil 1 est, quod dicunt Theona  et Diona non esse similis, si alter est Jethiops, alter  al6us, 2 si analogia rerum dissimilitudines adsumat ad  discernendum vocis verbi figuras.   XXXI. 43. Quod dicunt simile sit necne nomen  nomini impudenter AristarcAum praecipere opor-  tere spectare non solum ex recto, sed etiam ex  eorum vocandi casu, esse 1 enim deridiculum, si similes   2 GS. ; dissimilis Mue. ; for dissimilis. 3 GS. ;     §41. 1 ut Alfenam Mue., for aut plenam ; cf viii. 41.  2 Laetus, for formam. 3 Aldus, for formam. 4 Mue. ;  cum Aug.; for quo. 5 Ant. Miller and Reiter, for sic.  6 Aldus, for utrum. 7 M, Laetus,for possimus.   § 42. 1 For nichil. 2 Mue., for galhis / cf viii. 41.  § 43. 1 L. Sp., C. F. W. Mueller, Madvig, for esset.     § 41. a Cf viii. 41. 6 The forms of hie haec hoc are  regularly used by the grammarians to indicate the case,  number, and gender of a word.     in  simili Mue. ; for indissimiles.      468     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 40-43     a woman's name with a woman's : not because that  which they designate affects the word, but because  sometimes in case of an unlike thing they set upon  it forms of an equivalent appearance, and on a like  thing they set unequal forms, as we call shoes women's  shoes or men's shoes by the likeness of the shape,  although we know that sometimes a woman wears  men's shoes and a man wears women's shoes.   41. In like fashion, we say, a man is called  Perpe?ina f like Alfena, with a feminine form ° ; and  on the other hand paries ' house-wall ' is like abies  ' fir-tree ' in form, although the former word is used as  a masculine, the latter as a feminine, and both are  naturally neuter. Therefore those which we use  as masculines are not those which denote a male  being, but those before which we employ hie and hi,  and those are feminines with reference to which we  can say haec or hae. b   XXX. 42. For this reason it amounts to nothing,  that on the premise that Regularity adopts the  unlikenesses of the objects as a criterion for difference  in the forms a of the spoken word, 6 they say that  Theon and Dion are not alike if the one is an Ethiopian  and the other is a white man. c   XXXI. 43. As to what they say, a that Aristarchus  was shameless in his instructions that to see whether  one name was like another you should view it not  only from the nominative, but also from the vocative  — for the same persons say that it is absurd to judge   § 42. ° One of the rare examples of the accusative of the  gerund with an object. b The word as sound is vox, while  the word as symbol of meaning is verbum ; the vox verbi is  therefore the sound, or series of sounds, which represent the  symbol of meaning. Cf. viii. 40. e Cf. viii. 41.   § 43. a Cf. viii. 42.   469     VARRO     inter se parentes sint, de filiis iudicare 2 : errant, quod  non ab eo(rum) 3 obliquis casibus fit, ut recti simih' 4  facie ostendantur, sed propter eos facilius perspici  similitudo potest eorum quam vim habeat, 5 ut  lucerna in tenebris allata non facit (ut) 6 quae ibi sunt  posita similia sint, sed ut videantur, quae sunt  quoius (mo)di sint. 7   44. Quid similius videtur quam in his est extrema  littera crux Phryx 1 ? Quas, qui audit voces, auribus  discernere potest nemo, cum easdem non esse similes  ex (declin)atfs 2 verbis intellegamus, quod cum sit  cruces et Phryges* et de his extremis syllabis exemp-  tum* sit E, ex altero fit ut ex C et S crux, ex altero  G et S Phryx, 1 Quod item apparet, cum est demp-  tum S : nam fit unum cruce, 5 alterum Phryge*   XXXII. 45. Quod aiunt, cum in maiore parte  orationis non sit similitudo, non esse analogian,  dupliciter stulte dicunt, quod et in maiore parte est  et si in minore parte 1 sit, tamen sit, 2 nisi etiam nos  calceos negabunt habere, quod in maiore parte  corporis calceos non habeamus.   2 L. Sp. deleted qui after iudicare. 3 L. Sp., for eo.  4 Laetus, for simile. 5 Laetus, for habeant. 6 Added  by L. Sp. 1 L. Sp., for dissint.   §44. 1 Aldus, for frix. 2 GS„ for aliis. 3 Aldus,  for friges. 4 Aldus, for exemplum. 6 L. Sp., for cruci.  6 Phruge L. Sp., Phrj'gi Aldus ; for frigi.   § 45. 1 Here L. Sp., following other slightly different  deletions, deleted a repeated est et si in minore. 2 After  sit, L. Sp. deleted in maiore.     . § 44. a For Phryx and its forms, Augustinus (with B) read  frux, etc. ; but nom. frux was no longer used in Varro's  470     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 43-45     from the children whether the parents are alike :  those who say this are mistaken, for it does not come  about from their oblique cases that the nominatives  are shown to be of like appearance, but through the  oblique cases can be more easily seen what evidential  force lies in the likeness of the nominatives — even as  a lamp in the dark, when brought, does not cause that  the things which are there should be "alike, but that  they should be seen in their real character.   44. What seems more closely alike than the last  letter in the words crux ' cross ' and Phryx * Phry-  gian ' ? a No one who hears the spoken words can  by his ears distinguish the letters, 6 although we  know from the declined forms of the words that  though alike they are not identical ; because M'hen  the plurals cruces and Phryges are taken and E is  removed from the last syllables, from the one there  results crux, with X from C and S, and from the other  comes Phryx, from G and S. And the difference is  likewise clear, when S is removed ; for the one be-  comes cruce, the other Pkryge. c   XXXII. 45. As to what they say, a that since  likeness does not exist in the greater part of speech,  Regularity does not exist, they speak foolishly in two  ways, because Regularity is present in the greater  part of speech, and even if it should exist only in the  smaller part, still it is there : unless they will say that  we do not wear any shoes, because on the greater  part of our body we do not wear any.   time, cf. ix. 75-76. b The usual confusion of letters and  sounds. * Abl. sing. ; the manuscript has forms ending  in -i, which are datives, but the removal of s from cruces and  Phryges leaves forms ending in e, not in i.  § 45. a Cf viii. 37.   471     VARRO     XXXIII. 46. Quod dicunt nos dissimilitudinem  (potius gratam aceeptamque habere quam simili-  tudinem) 1 : itaque in vestitu in supellectile delectari  varietate, non paribus subuculis uxoris, respondeo, si  varietas iucunditas, magis varium esse in quo alia  sunt similia, alia non sunt : itaque sicut abacum  argento ornari, ut alia (paria sint, alia) 2 disparia, sic  orationem.   47. Rogant, si similitudo sit sequenda, cur malimus  habere lectos alios ex ebore, alios ex testudine, sie  item genere aliquo alio. Ad quae dico non dis(simili-  tudines solum nos, sed) 1 similitudines quoque sequi  saepe. Itaque ex eadem supellectili licet videre :  nam nemo facit triclinii lectos nisi paris et materia et  altitudine et figura. Qui(s) 2 facit mappas trielinaris  non similis inter se ? Quis pulvinos ? Quis denique  eetera, quae unius generis sint plura ?   48. Cum, inqui(un)t, 1 utilitatis causa introducta  sit oratio, sequendum non quae habebit similitudinem,  sed quae utilitatem. Ego utilitatis causa orationem  factam coneedo, sed ut vestimenta : quare ut hie  similitudines seqm'mur, 2 ut virilis tunica sit virili  similis, item toga togae, sic mulierum stola ut sit  stola(e) 3 proportione et pallium pallio simile, sie   § 46. 1 Added by GS., following other attempts {Aug.,  with B, inserted sequi after nos / but cf. § 47, where sequi is  actually found). 2 Added by Aug., with B.   § 47. 1 Added by Mve. 2 Aldus, for qui.   § 48. 1 Vertranius, for in quit. 2 Sciop., for sequere-  mur. 3 Aug., for stola.     472     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 46-4S     XXXIII. 46. As to what they say, a that we find  unlikeness pleasing and acceptable rather than  likeness, and therefore in clothing and in furniture  we take pleasure in variety, and not in having  our wives* undertunics all identical : I answer,  that if variety is pleasure, then there is greater  variety in that in which some things are alike and  others are not ; and just as a side-table is adorned  with silver in such a way that some ornaments  are alike and others are unlike, so also is speech  adorned.   47. They ask why, if likeness is to be followed,  we prefer to have some couches inlaid with ivory,  others with tortoise-shell, and so on with some other  kind of material. To which I say that unlikenesses  are not the only thing which we follow, but often we  follow likenesses. And this may be seen from the  same piece of furniture ; for no one makes the three  couches of the dining-room other than alike in material  and in height and in shape. Who makes the table-  napkins not like each other ? Or the cushions ?  And finally the other things which are several in  number but of one sort ?   48. Since speech, they say,° was introduced for the  sake of utility, we should follow not that kind of  speech which has likeness, but that which has utility.  I grant that speech has been produced for utility's  sake, but in the same way as garments have : there-  fore as in the latter we follow the likenesses, so that  a man's tunic is like a man's, and a toga like a -toga,  and a woman's dress is like a dress regularly and a  cloak like a cloak, so also, as words that are names   § 46. a Cf. viii. 31-32.  § 48. • C/. viu. 28-29.   473     VARRO     cum sint nomina utilitatis causa, tamen virilia inter  se similia, item muliebria inter se sequi debemus.   XXXIV. 49. Quod aiunt ut persedit et perstitit  sic (periacuit et) 1 percubuit quoniam non si(n)t, 2  non esse analogian, et 3 in hoc e(r)rant 4 : quod duo  posteriora ex prioribus declinata non sunt, cum  analogia polliceatur ex duobus similibus similiter  declinatis similia fore.   XXXV. 50. Qui dicunt quod sit ab Romulo Roma  et non Romula neque ut ab ove ovih'a 1 sic a bove  bovih'a, 2 (non) 3 esse analogias, errant, quod nemo  pollicetur e vocabulo vocabulum declinari recto casu  singulari in rectum singularem, sed ex duobus  vocabulis similibus casus similiter declinatos similes  fieri.   XXXVI. 51. Dicunt, quod vocabula litterarum  Latinarum non declinentur in casus, non esse analo-  gias. Hi ea quae natura declinari non possunt,  eorum declinatus requirunt, 1 proinde et non eo(rum) 2  dicatur esse analogia quae ab similibus verbis simili-  ter esse(nt) 3 declinata. Quare non solum in vocabu-  lis litterarum haec non requirenda analogia, sed (ne) 4  in syllaba quidem ulla, quod dicimus hoc BA, huius  BA, sic alia.   §49. 1 Added by Canal. 2 Kent, for sit. 3 Aug.,  for ut. 4 B, Bhol.,for erant.   § 50. 1 Aug., for ovilla. 2 Aug., for bovilla. 3 Added  by Stephanus.   § 51. 1 B, G, II, a, Aug., for sequirunt. 2 L. Sp., for  eo F 1 , ea F 2 . 3 L. Sp. ; esset M, a, Aug. ; for esse.  4 Added by Aldus.     § 49. Referring to a passage now lost. b The two  verbs are not attested in any form.   § 50. Cf. viii. 54 and 80.  474     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 48-51     of persons exist for the purpose of utility, ue ought  still to employ men's names that are like one another,  and women's names that also have mutual resem-  blances.   XXXIV. 49. As to the fact that they say a that  Regularity does not exist because there are no  perfects periacuit ' remained lying ' .and percubuit  ' remained lying,' like persedit 1 remained sitting '  and perstitit ' remained standing,' in this also they  are mistaken : for the two perfects have no presents 6  from which to be inflected, whereas Regularity  promises only that from two like words inflected in  like manner there will be like forms.   XXXV. 50. Those who say that there are no  Regularities because from Romulus there is Roma  and not Romala and there is no bovilia ' cow-stables '  from bos * cow ' as there is ovilia * she epf olds ' from  ovis * sheep,' are in error ; because nobody professes  that one word is derived from another word, from  nominative singular to nominative singular, but only  that from two like words like case-forms develop  when they are inflected in like manner.   XXXVI. 51. They say that because the words  denoting the Latin letters are not inflected into  case-forms the Regularities do not exist. Such  persons are demanding the declension of those words  which by nature cannot be inflected ; just as if  Regularity were not said b to belong merely to those  forms which had already been inflected in like fashion  from like words. Therefore not only in the names of  the letters must this kind of Regularity not be sought,  but not even in any syllable, because we say nomina-  tive ba, genitive ba, and so on.   § 51. a Of. viii. 64. 6 Cf. viii. 23.   475     VARRO     52. Quod si quis in hoc quoque velit dicere esse  analogias rerum, tenere potest : lit eni(m) 1 dicunt  ipsi alia nomina, quod quinque habeant figuras,  habere quinque casus, alia quattuor, sic minus alia,  dicere poterunt esse litteras ac syllabas in voce quae  singulos habeant casus, in rebus pluris 2 ; quemad-  modum inter se conferent ea quae quaternos habe-  bunt vocabulis casus, item ea inter se qua(e) ternos, 3  sic quae* singulos habebunt, ut conferant inter se  dicentes, ut sit hoc A, huic A, esse hoc E, 5 huic E.   XXXVII. 53. Quod dicunt esse quaedam verba  quae habeant declinatus, ut caput (capitis, nihil  nihili), 1 quorum par reperiri quod non possit, non esse  analogias, respondendum sine dubio, si quod est  singulare verbum, id non habere analogias : minimum  duo esse debent verba, in quibus sit similitudo.  Quare in hoc tollunt esse analogias.   54. Sed nikilum 1 vocabulum recto casu apparet in  hoc :   Quae dedit ipsa, 2 cap/t 3 neque dispendi facit hilum,   § 52. 1 For eni. 2 GS. ; plureis Canal ; for plurimis.  3 Koeler, for quaternos. 4 For sicque. 5 After hoc E,  L, Sp. deleted huiusce E.   § 53. 1 Added by Reitzenstein.   § 54. 1 Lachmann ; in nihil Sciop. ; for initium.  2 Sciop., for ira. 3 Seal ig er t for caput.     § 52. a Cf. viii. 63. 6 That is, words indeclinable in  form have only one case-form, but still have all the case-uses.   § 53. There is no corresponding passage in Book VIII.  6 That is, when they select a unique word as basis for argu-  ment.   476     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 52-54     52. But if any one should wish to say that in this  also there are Regularities in the things, he can  maintain it. For as they themselves say a that some  nouns, because they have five forms, have five cases,  and others have four, and others fewer in like manner,  they will be able to say that the letters and syllables  which have one case-form apiece in sound, have  several in connexion with the things h ; as they will  compare only with each other those which have  four case-forms for the words, and likewise those  which have three apiece, so let them compare with  each other those which have only one form each,  saying that nominative E, dative E is like nominative  A, dative A.   XXXVII. 53. As to the fact that they say a that  there are certain words which have declensional forms,  like caput ' head,* genitive capitis, and nihil * nothing,*  genitive nihili, a match for which cannot be found,  and therefore the Regularities do not exist, answer  must be made that unquestionably any word which  is the only one of its kind is outside the systems of  Regularity ; there must be at least two words for a  likeness to be existent therein. Therefore, in this  case, & they eliminate the possible existence of the  Regularities.   54. But the word nihilum * nothing ' is found in  the nominative in the following a :   The body she's given  Earth doth herself take back, and of loss not a whit  does she suffer,   §54. ° Ennuis, Ann. 14 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 6-7 War-  mington ; cf. v. 60 and 111. The neuter accusative, having  the same form as the nominative, is used as a proof of the  nominative form.     477     VARRO     quod valet nec dispendii facit quicquam. Idem hoc  obliquo apud Plautum :   Video enim 4 te nihili 5 pendere prae Philolacho* omnis  homines,   quod est ex ne et hili : quare dictus est nihili 5 qui non  hili erat. Casus tautum 1 commutantur de quo dici-  tur, (ut) 8 de homine : clicimus cnim hie homo  nihili 9 et huius hominis nihili et hunc hominem  nihili. Si in illo commutaremus, dicercmus ut hoc  linum et li£>um, 10 sic nihilum, non hie nihili, et (ut) 11  huic lino et li&o 12 , sic nihilo, non huic nihili. Potest  dici patricus casus, ut ei praeponantur 13 nomina 14  plura, ut hie casus Terentii, hunc casum Terentii,  hie miles legionis, huius militis legionis, hunc militem  legionis.   XXXVIII. 55. Negant, cum omnis natura sit aut  mas aut femina aut neutrum, (non) 1 debuisse ex  singulis vocibus ternas figuras vocabulorum fieri,  ut albus alba album ; nunc fieri in multis rebus  binas, ut Metellus Metella, 2 Aemi(]\)us ^e?wt(li)a, 3  nonnulla singula, ut tragoedws, com(o)edtt$ 4 ; sic  esse Marcum, Numerium, at Marcam, at Numeriam   4 Enim is Varro's addition; it is not found in the manu-  scripts of Plautus. 5 For nichili. 6 The manuscripts  of Plautus have Philolache. 7 Fay, for turn cum.  8 Added by GS. 9 After nihili, L. Sp. deleted est.  10 Mue., for limum, 11 et ut Mue. ; ut L. Sp. ; for et.  12 Mue., for Hmo. 13 Mue., for praeponuntur. 14 Kent,  for praenomina.   § 55. 1 Added by Mue. 2 Ixietus, for metelle.   3 Wackernagel ; Ennius Ennia Laetus ; for enuus enua.   4 Christ, for tragoedia comedia.  478     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 54-55     which is the same as ' nor of loss does she suffer  anything/ This same word is found in an oblique  case in Plautus 6 :   I see, beside Philolaches you count all men as nothing.   The word is from ne 1 not ' and genitive hilt ' whit ' ;  therefore he has been called nihili ' of naught ' who  was not kill * of a whit ' in value. Change is made  only in the case-forms of that about w hich the speak-  ing is done, as about a man ; for we say a man nihili  ' of no account ' in nominative, in genitive, in accusa-  tive, changing the forms of homo but not changing  the form nihili. If we were to make changes in it,  then we should say not hie nihili c but nihilum as the  nominative, like linum ' flax * and libum ' cake,' and  dative not huic nihili d but nihilo like lino and libo.  The genitive case * can however be said with various  nouns set before it, like nominative casus ' mishap '  Terentii ' of Terence,' accusative casum Terentii, and  nominative miles 'soldier* legionis 1 of the legion/  genitive militis legionis, accusative militem legionis.   XXXVIII. 55. They say a that since every  nature is either male or female or neuter, from the  individual spoken words there should not fail to be  forms of the words in sets of three, like albus, alba,  album ' white ' ; that now in many things there are  only two, like Metellus and Metella, Aemilius and  Aetnilia, and some with only one, like tragoedus   * tragic actor ' and comoedus ' comic actor ' ; that  there are the names Marcus and Numerius, but no   * Plautus, Most. 245. c The genitive nihili depending on  a nominative. d The genitive nihili depending on a  dative. * Such as the form nihili.   § 55. a Cf. viii. 47.   479     VARRO     non esse ; dici coruum, 5 turdum, non 6 dici coruam, 5  turdam ; contra dici pantherarn, merulam, non dici  pantherum, merulum ; nullius nostrum 7 filium et  filiam non apte 8 discerni marem ac feminam, ut  Terentium 9 et Terentiam, contra deorum liberos et  servorum non i/idem, 10 ut Iovis filium et filiam,  Iovem 11 et Iovam ; item magnum numerum vocabu-  lorum in hoc genere non servare analogias.   56. Ad haec dicimus, omnis orationis quamvis res  naturae subsit, tamen si ea in usu(m) 1 non pervenerit,  eo non pervenire verba : ideo equus dicitur et equa :  in usu enim horum discrimina 2 ; corvus et corva non,  quod sine usu id, quod dissimilis natura(e). 3 Itaque  quaedam al(i)ter ohm ac nunc : nam et turn omnes  mares et feminae dicebantur columbae, quod non  erant in eo usu domestico quo nunc, (ct nunc) 4  contra, propter domesticos usus quod internovimus,  appellatur mas columbus, femina columba.   57. Natura cum tria genera transit et id est in usu  discriminat*/(m), turn 1 denique apparet, ut est in  doctus 2 et docta et doctum : doctrina enim per tria  haec transire potest et usus docuit discriminare  doctam rem ab hominibus et in his marem ac feminam.  In mare et femina et neutro neque natura mans 3   6 Aldus, for corbum and corbam. * Aldus, for non non.   7 Aug., for neutros. 8 Aug., with B, for apta. 9 For  terentium et terentium. 10 Ed. Veneta, for ididem.  11 For iouem iouem.   § 56. 1 Aug., with B, for usu. 2 Aug., for discrimine.  3 Vertranius, for natura. * Added by L. Sp.   § 57. 1 Reiter, for discrimina totum. 2 Aug., with B,  for docto. 3 L. Sp., for mares.   b Numeria is in fact found, but as a divine name. c Cf.  §59.   § 56. a For the expression, cf. ix. 37.  480     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 55-57     Marca and Numeria 6 ; that corvus ' raven ' and  turdus * thrush ' are said, but the feminines corva and  turda are not said ; that on the other hand pantkera   * panther * and merula 1 blackbird ' are used, but the  masculines pantherus and merulus are not ; that there  is no one of us whose son and daughter are not suit-  ably distinguished as male and female^ as Terentius  and Terentia ; that on the other hand the children  of gods and slaves are not distinguished in the same  way, c as by Iovis and Iova for the son and the daughter  of Jupiter ; that likewise a great number of common  nouns do not in this respect preserve the Regularities.   56. To this we say that although the object is  basic a for the character of all speech, the words do  not succeed in reaching the object if it has not come  into our use ; therefore equus ' stallion ' and equa   * mare ' are said, but not corva beside corvtts, because  in that case the factor of unlike nature is without use  to us. But for this reason some things were for-  merly named otherwise than they are now : for then  all doves, male and female, were called columbae,  because they were not in that domestic use in which  they are now, and now, on the other hand, because we  have come to make a distinction on account of their  uses as domestic fowl, the male is called colnmbus  and the female columba.   57. When the nature goes through the three  genders and this distinction is made in use, then finally  it is seen, as it is in doctus 4 learned man ' and docta   * learned woman ' and doctum 4 learned thing ' ; for  learning can go across through these three, and use  has taught us to differentiate a learned thing from  human beings, and among the latter to distinguish  the male and the female. But in a male or a female     VOL. II     i     481     VARRO     transit neque feminae neque neutra, et ideo non  dicitur fcminus femina feminum, sic reliqua : itaque  singularibus ac secretis vocabulis appellati sunt.   58. Quare in quibus rebus non subest similis  natura aut usus,in his vocabulis huiusce modi ratio  quaeri non debet : ergo dicitur ut surdus vir, surda  mulier, sic surdum theatrum, quod omnes tres (res) 1  ad auditum sunt comparatae ; contra nemo dicit  cubiculum surdum, (quod) 2 ad silentium, non ad  auditum ; at si fenestram non habet, dicitur caecum,  ut coccus et caeca, quod omnia (non) 3 habent (quod) 3  lumen habere debent.   59. Mas et femina habent inter se natura quandam  societatem, (nullam societatem) 1 neutra cum his,  quod sunt diversa ; inter se 2 quoque de his perpauca  sunt quae habeant quandam co(m)munitatem. Dei  et servi nomina quod non item ut libera nostra trans-  eunt, eadem e(s)t 3 causa, quod ad usum attinct (et) 4  institui opus fuit de liberis, de reliquis nihil attinuit,  quod in servis gentilicia natura non subest in usu, in  nostri(s) nominibus qui sumus in Latio et liberi,  necessaria. Itaque ibi apparet analogia ac dicitur  Tcrentius vir, Terentia femina, Terentium genus.   § 58. 1 tres res Mve. ; res Bentinus ; for tres. 2 Added  by Canal ; quod id Mae. ; quod sit Sciop. 3 Added by  Fay.   § 59. 1 Added by A. Sp., after L. Sp. and Mue. 2 B,  G, II, Aug., for interest. 3 L. Sp., for et. 4 Added by  L. Sp.     ' § 58. a Varro means a theatre in which it is difficult to  hear ; but the term is applicable also to an audience which  is inattentive. b Rather, things are called 4 blind ' because  they hinder vision by darkness or by walls without openings,  such as windows and doors.   482     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 57-59   or what is neither, the nature of the male does not  shift, nor that of the female, nor the neuter nature,  and for this reason there is no saying of feminus,  femina.) Jemirrum, and so with the rest. Therefore  they are called by special and separate words.   58. Wherefore in the names of those things in  which there is no likeness of nature or of use as the  basis, a relation of this sort ought not to be sought.  Accordingly, as a surdus * deaf * man is a current  term, and a surda woman, so also is a surdum theatre,* 1  because all three things are equally intended for the  act of hearing. On the other hand, nobody says a  surdum sleeping-room, because it is intended for  silence and not for hearing ; but if it has no window,  it is called caecum 1 blind/ as a man is called caecus  and a woman caeca, because not all sleeping-rooms  have the light which they ought to have. b   59. The male and the female have by nature a  certain association with each other ; but the neuters  have no association with them, because they are  different from them in kind, and even of these neuters  there are very few which have any elements in  common with other neuters. As for the fact that the  names of a god and of a slave do not vary like our  free names, there is the same reason, namely that  the variation is connected with use, and had to be  established with reference to free persons, but as to  the rest had no consequence, because among slaves  the clan quality has no foundation in practice, but  it is necessary in the names of us who are in Latium  and are free. Therefore in that class Regularity  makes its appearance, and we say Terentius for a  man, Terentia for a woman, and Terentium for the  genus * stock.'   483     VARRO     60. In praenominibus ideo non fit item, quod haec  instituta ad usum singularia, quibus discernerentur  nomina gentilicia, ut ab numero Secunda, Tertia,  Quarta (in mulieribus), 1 in viris ut Quintus, Sextus,  Decimus, sic ab aliis rebus. Cum essent duo  Terentii aut plures, discernendi causa, ut aliquid  singulare haberent, notabant, forsitan ab eo, qui  mane natus diceretur, ut is Manius esset, qui luci,  Lucius, 2 qui post patris mortem, Postumus.   61 . E quibus (ae)que 1 cum item accidisset feminis,  proportione ita appellata declinarant praenomina  mulierum antiqua, Mania, Lucia, Postuma : videmus  enim Maniam matrem Larum dici, Luciam Voht-  mniam 2 Saliorum Carminibus appellari, Postumam a  multis post patris mortem etiam nunc appellari.   62. Quare quocumque progressa est natura cum  usu vocabul?, 1 similiter proportione propagata est  analogia, cum in quibus declinatus voluntarii 2 maris  et feminae et neutri, quae voluntaria, non debeant  similiter declinari, sed in quibus naturales, sint de-   § 60. 1 Placed here by GS. ; added before Secunda by L.  Sp. 2 p t Aldus^for lucilius.   § 61. 1 A. for que. 2 Aug., for Volaminiam.   § 62. 1 Aug. y with i?, for vocabula. 2 L. Sp., for  declinationibus voluntariis.   § 60. a Seemingly a contamination of ab eo quod with  sic . . . ut. b Properly, as the * last ' child ; but not to  be associated with post kit mum * after (burial in the) earth,'  though this popular etymology gave a later spelling post-  humus and the English posthumous,   § 61. a Mania is perhaps not related etymologieally to  Manius ; see Marbach in Pauly-Wissowa's Encyc. d. cl. Alt.-  wiss, xiv. 1110. b More probable than the Volaminia of F,  484     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 60-62     60. In first names the situation is not the same,  because these were in practice established as in-  dividual names, by which the clan names might be  differentiated ; from the numerals came Secunda,  Tertia, Quarta for women, Quintus, Sextus, Decimus  for men. and similarly other names from other things.  When there were two or more persons of the name  Terentius, then that they might liave something  individual to distinguish them they marked them  perhaps in this way,° that he should be Manius who  was said to have been born mane ' in the morning,'  and he who has been born luci * at dawn ' should be  Lucius, and he who was born post ' after ' his father's  death should be Postumus. 6   61. When any of these things happened to  females as well, they derived the first names of  women regularly in this manner — that is, in former  times — and called them by them, for example,  Mania, Lucia, Postuma : for we see that the mother  of the Lares is called Mania, a that Lucia Volumnia b  is addressed in the Hymns of the Salians, c and that  even now many give the name Postuma to a daughter  born after the death of her father.   62. Therefore as far as the nature and the use of  a word have jointly advanced, so far has Regularity  been extended in like manner by a corresponding  relationship, since of the words in which there are  voluntary inflections of male and female and neuter,  those which are voluntary in inflection ought not to be  inflected in similar manner, but in those in which  there are natural inflections there are those regular   not found elsewhere ; several members of the gens Volumnia  are mentioned at Rome during Varro's time. e Frag. 5,  page 336 Maurenbrecher ; page 4 Morel.   485     VARRO     clinatus hi qui esse reperiuntur. Quocirca in tribus  generibus nominum in(i)que 3 tollunt analogias.   XXXIX. 63. Qui autem eas reprehendunt, quod  alia vocabula singularia sint solum, ut cicer, alia multi-  tudinis solum, ut scalae, cum debuerint omnia esse  duplicia, ut equus equi, analogiae fundamentum esse  obliviscuntur naturam et usu(m). 1 Singulare est  quod natura unum significat, ut equus, aut quod  coniuncta quodammodo ad unum usu, 2 ut bigae :  itaque (ut) 3 dicimus una Musa, sic dicimus unae  bigae.   64«. Multitudinis vocabula sunt unum infinitum,  ut Musae, alterum finitum, ut duae, tres, quattuor :  dicimus enim ut hae Musae sic unae bigae et binae  et trinae bigae, sic deinceps. Quare tarn unae et uni  et una quodammodo singularia sunt quam unus et una  et unum ; hoc modo mutat, quod altera in singu-  laribus, altera in coniunctis rebus ; et ut duo tria sunt  multitudinis, sic bina trina.   65. Est tertium quoque genus singulare ut in  multitudine, uter, in quo multitudinis ut utrei 1 ; uter   3 Aldus, for inquae.   §63. 1 p t Mue., for usu. 2 A. Sp., for usum.  3 Added by h. Sp.   §65. 1 A. Sp.,for utre   § 62. a Crates and his followers, who uphold Anomaly.  § 63. ° Cf. viii. 48. b Cf. x. 54.   § 64. B The first is the generic or collective, without speci-  fication of the number or of the individuals ; the second is  numerical, in which the number of the individuals is given or  their identity is clearly implied. 6 A word like bigae,   486     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 62-65     inflections which are actually found to exist. There-  fore in the matter of the three genders they a are  unfair in setting aside the Regularities.   XXXIX. 63. Moreover those who find fault a  with the Regularities, because some words are  singulars only, like cicer ' chickpea,' and others are  plural only, like scalae ' stairs,' & although all ought  to have the two forms, like equus ' horse ' and equi  ' horses,' forget that the foundation of Regularity  is nature and use taken in combination. That is  singular which by nature denotes one thing, like  equus ' horse/ or which denotes things that by use  are joined together in some way, like bigae * two-horse  team.' Therefore just as we say una Musa * one  Muse,' we say unae bigae * one two-horse team/   64. Plural words are of two sorts, a the one in-  definite, like Musae * Muses/ the other definite, like  duae ' two/ tres * three/ quattuor 1 four ' ; for as we  say Musae in the plural, so also we say unae bigae ' one  two-horse team/ and binae ' two ' and trinae b bigae  1 three two-horse teams/ and so on. Wherefore  unae and the masc. uni and the neut. una are in  a certain manner as much singulars as unus and una  and unum : the word changes in this way because  the one set of forms is said of individual things, the  other of things joined together in sets ; and just as  duo and tria are plurals, so also are bina and trina.   65. There is also a third class which is singular  though expressed by a plural form, namely uter  1 which of two,' in which the plural form is for ex-   already plural in form, can be pluralized in meaning only by  the use of a numerical modifier ; for this purpose, distribu-  tive numerals such as bini are used. For the singular idea,  the plural form of unus is used.   487     VARRO     poeta singulari, utri poetae multitudinis est. Qua  explicata natura apparet non debere omnia vocabula  multitudinis habere par singulare : omnes enim  numeri ab duobus susum versus multitudinis sunt  neque eorum quisquam habere potest singulare  compar. Iniuria igitur postulant, si qua sint singu-  laria, oportere habere multitudinis.   XL. 66. Item qui reprehendunt, quod non dicatur  ut unguentum unguenta vinum vina sic acetum aceta  garum gara, faciunt imperite : qui ibi desidcrant  multitudinis vocabulum, quae sub mensuram ac pon-  dcra potius quam sub numerum succedunt : nam in  plumbo, 1 a(r)ge(n)to, a cum incrementum accessit,  dicimus 3 multum, 4 sic multum plumbum, argentum ;  non 5 plumba, argenta, cum quae ex hisce fiant, dica-  mus plumbea et argentea (aliud enim cum argenteum :  nam id turn cum iam vas : argent(e)um 6 enim, si  pocillum aut quid item) : quod pocilla argentea  multa, non quod argentum multum.   67. Ea, natura in quibus est mensura, non  numerus, si genera in se habe(n)t 1 plura et ea in  usum venerunt, a genere multo, sic vina et unguenta,  dicta : alii generis enim vinum quod Chio, aliuc? 2   § 66. 1 After phimbo, L. Sp. deleted oleo. 2 Aug., for  aceto. 3 After dicimus, Aldus deleted enim. 4 After  rnultum, L. Sp. deleted oleum. 5 After non, L. Sp. deleted  multa olea. 6 Aug., with B t for argentum.   § 67. 1 Laetus, for habet. 2 For aliut.     § 65. ° The old spelling of the nominative plural, still  more or less in use in Varro's time, though rarely attested in  the manuscripts.   § 66. a Cf § 67. b Derivative adjectives, ' made of  lead ' and * made of silver * ; supply vasa 4 utensils.'  488     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 65-67     ample utrei ° : uter poeta ' which of two poets ' in the  singular, utri poetae 4 which of two sets of poets ' in  the plural. Now that the nature of this has been  explained it is clear that plural nouns are not all  under obligations to have a like singular form ; for  all the numerals from two upwards are plural, and  no one of them can have a singular to match it.  Therefore it is quite wrongly that they demand that  all singulars that there are, must have a correspond-  ing plural form.   XL. 66. Likewise those who find fault because  there are no plurals aceta and gara to acetum ' vinegar '  and garum * fish-sauce ' like unguenia to unguentum  ' perfume ' and vtna to vinum ' wine/ a act ignorantly ;  they are looking for a plural name in connexion  with things which come under the categories of  quantity and weight rather than under that of  number. For in plumbum 4 lead ' and argentum * sil-  ver,' when there has been added an increase, we say  multum * much ' : thus multum plumbum or argentum,  not plumba ' leads ' and argenta ' silvers/ since articles  made of these we call plumbea and argentea b (silver  is something else when it is argenteum, for that is  what it is when it has now become a utensil ; thus  argenteum if it is a small cup or the like), because in  this case we speak of many argentea ' silver ' cups,  and not of much argentum ' silver/   67. But if those things which have by nature the  idea of quantity rather than that of number, exist in  several kinds and these kinds have come into use,  then from the plurality of kinds they are spoken of  in the plural, as for example vina 1 wines ' and un-  guenia ' perfumes.' For there is wine of one kind,  which comes from Chios, another wine which is from   489     VARRO     quod Lesbo, 3 sic ex regionibus aliis. (Ae)que 4 ipsa  dicuntur nunc melius unguenta, 5 cui nunc genera  aliquot. Si item discrimina magna essent olei et  aceti et sic ceterarum rerum eiusmodi in usu co(m)-  muni, dicerentur sic olea et (aceta ut) 6 vina. Quare  in titraque re (i)nique 7 rescindere conantur analogias,  et 8 cum in dissimili usu similia vocabula quaerant* et  cum item ea quae metimur atque ea quae numcramus  dici putent oportere.   XLI. 68. Item reprehendunt analogias, quod  dicantur multitudinis nomine publicae balneae, non  balnea, contra quod privati dicant unum balneum,  quo?/* 1 plura balnea (non) 2 dicant. Quibus respon-  ded' 3 potest non esse reprehendendum, quod scalae  et aquae caldae, pleraque* cum causa, multitudinis  vocabulis sint appellata neque eorum singularia in  usum venerint ; idemque item contra. Primum  balneum (nomen e(s)t 5 Graecum), (cum) 6 introiit in  urbem, publice ibi consedit, ubi bina essent con-  iuncta aedificia lavandi causa, unum ubi viri, alterum  ubi mulieres lavarentur ; ab eadem ratione domi  suae quisque ubi lavatur balneum dixcrunt et, quod  non erant duo, balnea dicere non consuerunt, cum   3 V, p, Aldus, for Lesbio. 4 A. Sp., for quae. 5 For  unguentia. 6 Added by L. Sp. 7 Canal, for denique.  8 Aug., for analogiam set. * L. Sp.,for querunt.   §68. 1 Canal, for quod. 2 Added by Popma. 3 Al-  dus, for respondere. 4 After pleraque, L. Sp. deleted quae.  6 GS., for et. 6 Added by GS.     §68. ° The word is a heteroclite in form, with a different  490     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 67-68     Lesbos, and so on from other localities. Likewise  unguenta 1 perfumes ' themselves are now properly  spoken of in the plural, for of perfume there are now  a number of kinds. If in like fashion there were great  differences in olive-oil and vinegar and the other  articles of this sort, in common use, then we should  employ the plurals olea and aceta, like vina. There-  fore in both these matters their attempt to destroy  the Regularities is unfair, since they expect that the  words will be alike though their uses are different,  and since they think that articles which we measure  and objects which we count should be spoken of in the  same way.   XLI. 68. Likewise they find fault with the Regu-  larities, because public baths are spoken of as balneae,  with the form in the plural, and not as balnea, in the  singular ; and on the other hand they speak of one bal-  neum of a private individual, though they do not use  the plural balneal To them answer can be made, that  fault ought not to be found because scalae * stairs '  and aquae caldae ' hot springs/ mostly with good  reason, have been called by plural names and the  corresponding singulars have not come into use : and  vice versa* The first balneuvi * bath-room ' (the  name is Greek), when it was brought into the city of  Rome, was as a public establishment set in a place  where two connected buildings might be used for  the bathing, in one of which the men should bathe  and in the other the women. From the same logical  reasoning each person called the place in his own  house where baths were taken, a balneum ; and they  were not accustomed to speak of balnea in the plural,   meaning in the two numbers. But the plural balnea began to  be used in the time of Augustus. 6 C/. § 69.   491     VARRO     hoc antiqui non balneum, sed lavatrinam 7 appellare  consuessent. 8   69- Sic aquae caldae ab loco et aqua, quae ibi  scateret, cum ut colerentur venissent in usum nostris,  cum aliae ad alium morbum idoneae essent, eae cum  plures essent, ut Puteolis ct in Tuscis, quibus uteban-  tur, multitudinis potius quam singulari vocabulo  appellarunt. Sic scalas, quod ab scandendo dicuntur  et singulos gradus scanderent, magis erat quaeren-  dum, si appellassent singulari vocabulo scalam, cum  origo nominatus ostcnderet contra.   XLII. 70. Item reprehendunt de casibus, quod  quidam nominatus habent rectos, quidam obliquos,  quod dicunt utrosque in vocibus oportere. Quibus  idem responderi potest, in quibus usus aut natura  non subsit, ibi non esse analogiam. . . .   71. Sed ne in his (quidem) 1 vocabulis quae  declinantur, si transeunt e recto casu in rectum  casum : quae tamcn fere non discedunt ab ratione  sine iusta causa, ut hi qui gladiatores Faustina* :  nam quod plerique dicuntur, ut tris extremas syllabas   7 Aug., with B, for lauiatrinam. 8 2?, Ed. Veneta,for   consuescent.   § 71. 1 Added here by L. Sp. ; added after vocabulis by  Madvig. 2 Mtie. t for faustinos.     c More commonly in the contracted form latrina, and in  Varro's time meaning ' water-closet, privy.'   § 69. ° At least nine places in Etruria bore the name  Aquae.   % 70. ° Cf. viii. 49. b There seems to be a lacuna here,  as examples illustrating this point of the refutation are lack-  ing.   § 71. c That is, by derivation with suffixes, not merely by  492     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 68-71     because they did not have two in one house — though  our forbears were accustomed to call this not a  balneum, but a lavatrina c ' wash-room.*   69. So also, the hot springs, on account of the  locality and the water which gushed out there, came  to be frequented for our use, since some of the  springs were beneficial to one disease and others to  another ; and because those which they used were  several in number, as at Puteoli and in Etruria,  they called them by a plural word rather than by a  singular. So also with the scalae ' stairs ' ; because  they are named from scandere ' to mount ' and there  were separate steps to be mounted, it would be a  more difficult problem to answer if they had called  them scala, in the singular, inasmuch as the origin of  the name shows their plural nature.   XLII. 70. Likewise they find fault a about the  cases, because some nouns have nominative forms  only, and others have only oblique forms : whereupon  they say that all words ought to have both the  nominative and the oblique forms. To them the  same answer can be given, that there is no Regularity  in those instances which lack a relationship in use  or in nature. . . . b   71. But they should not look for complete Regu-  larity even in these names which are derived by  passage from one nominative form to another.  Still, such words do not in general depart from the  path of logic without valid reason, such as there is for  those gladiators who are called Faustini b ; for though  most gladiators are spoken of in such a way that they   case-inflection. b The troops of gladiators were designated  by adjectives of this sort which were derived from the names  of the owners.     493     VARRO     habeant easdem, Cascelliani, (Caeciliani), 3 Aquiliani,  animadvertant, 4 unde oriuntur, nomina dissimilia  Cascellius, 5 Cflecilius, Aquilius, (Faustus : quod si  esset) 8 Faustius, recte dicerent Faustianos ; si(c) 7  a Scipione quidam male dicunt Scipioninos : nam est  Scipionarios. Sed, ut dixi, quod ab huiuscemodi  cognominibus raro declinantur cognomina neque in  usum etiam perducta, natant quaedam.   XLIIL 72. Item dicunt, cum sit simile stultus  luscus et dicatur stultus stultior stultissimus, non  dici luscus luscior luscissimus, sic in hoc genere  multa. Ad quae dico ideo fieri, quod natura nemo  lusco magis sit luscus, cum stultior fieri videatur.   XLIV. 73. Quod rogant, cur (non) 1 dicamus mane  manius manissimc, item de vesperi : in 2 tempore vere  magis et minus esse non potest, ante et post potest.  Itaque prius est hora prima quam secunda, non  magis hora. Sed magis mane surgere tamen dicitur :  qui primo mane surgit, (magis mane surgit) 3 quam  qui non pri(m)o 4 : ut enim dies non potest esse  magis quam (dies, sic mane non magis quam) 5 mane ;   3 Placed here by L. Sp. ; added after Aquiliani by Aug.   4 Aug., for animaduertunt. 5 Cascelius Aug., for Cas-  sellius F. 6 Added by Mue. 7 M 9 Laetus.for si.   § 73. 1 Added by Aug. 2 Popma, for uespertino.  3 Added by GS. 4 Stephanus, for prior. 5 Added by  L. Sp.     § 72. a Cf viii. 75.   § 73. a Cf. viii. 76. b The usual phrase is multo mane ;  evidently, to the Romans, mane was not completely an adverb  like English* early. e The Latin corresponding to this  (English) sentence should perhaps, as GS. suggest, be placed  before the sentence beginning Itaque prlus ; the argument  then develops more logically.   494     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 71-73     have the last three syllables alike, Cascelliani, Cae-  ciliani, AquilianiJ* let them take note that the names  from which these come, Cascellius, Caecilius, Aquilius  on the one hand, and Faustus on the other, are unlike :  if the name were Faustius, they would be right in  saying Faustiani. In the same way, from Scipio  some make the bad formation Scipionini ; it is prop-  erly Scipionarii. But, as I have said, since appella-  tions are rarely derived from surnames of this kind  and they are not fully at home in use, some such  formations fluctuate in form.   XLIII. 72. Likewise they say,° that although  stultus * stupid ' and luscus * one-eyed * are like words,  and stultus is compared with stultior and stultissimus,  the forms lusrior and luscissimus are not used with  luscus, and similarly with many words of this class.  To which I say that this happens for the reason  that by nature no one is more one-eyed than a one-  eyed man, whereas he may seem to become more  stupid.   XLIV. 73. To their question a why we do not say  mane ' in the morning/ comparative manius, super-  lative manissime. with a similar question about  vesperi * in the evening/ I reply that in matters of  time there is properly no ' more ' and ' less/ but  there can be before and after. Therefore the first  hour is earlier than the second, but not ' more hour/  But nevertheless to rise magis mane ' more in the  morning * is an expression in use ; he who rises in  the first part of the morning rises magis mane 6  * more in the morning ' than he who does not rise  in that first part. For as the day cannot be said  to be more than day, so mane cannot be said to be  more than mane* Therefore that very magis ' more '   495     VARRO     itaque ipsum hoc quod dicitur magis sibi non constat,  quod magis mane significat primum mane, magis  vespere novissimum vesper.   XLV. 74. Item ab huiuscemodi (dis)similitu-  dinibus 1 reprehenditur analogia, quod cum sit anus  cadus simile et sit ab anu aniculaanicilla, a cado duo  reliqua quod non sint propagata, sic non dicatur a  piscina piscinula piscinilla. Ad (haec respondeo) 2  huiuscemodi vocabuh's 3 analogias esse, ut dixi, ubi  magnitudo animadvertenda sit in unoquoque gradu  eaquc 4 sit in usu co(m)muni, ut est cista cistula  cistella et canis catulus catellus, quod in pecoris usu  non est. Itaque consuetudo frequentius res in binas  dividi partis ut maius et minus, ut lectus et lectulus,  area et arcula, sic alia.   XLVI. 75. Quod dicunt casus alia non habere  rectos, alia obliquos et idco non esse analogias, falsum  est. Negant habere rectos ut in hoc frugis frugi  frugem, item cole(m) colis cole, 1 obliquos non habere  ut in hoc Diespiter Diespitri Diespitrem, Maspiter  Maspitri Maspitrem.   § 74. 1 L. Sp., for similitudinibus. 2 Added by L. Sp.  3 L. Sp., for vocabula. 4 Mite. , for ea quae.   §75. 1 A. Sp. ; colis coli colem Mue. ; for role rolis role.     § 74. a Cf viii. 79. b The diminutives are not ety-  mological derivatives of cants, but are of quite distinct origin.  e Curiously, none of the Latin words denoting sheep and  goats, cattle and horses, had a diminutive in regular use in  Varro's time or earlier, except that Varro himself used equulus  and equula. Plautus, Asin. 667, coined the words agnellns  ' little lamb,' haedillus 4 little kid,' vitellus 4 little calf,' as  terms of endearment, but they do not appear again. d The  normal, undiminished object.   § 75. ° Cf. viii. 49 ; the subject-matter of § 75 seems to  come closely after that of § 70, but there seems to be no sure   496     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 73-75     which is commonly said is not consistent with itself,  because magis mane means the first part of the mane,  and magis vespere the last part of the evening.   XLV. 74. Similarly, Regularity is found fault  with on account of unlikenesses of this sort," that  although anus * old woman ' and cadus * cask ' are  like words, and from anus there are the diminutives  aniatla and anicilla, the other two are not formed  from cadus, nor from piscina ' fish-pond * are piscinula  and piscinilla made. To this I answer that words of  this kind have the Regularities, as I have said, only  when the size must be noted in each separate stage,  and this is in common use, as is cista * box/ cistula,  cistella, and canis b 1 dog,' catulus * puppy,' catellus   * little puppy ' ; this is not indicated in the usage  connected with flocks.* Therefore the usage is more  often that things be divided into two sets, as larger d  and smaller, like lectus * couch * and lectulus, area  ' strong-box * and arcula, and other such words.   XLVL 75. As to their saying a that some words  lack the nominative and others lack the oblique  cases, and that therefore the Regularities do not  exist, this is an error. For they say that the nomina-  tive is lacking in such words as frugis frugi frugem b   * fruit of the earth * and colem colis cole c 1 plant-  stalk/ and the oblique cases are lacking in such as  Diespiter * Jupiter,' dat. Diespitri, acc. Diespitrem, and  Maspiter ' Mars,' Maspitri, Maspitrem*   way of rearranging the order of the text. * Gen., dat., acc.  c Acc, gen., abL, unless the manuscript readings are to be  more seriously altered ; the word is more properly caul- % but  Cato and Varro prefer the country forms, with o from au.  d For Dies pater and Mars pater ; the addition of pater is  found only in nom. and voc. (Iuppiter, older Iuplter % is a  voc. form).   VOL. II K 497     VARRO     76. Ad haec respondeo et priora habere nominandi  et posteriora obliquos. Nam et frugi rectus est  natura frux, at secundum consuetudinem dicimus ut  haec avis, haec ovis, sic haec frugis ; sic secundum  naturam nominandi est casus cols, 1 secundum con-  suetudinem colis, 2 cum utrumque conveniat ad analo-  gian, quod et id quod in consuetudine non est cuius  modi debeat esse apparet, et quod est in consuetu-  dine nunc in recto casu, eadem est analogia ac plera-  que, quae ex multitudine cum transeunt in singulare,  difficulter efFeruntur ore. Sic cum transiretur ex eo  quod dicebatur haec oves, una non est dicta ovs sine  J, 3 sed additum I ac factum ambiguum verbum  nominandi an patrici esse(t) 4 casus. Ut ovis, et avis.   77. Sic in obliquis casibus cur negent esse  Diespitri Diespitrem non video, nisi quod minus est  tritum in consuetudine quam Diespiter ; quod in  nihil argumentum est : nam tarn casus qui non tritus  est quam qui est. Sed est(o) 1 in casuum serie alia  vocabula non habere nominandi, alia de obliquis  aliquem: nihil enim ideo quo minus siet 2 ratio per-  cellere poterit hoc crimen.   § 76. 1 Mi*e., for rois. 2 Hue., for rolis. 3 L. &/>.,  for una. 4 L, Sp., for esse.   § 77. 1 L. Sp., for est. 2 Mue., for si et ; on the possi-  bility of the use of siet in Varro's time, cf Cicero, Orator  47. 157.     § 76. ° Frux is found in Ennius, Ann. 314 (' honest man ')  and 431 Vahlen 2 = R.O.L. i. 1 16-1 17 and 150-151 Warming-  ton ; but nom. frugis is not quotable from a text. b Colis  may be cited from Lucilius, 135 Marx, and Varro, R. R.  i. 41 . 6. 4 c Varro is speaking on the basis that the  relation is nom. sing, ending in -s, nom. pi. in -es, as in  dux^ pi. duces. d Haec before oves is the sign of the nom.  pi. fern. ; Varro appears to use hae before consonants, haec   498     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 76-77     76. To this I answer that the former have nomina-  tives and the latter have oblique case-forms. For  the nominative of fntgi is by nature frux, but by usage  we say fntgis, a like avis * bird * and ovis ' sheep * ; so  also, the nominative of the other word is by nature  cols and by usage colis. b Both of these agree with the  principle of Regularity, because it is perfectly clear  of what sort that form ought to be which is not in use,  and in that which is now in use in the nominative  there is the same kind of Regularity as most words  have that are hard to pronounce when they pass  from the plural to the singular. So when the  passage was made from the spoken plural oves, d the  form which was pronounced was not ovs without I,  but an I was added and the word became ambiguous  as to whether the case was nominative or genitive.*  Like the nominative ovis is also the nominative amis.   77. Thus I do not see why they say that in the  oblique cases Diespitri and Diespitrem are lacking,  except because they are less common in use than  Diespiter. But the argument amounts to nothing ;  for the case-form which is uncommon is just as much  a case-form as that which is common. But let us  grant that in the list of case-forms some words lack  the nominative and others lack some one of the  oblique cases ; for this charge will not for that reason  be able in any way to destroy the existence of a logical  relationship a among the forms.   before vowels as here (and at the sentence-end, as at v. 75).  * Varro is of course unaware of the fact that some nouns of  the third declension had stems ending in i and therefore had  a right to nominatives in is, while others had stems ending in  consonants and could have the ending is only by analogy  with the «-stems.   § 77. ° That is, Regularity.   499     VARRO     78. Nam ut signa quae non habent caput 1 aut  aliquam aliam partem, nihilo minus 2 in reliquis mem-  bris eorum esse possunt analogiae, sic in vocabulis  casuum possunt item fieri (iacturae. Potest etiam  refingi) 3 ac reponi quod aberit, ubi patietur natura  et consuetudo : quod nonnunquam apud poetas  invenimus factum, ut in hoc apud Naevium in Clas-  tidio :   Vita insepulta laetus in patriam redux.   XLVII. 79. Itemreprehendunt,quoddicaturhaec  strues, hie Hercules, 1 hie homo : debuisset enim dici,  si esset analogia, hie Hercul, haec strus, hie hom(en.  N)on 2 haec ostendunt no(mi)?*a 3 non analogian esse,  sed obliquos casus non habere caput ex sua analogia.  Non, ut si in Alexandri statua imposueris caput  Philippi, membra conveniant ad rationem, sic* et  Alexandri membrorum simulacro 5 caput quod re-  spondeat item sit ? Non, si quis tunicam in usu ita  consult, ut altera plagula 6 sit angustis clavis, altera  latis, utraque pars in suo genere caret analogia.   XLVIII. 80. Item negant esse analogias, quod   § 78. 1 After caput, M and Laetus deleted et. 2 For  nihil hominus. 3 Added by GS. ; but the lost part may be  some what longer.   % 79. 1 p, Laetus, for Herculis. 2 GS. ; homen Canal ;  for homon. 3 Kent, for noua. 4 G, H, Aug., for sit.  5 A. Sp.yfor simulacrum. 6 Aldus, for placula.   § 78. a By regular formation. b Tray. Rom. Frag.,  Praet. II Ribbeck 3 . c Redux, not elsewhere found in the  nom. sing.   § 79. If the nominatives were of the usual types, which  replace the .genitive ending -IS by -S or by nothing at all,  like $11$, animal, nomen, genitives suis, animalis, nominis.  b That is, the nominatives are not formed ' regularly ' from  the oblique cases, but from these nominatives of variant types   500     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 78-80     78. For as some statues lack the head or some  other part without destroying the Regularities in  their other limbs, so in words certain losses of cases  can take place, with as little result. Besides, what is  lacking can be remade a and put back into its place,  where nature and usage permit ; which we sometimes  find done by the poets, as in this verse of Naevius, in  the Clastidium b :   With life unburied, glad, to fatherland restored.*   XLVII. 79. Likewise they find fault with the  nominatives strues 1 heap,' Hercules, homo * man ' ;  for if Regularity actually existed, they say, these  forms should have been strus, Hercul, homen. a These  nouns do not show that Regularity is non-existent,  but that the oblique cases do not have a head or  starting-point according to their type of Regularity. b  Is it not a fact that, if you should put a head of  Philip on a statue of Alexander and the limbs should  be proportionately symmetrical, then the head  which does correspond to the statue of Alexander's  limbs c would likewise be symmetrical ? And it is  not a fact that if one should in practice sew together  a tunic in such a way that one breadth of the cloth  has narrow border-stripes and the other has broad  stripes, each part lacks regular conformity within its  own class. d   XLVIII. 80. Likewise they say that the Regu-   the oblique cases are formed regularly. c That is, the  heads or nominatives may be varied, but the limbs or oblique  cases are of uniform type. d For there are tunics with the  broad stripe, worn by senators, and tunics with the narrow  stripe, worn by knights ; therefore, though the two halves in  the example do not belong together, each has its regular  precedent.   501     VARRO     alii dicunt cupressus, alii cupressi, item dc ficis  platanis et plerisque arboribus, dc quibus alii ex-  tremum US, alii EI faciunt. Id est falsum : nam  debent dici E et I, fici ut nummi, quod est ut num-  mi^) fici(s), 1 ut nummorum ficorum. Si essent  plures ficus, essent ut manus ; diceremus ut manibus,  sic ficibus, et ut manuum, sic ficuum, neque has ficos  diceremus, sed ficus, ut non manos appellamus, sed  (manus, nec) 2 consuetude* diceret singularis obliquos  casus huius fici neque hac fico, ut non dici(t) 3 huius  mani, 4 sed huius manus, (n)ec 5 hac mano, sed hac  manu.   XLIX. 81. Etiam illud putant esse causae, cur  non sit 1 analogia, quod Lucilius scribit :   Dccuis, 2   Sive decusibus est.   Qui errant, quod Lucilius non debuit dubitare, quod  utrumque : nam in aere usque ab asse ad centussis  numerus aes significat, et eius numero finiti casus  omnes 3 ab dupondio sunt, quod dicitur a multis  duobus modis hie dupondius et hoc dupondium, ut   § 80. 1 L. Sp., for nummi fici. 2 Added by Mue. ;  manus neque L. Sp. 3 Aug., for dici. 4 M, Laetus,for  manui. 5 L. Sp., for et.   §81. 1 After sit, Aldus deleted in. 2 Lachmann ;  decussi Mue. ; for decuis. 3 For omnis.     § 80. ° As belonging to the fourth and the second de-  clensions respectively. b This shows that Varro wrote the  nominative plural of the second declension with EI, and not  with I ; but it would be pedantic to substitute such spellings  throughout 4 his works, or even merely in this section.  c As type of the second declension. d As type of the  fourth declension.   502     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 80-81     larities do not exist, because some say cupressus  ' cypress-trees ' in the plural and others say cupressif  and similarly with fig-trees, plane-trees, and most  other trees, to which some give the ending US and  others give EI. This is wrong ; for the tree-names  ought to be spoken with E and l 9 b Jici like nummi c  ' sesterces,* because the ablative is jicis like nummis,  and the genitive is ficorum like nummorum. If the  plural were Jicus, then it would be like mantis d  * hand ' ; we should say ablative Jicibus like manibus,  and genitive jicuum like manuum 9 and we should not  say accusative Jicos, but Jicus, just as we do not say  accusative vianos but manus ; nor would usage speak  the oblique cases of the singular genitive Jici and  ablative Jico, just as it does not say genitive mani but  manus, nor ablative mono but manu.   XLIX. 81. Moreover, they think that there is  proof of the non-existence of Regularity, in the fact  that Lucilius writes a ;   Priced a teiww, or else we may say at ten-asses. b   They are in error, because Lucilius should not have  been uncertain as to the form, since both are right.  For in copper money, from the as to the hundred-a-y,  the number adds to itself the meaning of the copper  coin, and all its case-forms are limited by its numerical  value, starting from the dupondius * two-as piece,'  which is used by many in two ways, masculine  dupondius and neuter dupondium, like gladius and   §81. ° Lucilius, 1153-4 Marx. "Or decussis, decus-  sibus; but the single S is elsewhere attested in these words,  and Lucilius may well have followed the older orthography,  which doubled no consonants. On the as, cf. v. 169* c As  first element in the compound.   503     VARRO     hoc gladium et hie gladius ; ab tressibus virilia multi-  tudinis hi tresses et " his tressibus confido," singulare  " hoc tressis habeo " et " hoc tres(s)is 4 confido," sic  deinceps a(d) 5 centussis. Deinde numerus aes non  significatf. 6   82. Numeri qui aes non significant, usque a quat-  tuor ad centum, triplicis habent formas, quod dicun-  tur hi quattuor, hae quattuor, haec quattuor ; cum  perventum est ad mille, quartum assumit singulare  neutrum, quod dicitur hoc mille denarium, a quo  multitudinis fit milia denarii. 1   S3. Quare gwo(nia)m 1 ad analogias quod pertineat  non (opus) 2 est ut omnia similia dicantur, sed ut  in suo quaeque genere similiter declinentur, stulte  quaerunt, cur as et dupondius et tressis non dicantur  proportione, cum as 3 sit simple^, 4 d?*pondius 5 fictus,  quod duo asses pendebat, 6 tressis ex tribus aeris quod  sit. Pro assibus nonnunquam aes dicebant antiqui, a   4 For tresis. 5 Aug., for a. 6 Aug., for significans.  § 82. 1 Aug.) for denaria.   § 83. 1 Mue., for cum. 2 Added by GS. 3 as sit  Aldus, for adsit. 4 For simples. 5 For dipondius.  6 Aug., for pendebant.   d Cf. v. 116 and viii. 45. "The value-names tressis to  centussis were invariable in the singular, but had a full set  of cases in the plural, without multiplying the value of the  term ; thus tresses in the plural still means ' three asses '  precisely like the singular.   § 82. ° One invariable form serves for three genders.  b Mille is not only an indeclinable plural adjective, of three  genders, but also a neuter noun in the singular, upon which  a genitive depends ; and in this last capacity it has a plural,  which is declinable. c The denarius was a Roman silver  coin, equivalent to the Greek drachma, and in modern times   504     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 81-83     gladium* From tressis 4 three-as ' there is a mascu-  line plural 3 tresses in the nominative and tressibus in  the ablative, as in "I trust in these three asses,"  singular tressis as in " I have this three-flj " and " I  trust in this three-as." The same usage is followed  all the way to centussis 4 hundred-^. ' e From here on,  the numeral does not denote money any more than  other things.   82. The numerals which do not signify money,  from quaiiuor 4 four ' to centum 4 hundred/ have forms  of triple function, because quaituor is masculine,  feminine, and neuter. When mille 4 thousand ' is  reached, it takes on a fourth function, 6 that of a  singular neuter, because the expression in use is  mille 4 thousand * of denarii , c from which is made a *  plural, milia 1 thousands * of denarii.   83. Since therefore so far as concerns the Regu-  larities it is not essential that all words that are  spoken should be alike in their systems, but only that  they should be inflected alike each in its own class,  those persons are stupid who ask why as and dupondius  and tressis are not spoken according to a regular  scheme ; for the as is a single unit, the dupondius is a  compound term indicating that it pendebat 1 weighed '  duo 1 two ' asses, and the tressis is so called a because  it is composed of tres 4 three ' units of aes 4 copper.'  Instead of asses, the ancients used sometimes to say  aes 6 ; a usage which survives when we hold an as in   to the Swiss franc (about Is. 4d. English, or 32 cents U.S.A.,  in 1936).   § 83. ° From tres and as, not from tres and aes. b But  in the genitive, if with a numeral ; just as we say " four  o'clock," = " four (hours) of the clock " ; in the singular,  aes might mean * money ' collectively, like the French argent,  and sometimes even a * copper piece.'   505     VARRO     quo dicimus assem tenentes " hoc 7 aere aeneaque  libra " et " mille aeris legasse."   84. Quare quod ab tressis usque ad centussis 1  numeri ex (partibus) 2 eiusdem modi sunt compositi,  eiusdem modi habent similitudinem : dupondius,  quod dissimilis est, ut debuit, dissimilem habet  rationem. Sic as, quoniam simplex est ac principium,  et unum significat et multitudinis habet suum in-  finitum : dicimus enim asses, quos cum finimus,  dicimus dupondius et tressis et sic porro.   85. Sic videtur mihi, quoniam finitum et infinitum  habeat dissimilitudinem, non debere utrumque item  dici, eo magis quod in ipsis vocabulis 1 ubi additur  certus numerus miliar(i)is 2 aliter atque in reliquis  dicitur : nam sic loquontur, hoc mille denarium, non  hoc mille denari(orum), 3 et haec duo milia denarn/m, 4  non duo milia denari(orum). 5 Si esset denarii in  recto casu atque infinitam multitudinem significaret,  tunc in patrico denariorum dici oportebat ; et non  solum in denariis, victoriatis, drachmis,* nummis, sed  etiam in viris idem servari oportere, cum dicimus   7 After hoc, Brissonius deleted ab.   § 84. 1 Aug., for ducentussis. 2 Added by GS.   % 85. 1 M 9 Laetus, for vocalibus. 2 Miie. ; milliards  L. Sp. ; for militaris. 3 L. Sp.,for denarii. 4 Aug. , for  denaria. 5 Christ, for denarii. 6 Rhol^for et rachmis.     c A legal survival used in symbolic sales, cf. v. 163; for the  ancient as UbraUs (cf v. 169) had long since been decreased  in weight and was not coined after 74 b.c.   § 84. ° Even as dies and annus were not modified by the  lower numerals ; for such phrases the Romans substituted  biduum, triduum, biennium, triennium> etc. So for sums   506     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 83-85     the hand and say " with this aes * copper piece ' and  aenea libra ' pound of copper/ " c and also in the legal  formula " to have bequeathed a thousand (asses) of  aes * copper.* '*   84. Therefore, because the numerals from tressis  to centussis are compounded of parts of the same  kind, they have a likeness of the same kind ; but the  word dupondius, because it is different in formation,  has a different system of declension, as it should  have. So also the as, because it is a single unit and  is the beginning, means one and has its own in-  definite plural, for we say asses ; but when we limit  them numerically, we say dupondius and tressis and  so on. a   . 85. Thus it seems to me that since the definite and  the indefinite have an inherent difference, the two  ought not to be spoken in the same fashion, the  more so because in the words themselves, when they  are attached to a definite number in the thousands,  a form is used which is not the same as that used in  other expressions. For they speak thus : mille dena-  rium a * thousand of denarii,' not denariorum, and two  milia denarium ' thousands of denarii,* not denariorum.  If it were denarii in the nominative and it denoted an  indefinite quantity, then it ought to be denariorum in  the genitive ; and the same distinction must be pre-  served, it seems to me, not only in denarii, victoriati, h  drachmae, and nummi, but also in viri, when we say   from 2 to 100 asses, the compound words were used, and not  asses with the numeral.   § 85. a For names of weights and measures, and for some  other words, the old genitive in -um continued in use long  after the new form in -onim had been generalized. 6 The  vktoriatus was a silver coin stamped with a figure of Victory,  and worth half a denarius.   507     VARRO     iudicium fuisse triumvirum, decem(virum, centum)-  wum, 7 non (triumvirorum, decemvirorum), 8 centum-  virorum.   86. Numeri antiqui habent analogias, quod omni-  bus est una 1 regula, duo actus, tres gradus, sex de-  curiae, qua(e) 1 omnia similiter inter se respondent.  Regula 3 est numerus novenarius, quod, ab uno ad  novem cum pervenimus, rursus redimus ad unum et  V(IIII) 4 ; hinc et LX(XXX) 6 et nongenta 6 ab una  sunt natura novenaria ; sic ab octonaria, et deo(r)sum  versus ad singularia perveniunt.   87. Actus primus est ab uno (ad) 1 DCCCC, se-  cundus a mille ad nongenta* milia ; quod idem valebat  unum et mille, utrumque singulari nomine appellatur :  nam ut dicitur hoc unum, haec duo, (sic hoc mille,  haec duo) 3 milia et sic deinceps multitudinis in duobus  actibus reliqui omnes item numeri. Gradus singu-  laris est in utroque actu ab uno ad novem, denariws 4  gradus (a) 5 decern ad LX(XXX), 6 centenarius a cen-  tum (ad) 7 DCCCC. Ita tribus gradibus sex decuriae  fiunt, tres miliariae, tres 8 minores. Antiqui his  numeris fuerunt contenti.   7 Added by L. Sp. 8 Added by A. Sp., after Aldus.   §86. 1 After una, L. Sp. deleted non novenaria (Aug.  deleted non). 2 Rhol., for qua. 3 Sciop., for regulae.  4 novem L. Sp., for V. 5 nonaginta Aldus, for LX.  6 L. Sp. ; nongenti G, H ; for nungenti.   § 87. 1 Added by Aug. 2 For nungenta. 3 Added  by Gronov. 4 Aug., for denarios. 5 Added by Aug.  6 nonaginta Aug., for LX. 7 Added by Aug. 6 L. Sp.,  for miliaria etres.     c The tresviri or triumviri capitales, in charge of prisons and  508     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 85-87     that there has been a decision of the triumvirs, c the  decemvirs , d the centum virs, e all of which have the  genitive virum and not virorum.   86. The old numbers have their Regularities,  because they all have one rule, two acts, three grades,  and six decades, all of which show regular internal  correspondences. The rule is the number nine,  because, when we have gone from one to nine, we  return again to one and nine ° ; hence both ninety and  nine hundred are of that one and the same nine-  containing nature. So there are numbers of eight-  containing nature, 6 and going downwards they arrive  at those which are merely ones.   87. The first act ° is from one to nine hundred,  the second from one thousand to nine hundred  thousand. Because one and thousand are alike  unities, both are called by a name in the singular ;  for as we say 1 this one ' and ' these two,* so we say  1 this thousand ' and ' these two thousands/ and  after that all the other numbers in the two acts are  likewise plural. The unitary grade is found in both  acts, from one to nine ; the denary grade extends  from ten to ninety ; the centenary grade from  hundred to nine hundred. Thus from the three  grades, six decades are made, three in the thousands,  and three in the smaller numbers. The ancients were  satisfied with these numerals.   executions. *The decemviri stlitibus iudicandis, a per-  manent board with jurisdiction over cases involving liberty  or citizenship. * The centumviri or board of judges with  jurisdiction over civil suits, especially those involving in-  heritances.   § 86. As multiples of ten ; and then as multiples of one  hundred. 6 But these do not constitute the 4 rule.*  § 87. Technical term, taken from the drama.   509     VARRO     88. Ad 1 hos tertium et quartum actum (addcntes) 2  ab decie(n)s (et ab deciens miliens) 2 minores im-  posuerunt vocabula, neque rationc, sed tamen non  contra est earn de qua scribimus analogiam. Nam 3  deciens 4 cum dicatur hoc deciens ut mille hoc mille,  ut sit utrumque sine casibus vocis, dicemus ut hoc  mille, huius mille, sic hoc deciens, huius deciens,  neque eo minus in altero, quod est mille, praeponemus  hi mille, horum mille, (sic hi deciens, horum deciens). 5   L. 89. Quoniam in eo est nomen co(m)mune,  quam vocant ofnovvfuav, 1 obliqui casus ab eodem  capite, ubi erit ofuavvfiia, 2 quo minus dissimiles fiant,  analogia non prohibet. Itaque dicimus hie Argus,  cum hominem dicimus, cum oppidum, Graec(e  Graec)an(i)ceve 3 hoc Argos, cum Latine (hi) 4 Argi.  Item faciemus, si eadem vox nomen et 5 verbum  significant, 6 ut et in casus et in tempora dispariliter  declinetur, ut faciemus a Meto quod nomen est  Metonis Metonem, quod verbum estmetammetebam.   § 88. 1 For ab. 2 Added by Kent, after Mue. (actum  ab deciens minorem, (a deciens miliens maiorem addentes),  imposuerunt). 3 A fter nam, L. Sp. deleted ut. 4 Aug.,  for decienis. 6 Added by L. Sp. ; there may have been  other text also in the lacuna.   § 89. 1 For omonimyan. 2 For omonimya / after which  Aug. deleted obliqui casus. 3 Fay, cf. x. 71 ; graecanice  Pius ; for graecancaene. 4 Added by Vertranius ; (hei)  Aug. 6 Pius, for nominet. 6 Pius, for significavit.     § 88. ° Elliptic for decies centena milia ' ten times a  hundred thousands.* b Similarly elliptic for decies milies  centena milia. c Varro seems not to know the abl. sing.  milll, found in Plautus, Bac. 928 (assured by the metre),  and in Lucilius, 327 and 506 Marx (assured by Gellius, i. 10.  10-13).  510     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 88-89     88. To these, their descendants added a third and  a fourth act, imposing names which started from  deciens a ' million ' and deciens miliens b ' thousand  million ' ; and though the names were not formed by  logical relation with the lower numerals, still their for-  mation is not in conflict with the Regularity about  which we are writing. For inasmuch as deciens is used  as a neuter singular like mille, so that both words are  without change of form for the various cases, 6 we  shall use deciens unchanged as nominative and as  genitive, even as we do mille ; and none the less  shall we set before mille the signs of nominative and  of genitive plural, because mille is also in the other  number — and so also shall we speak of* these deciens '  in the same cases.   L. 89. When a noun is the same in the nomina-  tive though it has more than one meaning, in which  instance they call it a homonymy, Regularity does  not prevent the oblique cases from the same starting  form in which the homonymy is, from being dis-  similar. Therefore we say Argus in the masculine,  when we mean the man, but when we mean the  town we say, in Greek or in the Greek fashion,  Argos a in the neuter, though in Latin it is Argi,  masculine plural. Likewise, if the same word de-  notes both a noun and a verb, we shall cause it to  be inflected both for cases and for tenses, with  different inflection for noun and verb, so that from  Melo as a noun, a man's name, we form gen. Metonis,  acc. Metonem, but from meto as a verb, * I reap/ we  form the future metam and the imperfect metebam.   § 89. ° The homonymy is not perfect, since the forms are  Argus and Argos ; the neuter Argos is found in Latin only  in nom. and acc.     511     VARRO     LI. 90. Reprehendunt, cum ab eadem voce plura  sunt vocabula declinata, quas a-vvtawfitas 1 appellant,  ut 2 Alc(m)#eus 3 et Alc(m)«eo, 3 sic Gen/on, Ger?/o-  n(e)us, 4 Ger^ones. In hoc genere quod casus per-  peram permutant quidam, non reprehendunt ana-  logiam, sed qui eis utuntur imperite ; quod quisque  caput prenderit, sequi debet eius consequenti(s) 5  casus in declinando ac non facere, cum dixerit recto  casu Alc(m)aeus, 6 in obliquis 7 Alc(m)«eoni 6 et  Alc(m)aeonem 6 ; quod si miscuerit et non secutus  erit analogias, reprehendendum.   LII. 91. (Reprehendunt) 1 Aristarchum, quod  haec nomina Melicertes et Philomedes similia neget  esse, quod vocandi casus habet alter Melicerta, alter  Philomede(s), 2 sic qui dicat lepus et lupus non esse  simile, quod alterius vocandi casus sit lupe, alterius  lepus, sic socer, macer, quod in transitu fiat ab  altero triss/llabum soceri, ab altero bisyllabum macri.   92. De hoc etsi supra responsum est, cum dixi  de lana, hie quoque 1 amplius adiciam similia non solum   §90. 1 For synonimyas. 2 After ut, Aug. deleted  sapho et. 3 Kent, for alceus and alceo, usually corrected  to Alcaeus, Alcaeo, though a variant nominative Alcaeo is  unknown ; whereas Alcumeus occurs in Plant us* Capt. 562,  and Alcmaeo in Cicero, Acad. Priora ii. 28. 89, and else-  where. 4 Mue., for gerionus. 6 L. Sp.,for consequenti.  • Kent, for alceus, alceoni, alceonem ; cf. crit. note 3.  7 After obliquis, Mue. deleted dicere.   §91. 1 Added by L. Sp„ after Aug. 2 Mue., for  philomede.   § 92. 1 For hie hie quoque.     § 90. Son of Amphiaraus and Eriphyle, who killed his  mother at the command of his father, because she tricked him  into going to a war in which he was destined to die ; cf. also  the critical note. b The three-bodied giant whom Hercules   512     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 90-92     LI. 90. They find fault when from the same  utterance two or more word-forms are derived, which  they call synonymns, such as Alcmaeus and Alanaeo, a  and also Geryon, Geryoneus, GeryonesS* As to the fact  that in this class certain speakers interchange the  case-forms wrongly — they are not finding fault with  Regularity, but with the speakers who use those case-  forms unskillfully : each speaker ought to follow,  in his inflection, the case-forms which attend upon  the nominative which he has taken as his start, and  he ought not to make a dative Alcmaeoni and an  accusative Alcmaeonem when he has said Alcmaeus in  the nominative ; if he has mixed his declensions and  has not followed the Regularities, blame must be laid  upon him.   LII. 91. They find fault a with Aristarchus for  saying that the names Meliceries and Pkilomedes are  not alike, because one has as its vocative Melicerta,  and the other has Pkilomedes b ; and likewise with  those who say that lepus * hare ' and lupus ' wolf *  are not alike, because the vocative case of one is  lupe and of the other is lepus, and with those who say  the same of socer ' father-in-law * and macer ' lean/  because in the declensional change there comes  from the one the three-syllabled genitive soceri and  from the other the two-syllabled genitive macri.   92. Although the answer to this was given above  when I spoke about the kinds of wool, I shall make  here some further statements : the likenesses of   overpowered and robbed of his cattle ; all three forms are  known in Greek, but only Geryon and Geryones in Latin.   §91. a Cf. viii. 68. b The Greek nominatives end in  -17s, but the vocatives end in -a and -€s respectivelv.   § 92. a C/. ix. 39.   VOL. II L 513     VARRO     a facie dici, sed etiam ab aliqua coniuncta vi et  potestate, quae et oculis et auribus latere soleant :  itaque saepe gemina facie mala negamus esse  similia, si sapore sunt alio ; sic equos eadem facie  nonnullos negamus esse similis, (s)i 2 natione s(unt) 3  ex procreante dissimiles. 4   93. Itaque in hominibus emendis, si natione alter  est melior, emimus pluris. Atque in hisce omnibus  similitudines non sumimus tantum a figura, sed  etiam aliu  for externi.   §101. ° Present imperative, future imperative, present  subjunctive. b The indicative mood. c Varro dis-  regards the, plural forms in this calculation.   § 102. ° Meaning 1 mood ' ; cf. § 95, note a. b Cf  ix. 75-79.  520     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 100-102     used to say present esum es est, imperfect eram eras  erat, future ero eris erit. In this same fashion you  will see that the other verbs of this kind preserve the  principle of Regularity.   LVIII. 101. Besides, they find fault with Regu-  larity in this matter, that certain verbs have not the  three persons, nor the three tenses ; but it is with lack  of insight that they find this fault, as if one should  blame Nature because she has not shaped all living  creatures after the same mould. For if by nature not  all forms of the verbs have three tenses and three  persons, then the divisions of the verbs do not all have  this same number. Therefore when we give a com-  mand, a form which only the verbs of uncompleted  time have — when we give a command to a person  present or not actually present, three verb-forms a are  made, like lege ' read (thou)/ legito ' read (thou) * or  ' let him read/ legal ' let him read 1 : for nobody  gives a command with a form denoting action already  completed. On the other hand, in the forms which  denote declaration, 6 like lego ' I read/ legis * thou  readest/ legit ' he reads/ there are nine verb-forms  of uncompleted action and nine of completed  action.   LIX. 102. For this and similar reasons the  question that should be asked is not whether one  kind ° disagrees with another kind, but whether there  is anything lacking in each kind. If to these  there is added what I said above b about nouns, all  difficulties will be easily resolved. For as the nomina-  tive case-form is in them the source for the derivative  cases, so in verbs the source for other forms is in the  form which expresses the person of the speaker and  the present tense : like scribo * I write/ lego ' I read.'   521     VARRO     103. Quare ut illic fit, si 1 hie item acciderit, in  formula ut aut caput non sit aut ex alieno genere sit,  proportione eadem quae illic dicimus, cur nihilominus 2  servctur analogia. Item, sicut illic caput suum  habebit et in obliquis casibus transitio erit in ali(am)  quam 3 formulam, qua assumpta reliqua facilius  possint videri verba, unde sint declinata (fit enim, ut  rectus casus nonnunquam sit ambiguus), ut in hoc  verbo volo, quod id duo significat, unum a voluntate,  alterum a volando ; itaque a volo intellegimus et  volare et velle.   LX. 101. Quidam reprehendunt, quod pluit et  luit dicamus in praeterito et praesenti tempore, cum  analogize sui cuiusque temporis verba debeant dis-  criminare. Falluntur : nam est ac putant aliter,  quod in praeteritis U dicimus longum pluit (luit), 1  in praesenti breve pluit luit : ideoque in lege vendi-  tions fundi " ruta caesa " ita dicimus, ut U produ-  camus.   LXI. 105. Item reprehendunt quidam, quod  putant idem esse sacrifico 1 et sacrificor, lavat 2 et  lavatur ; quod sit an non, nihil commovet analogian,  dum sacrifico 3 qui dicat servet sacrificabo et sic per   § 103. 1 Mite.,, for sic. 2 For nichilominus. 3 Mue.,  for aliquam.   § 104. 1 Added by Aug.   § 105. 1 Aug.> for sacrificio. 2 L. Sp. ; sacrificor et  lavat Aug. ; for sacrifico relauat. 3 Aug,) for sacrifici.   § 103. ° Cf ix. 76.   § 104. a Found in older Latin, but seemingly shortened  by about Varro's time. 6 One might exempt from inclu-  sion in the sale of a property all things dug up (sand, chalk,  ete.) and ail things cut down (timber, etc.), even though they  were still unwrought materials. c The u is short in the  compounds erutus^ obrutus, etc.   522     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 103-105     103. Wherefore, if it has happened in verbs as it  does happen in nouns, that in the pattern the starting-  point is lacking or belongs to a different kind, we give  the same arguments here which we gave there, with  suitable changes in application, as to why and how  Regularity is none the less preserved. And as in  nouns the word will have its own peculiar starting-  point and in the oblique cases there will be a change  to some other pattern, on the assumption of which it  can be more easily seen from what the word-forms are  derived (for it happens that the nominative case-form  is sometimes ambiguous), so it is in verbs, as in this  verb volo, because it has two meanings, one from  wishing and the other from flying ; therefore from  volo we appreciate that there are both volare ' to fly '  and velle * to wish/   LX. 104. Certain critics find fault, because we  say pluit * rains ' and luit * looses ' both in the past  tense and in the present, although the Regularities  ought to make a distinction between the verb-forms  of the two tenses. But they are mistaken ; for it is  otherwise than they think, because in the past tense  we say pluit and luit with a long U, a and in the present  with a short U ; and therefore in the law about the  sale of farms we say rata caesa ' things dug up and  things cut,' 6 with a lengthened u. c   LXI. 105. Likewise certain persons find fault,  because they think that active sacrifico ' I sacrifice '  and passive sacrificor, active lav at * he bathes ' and  passive lavatur, are the same ° : but whether this is  so or not, has no effect on the principle of Regularity,  provided that he who says sacrifico sticks to the future   § 105. ° With the same meaning ; but the passive of  these verbs sometimes has true passive meaning.   523     VARRO     totam formam, ne dicat sacrificatur 4 aut sacrificatus  sum : haec cnim inter se non conveniunt.   106. Apud Plautum, cum dicit :   Piscis ego credo qui usque dum vivunt lavant  Diu minus lavari 1 quam haec lavat Phronesium,   ad lavant lavari non convenit, ut I 2 sit postremum,  sed E ; ad lavantur analogia lavari reddit : quod  Plauti aut librarii mendum si est, non ideo analogia,  sed qui scripsit est reprehendendus. Omnino et  lavat 3 et lavatur dicitur separatimrecte in rebus certis,  quod puerum nutrix lava(t), 4 puer a nutrice lavatur,  nos in 6alneis et lavamus et lavamur.   107. Sed consuetudo alterum utrum cum satis  haberet, in toto corpore potius utitur lavamur, in  partibus lavamus, quod dicimus lavo manus, sic pedes  et cetera. Quare e balneis non recte dicunt lavi, lavi  manus recte. Sed quoniam in balneis lavor lautus  sum, scquitur, ut contra, quoniam est soleo, oporte(a)ti  dici solui, ut Cato et Ennius scribit, non ut dicit  volgus, solitus sum, debere dici ; neque propter haec,  quod discrepant in sermone pauca, minus est analogia,  ut supra dictum est.   4 L. Sp. f /or sacrificaturus.   § 106. 1 Plautus has minus diu lavare. 2 II, for T.  3 II, for lauant. 4 For laua.   § 107. 1 Mue.,for oportet.   § 106. ° True. 322-323.   § 107. °\The passive form as a middle or reflexive, but the  active form as a transitive requiring an object. b Frag,  inc. 54 Jordan. e Frag. inc. 26 Vahlen 2 .' * Cf. ix. 33.   524     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 105-107     sacrificabo and so on in the active, through the whole  paradigm, avoiding the passive sacrificatur and  sacrificatus sum : for these two sets do not harmonize  with each other.   106. In Plautus, when he says a :   The fish, I really think, that bathe through all their life,  Are in the bath less time than this Phronesium,   lavari * are in the bath/ with final I instead of E, does  not attach to lavant * bathe ' : Regularity refers lavari  to lavantur, and whether the error belongs to Plautus  or to the copyist, it is not Regularity, but the writer  that is to be blamed. At any rate, lavat and lavatur  are used with a difference of meaning in certain  matters, because a nurse lavat 1 bathes ' a child, the  child lavatur ' is bathed ' by the nurse, and in the  bathing establishments we both lavamus * bathe * and  lavamur ' are bathed.'   107. But since usage approves both, in the case  of the whole body one uses rather lavamur * we bathe  ourselves,' and in the case of portions of the body  lavamus * we wash,' in that we say lavo * I wash ' my  hands, my feet, and so on.° Therefore with reference  to the bathing establishments they are wrong in  saying lavi * I have bathed,' but right in saying lavi  * I have M ashed * my hands. But since in the bathing  establishments lavor * I bathe ' and lauius sum * I  have bathed,' it follows that on the other hand from  soleo 1 I am wont,' which is in the active, one ought  to say solui 4 I have been wont,' as Cato 6 and Ennius c  write, and that solitus sum, as the people in general  say, ought not to be used. But as I have said above,**  Regularity exists none the less for these few in-  consistencies which occur in speech.   525     VARRO     LXII. 108. Item cur non sit analogia, a^erunt, 1  quod ab similibus similia non declinentur, ut ab dolo  et colo : ab altero enim dicitur dolavi, ab altero colui ;  in quibus assumi solet aliquid, quo facilius reliqua  dicantur, ut i(n) 2 M^rmecidis 3 operibus minutis solet  fieri : igitur in verbis temporalibus, quo(m) 4 simili-  tudo saepe sit confusa, ut discerni nequeat, nisi trans-  ieris in aliam personam aut in tempus, quae pro-  posita sunt no(n e)sse 5 similia intellegitur, cum trans-  itum est in secundam personam, quod alterum est  dolas, alterum colis.   109. Itaque in reliqua forma verborum suam  utr(um)que 1 sequitur formam. Utrum in secunda  (persona) 2 forma verborum temporalz(um) 3 habeat  in extrema syllaba AS (an ES) an IS a(u)t IS, 4 ad  discernendas similitudines interest : quocirca ibi  potius index analogiae quam in prima, quod ibi  abstrusa est dissimilitudo, ut apparet in his meo, neo,  ruo : ab his enim dissimilia fiunt transitu, quod sic  dicuntur meo meas, neo nes, ruo ruis, quorum  unumquodque suam conservat similitudinis formam.   LXIII. 110. Analogiam item de his quae appel-  lantur participia reprehendunt multz 1 ; iniuria : nam  non debent dici terna ab singulis verbis amaturus  amans amatus, quod est ab amo amans et amaturus,   § 108. 1 adferunt Aug., for asserunt. 2 Aug., for uti.  3 Plus, for murmecidis. 4 Aug., for quo. 5 Vertranius,  for nosse.   § 109. 1 Schp.,for uterque. 2 Added by L. Sp. 3 h.  Bp., for temporale. 4 L. Sp. (aut ES Canal), for as anis  at si.   § 110. 1 GS.,for multa.   § 108. Just as we nowadays take the infinitive to show  the conjugation, adding the perfect active and the passive   526     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 108-110     LXII. 108. Likewise, they present as an argument  against the existence of Regularity the fact that like  forms are not derived from likes, as from dolo 4 1 chop '  and colo 4 I till ' ; for one forms the perfect dolavi  and the other forms colui. In such instances some-  thing additional is wont to be taken to aid in the  making of the other forms, a just as we do in the tiny  art-works of Myrmecides b : therefore in verbs, since  the likeness is often so confusing that the distinction  cannot be made unless you pass to another person or  tense, you become aware that the words before you  are not alike when passage is made to the second  person, which is dolas in the one verb and colis in the  other.   109. Thus in the rest of the paradigm of the  verbs each follows its own special type. Whether  in the second person the paradigm of verbs has in the  final syllable AS or ES or IS or IS, is of importance  for distinguishing the likenesses. Wherefore the mark  of Regularity is in the second person rather than in the  first, because in the first the unlikeness is concealed,  as appears in meo 4 I go/ neo 4 I sew,' ruo 4 1 fall ' ; for  from these there develop unlike forms by the change  from first to second person, because they are spoken  thus : meo meas, neo nes, ruo rids, each one of which  preserves its own type of likeness.   LXIII. 110. Likewise, many find fault with  Regularity in connexion with the so-called parti-  ciples ; wrongly : for it should not be said that the  set of three participles comes from each individual  verb, like amaturus 4 about to love,' amans ' loving,'  amaius 4 loved,' because amans and amaturus are from   participle to make up the "principal parts" which are our  guide. » Cf. vii. 1.     527     VARRO     ab amor 2 amatus. Illud analogia quod praestare  debet, in suo quicque genere habet, casus, ut amatus  amato et amati amatis ; et sic in muliebribus amata  et amatae ; item amaturus eiusdem modi habet  declinationes, amans paulo aliter ; quod hoc genus  omnia sunt in suo genere similia proportione, sic  virilia et muliebria sunt eadem.   LXIV. 111. De eo quod in priore libro extremum  est, ideo non es(se) analogia(m), 1 quod qui de ea  scripserint aut inter se non conveniant aut in quibus  conveniant ea cum consuetudinis discrepant 2 verbis,  utrumque (est leve) 3 : sic enim omnis repudiandum  erit artis, quod et in medicina et in musica et in  aliis multis discrepant scriptores ; item in quibus  conveniunt m 4 scriptis, si e(a) tam(en) 5 repudiat 6  natura : quod ita ut dicitur non sit ars, sed artifex  reprehendendus, qui (dici) 7 debet in scribendo non  vidisse verum, non ideo non posse scribi verum.   112. Qui dicit hoc monti et hoc fonti, cum alii  dicant hoc monte et hoc fonte, sic alia quae duobus  modis dicuntur, cum alterum sit verum, alterum  falsum, non uter peccat tollit analogias, sed uter  recte dicit confirmat ; et quemadmodum is qui 1  peccat in his verbis, ubi duobus modis dicuntur, non   2 Aug. ; amaturus ab amabar Rhol. ; for ab amaturus  amabar.   §111. 1 Mue. 9 for est analogia. 2 Mue., for dis-  crepant. 3 Added by GS. ; falsum A, Sp. ; falsum est  Popma. 4 A. Sp., for ut. 5 GS., for etiam. 6 For  repudiant. 7 Added by GS.   § 112. 1 L. Sp.,for quicum.     §112. fl C/. viii. 66.  528     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 110-112     the active amo, and amatus is from the passive amor.  But that which Regularity can offer, which the parti-  ciples have, each in its own class, is case-forms, as  amatus, dative amato, and plural amati, dative amatis ;  and so in the feminine, amata and plural amatae.  Likewise amaturus has a declension of the same kind.  Amans has a somewhat different declension ; because  all words of this kind have a regular likeness in their  own class, amans, like others of its class, uses the  same forms for masculine and for feminine.   LXIV. 111. About the last argument in the pre-  ceding book, that Regularity does not exist for the  reason that those who have written about it do not  agree with one another, or else the points on which  they agree are at variance with the words of actual  usage, both reasons are of little weight. For in this  fashion you will have to reject all the arts, because  in medicine and in music and in many other arts the  writers do not agree ; you must take the same attitude  in the matters in which they agree in their writings,  if none the less nature rejects their conclusions. For  in this way, as is often said, it is not the art but the  artist that is to be found fault with, who, it must be  said, has in his writing failed to see the correct view ;  we should not for this reason say that the correct  view cannot be formulated in writing.   112. As to the man who uses as ablatives monti  ' hill ' and fonti * spring ' while others say monie and  fontef along with other words which are used in  two forms, one form is correct and the other is wrong,  yet the person who errs is not destroying the Regu-  larities, but the one who speaks correctly is strength-  ening it ; and as he who errs in these words where  they are used in two forms is not destroying logical  vol. n m 529     VARRO     tollit rationem cum sequitur falsum, sic etiam in his  (quae) 2 non 3 duobus dicuntur, si quis aliter putat  dici oportere atque oportet, non scientiam tollit  orationis, sed suam inscientiam denudat.   LXV. 113. Quibus rebus solvi arbitraremur posse  quae dicta sunt priori libro contra analogian, ut potui  brevi percucurri. Ex quibus si id confecissent 1 quod  volunt, ut in lingua Latina esset anomalia, tamen  nihil egissent 2 ideo, quod in omnibus partibus mundi  utraque natura inest, quod alia inter se (similia), 3  alia (dissimilia) 3 sunt, sicut in animalibus dissimilia  sunt, ut equus bos ovis homo, item alia, et in uno  quoque horum genere inter se similia innumerabilia.  Item in piscibus dissimilis murctena lupo, is 4 soleae,  haec muraenae 5 et mustelae, sic aliis, ut maior ille  numerus sit similitudinum earum quae sunt separatim  in muraenis, separatim in asellis, sic in generibus  aliis.   114. Quare cum in inclinationibus verborum  numerus sit magnus a dissimilibus verbis ortus, quod  etiam vel maior est in quibus similitudines reperiun-  tur, confYtendum 1 est esse analogias. Itemque 2 cum  ea non multo minus quam in omnibus verbis patiatur  uti consuetudo co(m)munis, fatendum illud quoquo   2 Added by Aug. 3 After non, Aug. deleted in.   §113. 1 For conficissent. 2 Aug., for legissent.   3 Added by Mue. 4 L. Sp.,for his. 5 G, II, Aldus, for  nerene.   §114. 1 Aug., for conferendum. 2 Aug., for item  quae.   6 That is, wrong forms not recognized as having a limited  currency, but practically individual with the speaker.   § 113. a The identification of the various kinds of fish is   530     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 112-114     system when he follows the wrong form, so even in  those words which are not spoken in two ways, a  person who thinks they ought to be spoken otherwise  than they ought, b is not destroying the science of  speech, but exposing his own lack of knowledge.   LXV. 113. The considerations by which we might  think that the arguments could be refuted which  were presented against Regularity in the preceding  book, I have touched upon briefly, as best I could.  Even if by their arguments they had achieved what  they wish, namely that in the Latin language there  should be Anomaly, still they would have accom-  plished nothing, for the reason that in all parts of  the world both natures are present : because some  things are like, and others are unlike, just as in  animals there are unlikes such as horse, ox, sheep,  man, and others, and yet in each kind there are  countless individuals that are like one another. In  the same way, among fishes, the moray is unlike the  wolf-fish, the wolf-fish is unlike the sole, and this is  unlike the moray and the lamprey, and others also ;  though the number of those resemblances is still  greater, which exist separately among morays,  among codfish, and in other kinds of fish, class by  class.* 1   114. Now although in the derivations of words  a great number develop from unlike words, still the  number of those in which likenesses are found is even  greater, and therefore it must be admitted that the  Regularities do exist. And likewise, since general  usage permits us to follow the principle of Regularity  in almost all words, it must be admitted that we ought   in some instances uncertain, but is not important for Varro's  argument.   531     VARRO     7w{o)do* analogian sequi nos debere universos,  singulos autem praeterquam in quibus verbis ofFen-  sura sit consuetudo co(m)munis, quod ut dixi aliud  debet praestare populus, aliud e populo singuli  homines.   115. Ncque id mirum est, cum singuli quoque non  sint eodem hire : nam liberius potest poeta quam  orator sequi analogias. Quare cum hie liber id  quod pollicitus est demonstraturum absolved/, 1  faciam finem ; proxumo deinceps de dcclinatorum  verborum forma 2 scribam.   3 Canal ; quoque modo Mue. ; quodammodo Aug, ; for  quo quando.   § 115. 1 Aldus, for absoluerim. 2 Pius, for firma.     532     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, IX. 114-115     as a body to follow Regularity in every way, and  individually also except in words the general use of  which will give offence ; because, as I have said, a  the people ought to follow one standard, the in-  dividual persons ought to follow another.   115. And this is not astonishing, since not all  individuals have the same privileges and rights ;  for the poet can follow the Regularities more freely  than can the orator. Therefore, since this book has  completed the exposition of what it promised to set  forth, I shall bring it to a close ; and then in the next  book I shall write about the form of inflected words.   §114. °C/. ix. 5.     533     M. TERENTI VARRONIS  DE LINGUA LATINA     AD CICERONEM LIBER Villi EXPLICIT ; INCIPIT   X   I. 1. In verborum declmationibus disciplinaloquendi  dissimilitudinem an similitudinem sequi deberet,  multi quaesierunt. Cum ab his ratio quae ab simili-  tudine oriretur vocaretur analogia, reliqua pars  appellaretur anomalia : de qua re primo libro quae  dicerentur cur dissimilitudinem ducem haberi opor-  teret, dixi, secundo contra quae dic(er)entur J 1 cur  potius similitudinem 2 eonveniret praeponi : quarum  rerum quod nee fundamenta, ut deb(u)it, 3 posita ab  ullo neque ordo ae natura, ut res postulat, explicita,  ipse eius rei formam exponam.   2. Dieam de quattuor rebus, quae continent  deelinationes 1 verborum : quid sit simile ac dissimile,  quid ratio quam appellant \6yov, quid pro portione 2   §1. 1 Aldus , for dicentur. 2 Aldus, for dissimili-  tudinem. 3 Aug., for debita.   § 2. 1 L. Sp., for declinationibus. 2 Plasberg* for pro-  portione.     § 1. ° Book VIII., which begins a fresh section of the  entire work. b Book IX.   534     MARCUS TERENTIUS VARRCTS  ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE     Addressed to Cicero  book ix ends, and here begins   BOOK X   I. 1. Many have raised the question whether in the  inflections of words the art of speaking ought to  follow the principle of unlikeness or that of likeness.  This is important, since from these develop the two  systems of relationship : that which develops from  likeness is called Regularity, and its counterpart is  called Anomaly. Of this, in the first book, I gave  the arguments which are advanced in favour of con-  sidering unlikeness as the proper guide ; in the  second, 6 those advanced to show that it is proper  rather to prefer likeness. Therefore, as their founda- *  tions have not been laid by anyone, as should have  been done, nor have their order and nature been set  forth as the matter demands, I shall myself sketch an  outline of the subject.   2. I shall speak of four factors which limit the  inflections of words : what likeness and unlikeness  are ; what the relationship is which they call logos ;  what " by comparative likeness "is, which they call   53$     VARRO     quod 3 dicunt dva Aoyov, 4 quid consuetudo ; quae  explicatae declarabunt analogiam et anomalia(m), 5  unde sit, quid sit, cuius modi sit.   II. 3. De similitudine et dissimilitudine ideo  primum dicendum, quod ea res est fundamentum  omnium declinationum ac continet rationem ver-  borum. Simile est quod res plerasque habere videtur  easdem quas illud cuiusque simile : dissimile est  quod videtur esse contrarium huius. Minimum ex  duobus constat omne simile, item dissimile, quod  nihil potest esse simile, quin alicuius sit simile, item  nihil dicitur dissimile, quin addatur quoius sit dis-  simile.   4. Sic dicitur similis homo homini, equus equo,  et dissimilis homo equo : nam similis est homo homini  ideo, quod easdem figuras membrorum habent, quae  eos dividunt ab reliquorum animalium specie. In  ipsis hominibus simili de causa vir viro similior quam  vir mulieri, quod plures habent easdem partis ; et  sic senior seni similior quam puero. Eo porro  similiores sunt qui facie quoque paene eadem, habitu  corporis, filo : itaque qui plura habent eadem,  dicuntur similiores ; qui proxume accedunt ad id,  ut omnia habeant eadem, vocantur gemini, simillimi.   5. Sunt qui tris naturas rerum putent esse, simile,  dissimile, neutrum, quod alias vocant non simile, alias   3 Aug., for quid. 4 Plasberg, for analogon. 6 Pius,  for anomalia.     § 2. Cf. x. 37.  536     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, X. 2-5     " according to logos " a ; what usage is. The explana-  tion of these matters will make clear the problems  connected with Regularity and Anomaly : whence  they come, what they are, of what sort they are.   II. 3. The first topic to be discussed must be like-  ness and unlikeness, because this matter is the  foundation of all inflections and set limits to the  relationship of words. That is like which is seen  to have several features identical with those of that  which is like it, in each case : that is unlike, which is  seen to be the opposite of what has just been said.  Every like or unlike consists of two units at least,  because nothing can be like without being like some-  thing else, and nothing can be unlike without associa-  tion with something to which it is unlike.   4. Thus a human being is said to be like a human  being, and a horse to be like a horse, and a human  being to be unlike a horse ; for a human being is like  a human being because they have limbs of the same  shape, which separate human beings from the cate-  gory of the other animals. Among human beings  themselves, for a like reason a man is more like a man  than a man is like a woman, because men have more  physical parts the same ; and so an elderly man is  more like an old man than he is like a boy. Further,  they are more like who are of almost the same  features, the same bearing of person, the same shape  of body ; therefore those who have more points of  identity, are said to be more like ; and those who  come nearest to having them all alike, are called  most like, as it were, twins.   5. There are those M*ho think that things have  three natures, like, unlike, and neutral, which last  they sometimes call the not like, and sometimes the   537     VARRO     non dissimile (sed quamvis tria sint simile dissimile  neutrum, tamen potest dividi etiam in duas partes  sic, quodcumque conferas aut simile esse aut non esse) ;  simile esse et dissimile, si videatur esse ut dixi, neu-  trum, si in neutram partem praeponderet, ut si duae  res quae conferuntur vicenas habent partes et in his  denas habeant easdem, denas alias ad similitudinem  et dissimilitudinem aeque animadvertendas : hanc  naturam plerique subiciunt sub dissimilitudinis  nomen.   6\ Quare quoniam fit 1 ut potius de vocabulo quam  de re controversia esse videatur, illud est potius  advertendum, quom simile quid esse dicitur, cui 2 parti  simile dicatur esse (in hoc enim solet esse error), quod  potest fieri ut homo homini simih's 3 non sit, 4 ut multas  partis habeat similis et ideo dici possit similis habere  oculos, nianus, pedes, sic alias res separatim et una  plures.   7. Itaque quod diligentcr videndum est in verbis,  quas partis et quot modis oporteat similis habere  (quae similitudinem habere) 1 dicuntur, ut infra  apparebit, is locus maxime lubricus est. Quid enim  similius potest videri indiligenti quam duo verba haec  suis et suis ? Quae non sunt, quod alterum 2 sig-  nificat suere, alterum suem. Itaque similia vocibus   § 6. 1 Aug., for fuit. 2 quoi L. Sp., for quin cui.  3 V 9 p, C. F. W. Mueller, for simile. 4 non sit Rhol.,for  sit non sit.   § 7. 1 Added by GS., cf § 12 end ; quae similia esse,  added by L\ Sp. ; ut similia, by Canal. 2 After alterum,  p and Aug. deleted non.  538     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, X. 5-7     not unlike ; but although there are the three, like,  unlike, neutral, there can also be a division into two  parts only, in such a way that whatever you compare  with something else either is like or is not. They  think that a thing is like and is unlike if it is seen to  be of such a kind as I have described, and neutral, if  it does not have greater weight on one side than on  the other ; as if the two things which are being com-  pared have twenty parts each, and among these should  have ten to be noted as identical and ten likewise to  be noted as different, in respect to likeness and  unlikeness. This nature most scholars include under  the name of unlikeness.   6. Therefore since it happens that the question in  dispute seems rather to be about the name than  about the thing, attention must rather be directed,  when something is said to be like, to the problem to  what part it is said to be like ; for it is in this that any  mistake ordinarily rests. This must be noted, I say,  because it can happen that a man may not be like  another man even though he has many parts like the  other's, and can be said therefore to have like eyes,  hands, feet, and other physical features in consider-  able number, separately and taken together, like the  other man's.   7. Therefore because careful watch must be kept  in words to see what parts those words which are said  to show likeness ought to have alike, and in what ways,  the inquirer is on this topic especially likely to slip  into error, as will appear below. For to the careless  person what can seem more alike than the two words  suis and suis ? But they are not alike, because one is  from suere 1 to sew ' and means ' thou sewest,' and  the other is from sus and means * of a swine.' There-   539     VARRO     esse ac syllabis confitemur, dissimilia esse partibus  orationis videmus, quod alterum habet tempora,  alterum casus, quae duae res vel maxime discernunt  analogias.   8. Item propinquiora genere inter se verba  similem s^epe pariunt errorem, ut in hoc, quod nemus 1  et lepus videtur esse simile, quom 2 utrumque habeat  eundem casum rectum ; sed non est simile, quod eis 3  certae similitudines opus sunt, in quo est ut in genere  nominum sint eodem, quod in his non est : nam in  virili genere 4 est lepus, ex neutro nemus ; dicitur enim  hie lepus et hoc nemus. Si eiusdem generis esse(n)t, 5  utrique praeponeretur idem ac diceretur aut hie lepus  et hie nemus aut hoc nemus, hoc lepus.   9. Quare quae et cuius modi sunt genera simili-  tudinum ad hanc rem, perspiciendum ei qui declina-  tiones verborum proportione sintne quaeret, Quern 1  locum, quod est difficilis, qui de his rebus scripserunt  aut vitaverunt aut inceperunt neque adsequi potu-  erunt.   10. Itaque in eo dissensio neque ea unius modi  apparet : nam alii de omnibus universis discriminibus  posuerunt numerum, ut D/onysius S/donius, qui  scripsit ea 1 esse septuaginta unwm, 2 alii parti's 3 eius  quae habet 4 casus, cuius eidem hie cum dicat esse   § 8. 1 H 9 JthoL, for numerus. 2 Mue., for quod cum.  3 Aug. , for eas. 4 After genere, Aug, deleted nominum  sint eodem, repeated from the previous line, 5 Aug. , for  esset.   § 9. 1 Mue^for quod.   § 10. 1 L. Sp.,for eas. 2 L. Sp.,for unam. 3 Mue. y  for partes. 4 Mue.,for habent.   § 8. a That is, so far as the termination is concerned.   § 10. a That is, schemes of inflection. b A pupil of  Aristarchus.  540     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, X. 7-10     fore we admit that they are alike as spoken words  and in their separate syllables, but we see that  they are unlike in their parts of speech, because  one has tenses and the other has cases ; and tenses  and cases are the two features which in the highest  degree serve to distinguish the different systems of  Regularity.   8. Likewise, words that are even nearer alike in  kind often cause a similar mistake, as in the fact that  nemus ' grove ' and lepus * hare ' seem to be alike since  both have the same nominative a ; but it is not an  instance of likeness, because they stand in need of  certain factors of likeness, among which is that they  should be in the same noun-gender. But these two  words are not, for lepus is masculine and nemus is  neuter ; for we say hie * this ' with lepus and hoc with  nemus. If they were of the same gender, the same  form would be set before both, and we should say  either hie lepus and hie nemus, or hoc nemus and hoc  lepus.   9. Therefore he who asks whether the inflections  of words stand in a regular relation, must examine  to see what kinds of likenesses there are and of what  sort they are, which pertain to this matter. And just  because this topic is difficult, those who have written  of these subjects either have avoided it or have begun  it without being able to complete their treatment of it.   10. Therefore in this there is seen a lack of agree-  ment, and not merely of one kind. For some have  fixed the number of all the distinctions a as a whole,  as did Dionysius of Sidon, 6 who wrote that there were  seventy-one of them ; and others set the number of  those distinctions which apply to the words which have  cases : the same writer says that of these there are   541     VARRO     discrimina quadnzginta 5 septem, Aristocles re/tulit 6  in litteras XII II, Parmeniscus VIII, sic alii pauciora  aut plura.   11. Quarum similitudinum si esset origo recte  capta et inde orsa ratio, minus erraret(ur) 1 in de-  clinationibus v(er)borum. 2 Quarum ego principia  prima duum generum sola arbitror esse, ad quae 3  similitudines exigi 4 oporteat : e quis unum positum  in verborum materia, alterum ut in materiac figura,  quae ex declinatione fit.   12. Nam debet esse unum, ut verbum verbo, unde  declinetur, sit simile ; alterum, ut e verbo in verbum  declinatio, ad quam conferetur, eiusdem modi sit :  alias enim ab similibus verbis similiter declinantur,  ut ab erus 1 ferus, ero 2 fero, alias dissimiliter erus 1  ferus, eri 3 ferum. Cum utrumque et verbum verbo  erit simile et declinatio declinationi, turn denique  dicam esse simile 4 ac duplicem et perfectam simili-  tudinem habere, id quod postulat analogia. 5   13. Sed ne astutius videar posuisse duo genera  esse similitudinum sola, cum utriusque inferiores  species sint plures, si de his reticuero, ut mihi relin-   5 My Laetus, for quadringenta. 6 Mue. ; retulit Laetus ;  for rutulit.   §11. 1 Vertranius, for erraret. 2 For ubo rum. 3 Al-  dus, for atque. 4 For exegi.   § 12. 1 For herus. 2 For hero. 3 For heri. 4 L.  Sp. t for similem. 5 For analogiam.     Probably Aristocles of Rhodes, a contemporary of Varro.   d A pupil of Aristarchus.   542     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, X. 10-13     forty-seven, Aristocles c reduced them to fourteen  headings, Parmeniscus d to eight, and others made the  number smaller or larger.   11. If the origin of these likenesses had been  correctly grasped and their logical explanation had  proceeded from that as a beginning, there would be  less error in regard to the inflections of words. Of  these likenesses there are, I think, first principles of  two kinds only, by which the likenesses ought to be  tested ; of which one lies in the substance of the  words, the other lies, so to speak, in the form 6 of  that substance, which comes from inflection.   12. For there must be one, that the word be like  the word from which it is inflected, and two, that in  comparison from word to word the inflectional form  with which the comparison is made should be of the  same kind. * For sometimes there are like forms  reached by inflection from like words, such as datives  ero and fero from eras ' master * and Jerus ' wild,* and  sometimes unlike forms, such as genitive eri and  accusative Jerum, from erus and Jerus. When both  principles are fulfilled and word is like word and  inflectional form like inflectional form, then and not  before will I pronounce that the word is like, and has  a twofold and perfect likeness to the other — which is  what Regularity demands.   13. But I wish to avoid the appearance of tricki-  ness in having declared that there are only two kinds  of likenesses when both have a number of sub-forms  — if I say nothing about these, you may think that I  am intentionally leaving myself a place of refuge ; I   §11. a That is, its form and ending, in the form which is  the starting point for inflection. 6 The inflectional form ;  cf. § 12.   543     VARRO     quam latebras, repetam ab origine similitudinum quae  in conferendis verbis et inclinandis sequendae aut  vitandae sint.   14. Prima divisio in oratione, quod alia verba  nusquam declmantur, 1 ut haec vix mox, alia decli-  nantur, ut ab lima limae, 2 a fero ferebam, et cum nisi  in his verbis quae dcclinantur non possit esse analogia,  qui dicit simile esse mox et nox errat, quod non est  eiusdem generis utrumque verbum, cum nox suc-  cedere debeat sub casuum ratione(m), 3 mox neque  debeat neque possit.   15. Secunda divisio est de his verbis quae de-  clinari possunt, quod alia sunt a voluntate, alia a  natura. Voluntatem appello, cum unus quivis a  nomine aliae (rei) 1 imponit nomen, ut Romulus  Romae ; naturam dico, cum universi acceptum nomen  ab eo qui imposuit non requirimus quemadmodum  is velit declinari, sed ipsi declinamus, ut huius Romae,  hanc Romam, hac Roma. De his duabus partibus  voluntaria declinatio refertur ad consuetudinem,  naturalis ad rationem. 2   16. Quare proinde ac simile conferre 1 non oportet  ac dicere, ut sit ab Roma Romanus, sic ex Capua dici  oportere Capuanus, quod in consuetudine vehementer  natat, quod declinantes imperite rebus nomina im-  ponunt, a quibus cum accepit consuetudo, turbulenta   § 14. 1 For declimantur. 2 OS., for limabo. 3 Lach-  mann y for ratione.   § 15. 1 Added by GS. 2 Aug., for orationem.   §16. 1 Stephanus, for conferri.  544     OX THE LATIN LANGUAGE, X. 13-16     shall therefore go back and start from the origin of  the likenesses which must be followed or avoided in  the comparison of words and in their inflections.   14. The first division in speech is that some words  are not changed into any other form whatsoever,  like vix ' hardly ' and mox * soon/ and others are in-  flected, like genitive limae from lima * file,' imperfect  ferebam from fero * I bear ' ; and since Regularity  cannot be present except in words which are inflected,  he who says that mox and nox * night * are alike, is  mistaken, because the two words are not of the same  kind, since nox must come under the system of case-  forms, but mox must not and cannot.   1 5. The second division is that, of the words which  can be changed by derivation and inflection, some  are changed in accordance with will, and others in  accordance with nature. I call it will, when from a  name a person sets a name on something else, as  Romulus gave a name to Roma ; I call it nature,  when we all accept a name but do not ask of the one  who set it how he wishes it to be inflected, but our-  selves inflect it, as genitive Romae } accusative Romam,  ablative Roma. Of these two parts, voluntary deriva-  tion goes back to usage, and natural goes back to  logical system.   16. For this reason we ought not to compare  Romanus * Roman ' and Capuanus ' Capuan ' as alike,  and to say that Capuanus ought to be said from  Capua just as Romanus is from Roma ; for in such  there is in actual usage an extreme fluctuation, since  those who derive the words set the names on the  things with utter lack of skill, and when usage has  accepted the words from them, it must of necessity  speak confused names variously derived. Therefore   vol. ii n 545     VARRO     necesse est dicere. Itaque neque Aristarchd 2 neque  alii in analogiis defendendam eius susceperunt cau-  sam, sed, ut dixi, hoc genere declinatio in co(m)-  muni consuetudine verborum aegrotat, quod oritur  e populo multiplici (et) 3 imperito : itaque in hoc  genere in loquendo 4 magis anomalia quam analogia.   17. Tertia divisio est : quae verba declinata  natura ; ea dividwntur 1 in partis quattuor : in unam  quae habet casus neque tempora, ut docilis et facilis ;  in alteram quae tempora neque casus, ut docet facit ;  in tertiam quae utraque, ut doccns faciens ; in  quartam quae neutra, ut docte et facete. Ex hac  divisione singulis partibus tres reliquae 2 dissimiles.  Quare nisi in sua parte inter se collata erunt verba,  si 3 conveniunt, non erit ita simile, ut debeat facere  idem.   18. Unius cuiusque part/s 1 quoniam species plures,  de singulis dicam. Prima pars casualis dividitur in  partis duas, in nominatus scilicet 2 (et articulos), 3  quod aeque 4 finitum (et infinitum) 5 est ut hie et quis ;  de his generibus duobus utrum sumpseris, cum   2 Kent, for Aristarchii ; cf. viii. 63. 3 Added by Groth.  4 For loquenda.   §17. 1 L. Sp., for dividitur. 2 Mve. % for reliquere.   3 After si, Canal deleted non.   § 18. The text of this § stands in the manuscripts between  § 90 and § 21 ; the shift of position was made by Mueller \ who  left unius cuiusque partis at the end of § 20 ; A. Spengel  transferred these words also. 1 Sciop., for partes.   2 Laetus^for s ( =sunt). 3 Added by Mue* 4 L. Sp., for  neque. 6 Added by L. Sp. ; cf. viii. 45.     § 1 6. This is shown even to-day in the new technical  terminology of some near-sciences. b Varro is somewhat   546     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, X. 16-18     neither the followers of Aristarchus nor any others  have undertaken to defend the cause of voluntary  derivation as among the Regularities ; but, as I have  said, this kind of derivation of words in common  usage is an ill thing, because it springs from the  people, which is without uniformity and without  skill. Therefore, in speaking, there is in this kind of  derivation rather Anomaly than Regularity. 6   17. There is a third division, the words which  are by their nature inflected. These are divided  into four subdivisions : one which has cases but not  tenses, like docilis ' docile ' and facilis ' easy ' ; a  second, which has tenses but not cases, 6 like docet   * teaches/ facit * makes ' ; a third which has both, c  like docens 1 teaching/ faciens * making ' ; a fourth  which has neither,*" like docte * learnedly * and facete   * wittily.' The individual parts of this division are  each unlike the three remaining parts. Therefore,  unless the words are compared with one another in  their own subdivision, even if they do agree the one  word will not be so like the other that it ought to  make the same inflectional scheme.   18. Since there are several species in each part, I  shall speak of them one by one. The first sub-  division, characterized by the possession of cases, is  divided into two parts, namely into nouns and  articles, which latter class is both definite and in-  definite, as for example hie * this ' and quis 4 who.'  Whichever of these two kinds you have taken, it must  not be compared with the other, because they belong   unfair here, since derivation by suffixes, though varied, is not  without its regular principles.   § 17. a Nouns, pronouns, adjectives (except participles).  6 Finite verbs. e Participles. d Adverbs.   547     VARRO     reliquo non conferendum, quod inter se dissimiles  habent analogias.   19. In articulis vix adumbrata est analogia et  magis rerum quam vocum ; in nomin(at)ibus 1 magis  expressa ac plus etiam in vocibus ac (syllabarum) 2  similitudinibus quam in rebus suam optinet rationem.  Etiam illud accedit ut in articulis habere analogias  ostendere sit difficile, quod singula sint verba, hie  contra facile, quod magna sit copia similium nomina-  tuum. Quare non tarn hanc partem ab ilia 8 dividen-  dum quam illud videndum, ut satis sit verecundi(ae) 4  etiam illam in eandem arenam vocare pugnatum.   20. Ut in articulis duae partes, finitae et infinitae,  sic in noyninaitibus 1 duae, vocabulum et nomen :  non enim idem oppidum et Roma, cum oppidum sit  vocabulum, Roma nomen, quorum discrimen in his  reddendis rationibus alii discernunt, alii non ; nos  sicubi opus fuerit, quid sit et cur, ascribemus. 2   21. Nominatm' 1 ut similis sit nominatus, habere  debet ut sit eodem genere, specie eadem, sic casu,  exitu eodem 2 : specie, 8 ut si nomen est quod conferas,  cum quo conferas sit nomen ; genere, 4 ut non solum  (unum sed) 5 utrumque sit virile ; casu, 6 ut si alterum  sit dandi, item alterum sit dandi ; exitu, ut quas   § 19. 1 L. Sp., for nominibus. 2 Added by GS.  3 After ilia, Aug. deleted ab. 4 Kent, for uerecundi.   § 20. 1 L. Sp., for uocabulis. 2 Sciop., for ascribimus.   § 21. 1 Mve., for nominatus (Sciop. changed the second  nominatus to -tui). 2 Mue., for eius. 8 Liibbert, for  genere, transposing with specie (note 4). 4 Liibbert, for  specie (cf preceding note) ; after this, L. Sp. deleted simile.  fi Added by Mite. ; sed added by Aug. 6 After casu, L.  Sp. deleted simile.   § 21. Here, as often in Varro, including adjective as well  as substantive.  548     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, X. 18-21     to schemes of Regularity which are different from  each other.   19. In the articles, Regularity is hardly even a  shadow, and more a Regularity of things than of  spoken words ; in nouns, it comes out better, and  consummates itself rather in the spoken words and  the likeness of the syllables than in the things  named. There is also the additional fact that it  is difficult to show that Regularities reside in the  articles, because they are single words ; but in nouns  it is easy, because there is a great abundance of like  name-words. Therefore it is not so much a matter  of dividing this part from that other part, as of see-  ing to it that the investigator should be too much  ashamed even to call that other part into the same  arena to do battle.   20. As there are two groups in the articles,  the definite and the indefinite, so there are in the  nouns, the common nouns and the proper names ;  for oppidum ' town ' and Roma * Rome * are not the  same, since oppidum is a common noun, and Roma  is a proper name. In their account of the systems,  some make this distinction, and others do not ;  but we shall enter in our account, at the proper  place, what this difference is and why it has come  to be.   21 . That noun a may be like noun, it ought to have  the qualities of being of the same gender, of the same  kind, also in the same case and with the same ending :  kind, that if it is a proper name which you are com-  paring, it be a proper name with which you compare  it ; gender, that not merely one, but both words be  masculine ; case, that if one is in the dative, the  other likewise be in the dative ; ending, that what-   549     VARRO     unum habeat extremas littcras, easdem alterum  habcat.   22. Ad hunc quadruplicem fontem ordines derigun-  tur bini, uni transversi, alteri derecti, ut in tabula  solet in qua latrunculzs 1 ludunt. Transversi sunt  qui ab recto casu obliqui declinantur, ut albus albi  albo ; dcrecti sunt qui ab recto casu in rectos  declinantur, ut albus alba album ; utrique sunt parti-  bus senis. Transversorum ordinum partes appellan-  tur 2 casus, derectorum genera, 3 utrisque inter se  implicatis forma. 4   23. Dicam prius de transversis. Casuum voca-  bula alius alio modo appellavit ; nos dicemus, qui  nominandi causa dicitur, nominandi vel nomina-  tivum. . . . l   HIC DESUNT TRIA FOLIA IN EXEMPLARI 2   24. . . . (dicuntur una)e 1 scopae, non dicitur una  scopa : alia enim natura, quod priora simplicibus,   § 22. 1 Bentinus, for latrunculus. 2 Aldus, for expel-  lantur. 3 Aug., for genere. 4 Aug., for formam.   § 23. 1 There is blank space here in F, for the rest of the  page (18 lines), all the next page (39 lines), and the first part  of the following (8 lines). 2 F 2 , in margin.   § 24. 1 Added and altered by Kent, for et ; cf viii. 7.     § 22. ° The * men ' in a game like draughts or checkers  were called latrunctdi ' brigands ' by the Romans. 6 Varro  did not arrange his paradigm of adjectives as we do, but set  the cases of the same number and gender in one line across  the page, while the other genders followed in the next two  lines, and then the three genders of the plural in the succeed-  ing lines. - c Varro counts his six genders by considering  the genders of the plural as additional genders.   § 23. ° The cases. b Varro's names for the remaining   550     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, X. 21-24     ever last letters the one has, the other also have the  same.   22. To this fourfold spring two sets of lines are  drawn up, the ones crosswise and the others vertical,  as is the regular arrangement on a board on which  they play with movable pieces. Those are cross-  wise which are the oblique cases formed from a nomi-  native, & like albus ' white,' genitive albi, dative albo ;  those are vertical which are inflected from one  nominative to other nominatives, as masculine albus,  feminine alba, neuter album. Both sets of lines are  of six members. 6 Each member of the crosswise  lines is called a case ; each member of the vertical  lines is a gender ; that which belongs to both in their  crossed arrangement, is a form.   23. I shall speak first of the crosswise lines.  Scholars have given various sets of names to the  cases ; we shall call that case which is spoken for the  purpose of naming, the case of naming or nomina-  tive ... 6   HERE THREE LEAVES ARE LACKING Iff THE MODEL  COPY c   24-. . . . To indicate one * broom * the plural scopae  is used, not the singular scopa. a For they b are  different by nature, because the names first men-  cases, Ayhich were listed in the lost text, are : casus patriots  or pat ri us, casus dandi, casus accusandi or accusativus, casus  vocandi, casus sextus. The names genetivus, dativus, voca-  tivus, ablativus appear in Quintilian and Gellius. e In  the lost text stood the remainder of the discussion of cases, a U  the discussion of gender, and almost all concerning number,  which is concluded in § 30.   § 24. 8 Cf. viii. 7. 5 The nouns in the preceding dis-  cussion, of which scopae alone is preserved in the text.   551     VARRO     posteriora in coniunctis rebus vocabula ponuntur, sic  bigae, sic quadrigae a coniunctu dictae. Itaque non  dicitur, ut haec una lata ct alba, sic una biga, sed  unae bigae, neque 2 dicitur ut hae duae latae, albae,  sic hae duae bigae et quadrigae, (sed hae binae  bigae et quadrigae). 3   25. Item figura verbi qualis sit rcfert, quod in  figura vocis alias commutatio fit in primo 1 verbo suit 2  modo suit, 2 alias in medio, ut curso 3 cursito, alias in  extrcnio, ut docco docui, alias co(m)munis, ut lego  legs'. 4 Refert igitur ex quibus litteris quodque verbum  constet, maxime extrema, quod ea in plerisque  commutatur. 5   26. Quare in his quoque partibus similitudines ab  aliis male, ab aliis bene quod solent sumi in casibus  conferendis, recte an perperam videndum ; sed  ubicumque commoventur litterae, non solum eae  sunt animadvertendae, sed etiam quae proxumae  sunt neque moventur : haec enim vicinitas aliquan-  tum potes(t) 1 in verborum declinationibus.   27. In quis figuris non ea similia dicemus quae   2 After neque, p and Sciop. deleted ut. 3 Added by L. Sp.,  cf. ix. 64.   § 25. 1 Mue., for uno. 2 Mue. added the signs of  quantity ; cf. ix. 104. 3 Aug., for cursu. 4 Aug., for  lege. 5 L. Sp. for commutantur.   § 26. 1 Aldus, for potes.     c These are all lost. d Scopae, as * twigs ' done in a bundle ;  bigae and quadrigae, because of the number of horses in-  volved. e The distributive numeral is used to multiply  ideas whose singular is denoted by a plural form: cf. ix. 64.   § 25. ° I have added the signs of quantity in lego and legi,  to make clear Varro's point.  552     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, X. 24-27     tioned c are set upon simple objects, and those men-  tioned later apply to compounded objects d ; thus  bigae ' two-horse team ' and quadrigae ' four-horse  team ' are employed in the plural because they denote  a union of objects. Therefore we do not say one biga,  like one lata 1 broad 1 and alba ' white,' but one bigae,  with the numeral also in the plural ; nor do Ave say  duae ' two ' with reference to bigae and quadrigae, as  we say duae ' two ' with application to the plural  forms laiae and albae, but we say binae * two sets ' of  bigae and quadrigae. 6   25. Likewise the character of the form of a word  is important, because in the form of the spoken word  a change is sometimes made in the first part of  the word, as in suit ' sews ' and suit ' sewed ' ; some-  times in the middle, as in curso ' I run to and fro/  and cursito, of the same meaning ; sometimes at the  end, as in doceo 1 I teach ' and docui * I have taught ' ;  sometimes the change is common to two parts, as in  Ugo ' I read,' legi 1 I have read.' a It is important  therefore to observe of what letters each word con-  sists ; and the last letter is especially important,  because it is changed in the greatest number of in-  stances.   26. Because of this, since the likenesses in these  parts also are wont to be used in the comparison of  case-forms, and this is done ill by some and well by  others, we must see whether this has been done rightly  or wrongly. Yet wherever the letters are altered,  not only the altered letters must be noted, but also  those which are next to them and are not affected ;  for this proximity has considerable influence in the  inflections of words.   27. Among these forms we shall not call those   55S     VARRO     similis res significant, sed quae ea forma sint, ut  eius modi res similis 1 ex instituto significare plerum-  que sole(a)nt, 2 ut tunicam virilem et muliebrem  dicimus non earn quam habet vir aut mulier, sed  quam habere ex instituto debet : potest enim mulie-  brem vir, virilem mulier habere, ut in scaena ab  actoribus haberi videmus, sed earn dicimus muliebrem,  quae de eo genere est quo indutui mulieres ut uteren-  tur est institutum. Ut actor stolam muliebrem sic  Perpenna et Ctfecina et (S)purinna 3 figura muliebria  dicuntur habere nomina, non mulierum.   28. Flexurae quoque similitudo videnda ideo  quod alia verba quam vi(a)m x habeant ex ipsis  verbis, unde declinantur, apparet, 2 ut quemadmodum  oporteat ute 3 praetor consul, praetori consuli ; alia  ex transitu intelleguntur, ut socer macer, quod  alterum fit socerum, alterum macrum, quorum utrum-  que in reliquis a transitu suam viam sequitur et in  singularibus et in multitudinis declinationibus. Hoc  fit ideo quod naturarum genera sunt duo quae inter  se conferri possunt, unum quod per se videri potest,  ut homo et equus, alterum sine assumpta aliqua re   § 27. 1 Mite., for similia. 2 Aldus, for solent.  3 Aug., for purinna.   § 28. 1 Schoell (marginal note in his copy of A. SpSs ed.),  for uim. 2 Pius, for appellant. 3 A. Sp.,for ut a.     § 27. ° With eius modi, understand figurae ; cf in eius  modi, v. 128. b Cf ix. 48. c Cf viii. 41, 81, ix. 41.   § 28. a That is, the nominative is the stem to which the  case-endings are added. 6 That is, the stem is seen in an   554     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, X. 27-28     words like which denote like things, but those which  are of such a stamp that such forms a are in most  instances wont by custom to denote like things, as  by a man's tunic or a woman's tunic we mean not a  tunic that a man or a woman is wearing, but one  which by custom a man or a woman ought to wear. 6  For a man can wear a woman's tunic, and a woman  can wear a man's, as we see done on the stage by  actors ; but we say that that is a woman's tunic,  which is of the kind that women customarily use  to dress themselves in. As an actor may wear a  woman's dress, so Perpenna and Caecina and Spurinna  are said to have names that are feminine in form ;  they are not said to have women's names. c   28. The likeness of the inflection also must be  watched, because the way which some words take is  clear from the very words from which their inflection  starts, as how it is proper to use praetor and consul,  dative praetori and considi. Others are properly  appreciated only as a result of the change seen in the  inflections, as in socer 1 father-in-law ' and macer  1 lean,' because the one becomes socerum in the  accusative, and the other macrum ; after making  this change, each of them follows its own way in the  remaining forms, 6 both in the inflections of the  singular and in those of the plural. This method is  employed c because in the inflections there are two  kinds of natures which can be compared with each  other, one which can be seen in the word itself, such  as homo 1 man ' and equus ' horse,' but the second  cannot be seen through without bringing in some-  oblique case rather than in the nominative; cf. ix. 91-94.  e Varro's logical sequence is here at fault, for he brings in  derivative stems, after speaking only of noun declensions.   555     VARRO     extrinsecus perspici non possit, ut eques et equiso :  uterque enim dicitur ab equo.   29. Quare hominem homini similem esse aut non  esse, si contuleris, ex ipsis homini(bus) 1 animadversis  scies ; at duo inter se similiterne sint longiores quam  sint eorum fratres, dicere non possis, si illos breviores  cum quibus conferuntur quam longi sint ignores 2 ;  si(c) 3 latiorum atque altiorum, item cetera eiusdem  generis sine assumpto extrinsecus aliquo perspici  similitudines non possunt. Sic igitur quidam casus  quod ex hoc genere sunt, non facile est dicere similis  esse, si eorum singulorum solum animadvertas voces,  nisi assumpseris alterum, quo flectitur in trans-  eundo 4 vox.   30. Quod ad nominatuom 1 similitudines animad-  vertendas arbitratus sum satis es(se) tangere, 2 hctec  sunt. Relinquitur de articulis, in quibus quaedam  eadem, quaedam alia. De quinque enim generibus  duo prima habent eadem, quod sunt et virilia et  muliebria et neutra, et quod alia sunt ut significent  unum, (alia) 3 ut plura, et de casibus quod habent  quinos : nam vocandi voce notatus non est. Pro-  prium illud habent, quod partim sunt finita, et hie  haec, partim infinita, ut quis et quae, 4 quorum quod  adumbrata et tenuis analogia, in hoc libro plura  dicere (non) 5 necesse est.   §29. 1 Canal, for homini. 2 Aldus, for ignorent.  3 Aug., for si. 4 Aug., for transeundum.   §30. 1 L.. Sp. ; -tuum Aug., for nominatiuom.  2 Aug., for est angere. 3 Added by Aug. 4 After quae,  Aug. deleted et. 5 Added by Aug.   556     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, X. 28-30     thing from outside, as in eques ' horseman ' and equiso  1 stable-boy * — for both are derived from equus  1 horse. ' d   29. By this method, you will, on making a compari-  son, know that of men observed in person one is or is  not like the other; but you could not say that the  two are in like fashion taller than their brothers, if  you should not know how tall those shorter brothers  are with whom they are compared. In this way the  likenesses of things broader and higher, and others  of the same kind, cannot be examined without bringing  in some help from outside. So therefore, inasmuch  as certain case-forms are of this kind, it is not easy to  say that they are like, if you observe the spoken words  in one case only ; to make a correct judgement, you  will have to bring in another case-form to which the  spoken word passes as it is inflected.   30. These considerations are what I have thought  enough to touch upon, for observing the likenesses of  nouns. It remains to speak of the articles, of which  some are like nouns and others are different. For of  the five classes the first two have the same properties,  because they have forms for masculine, feminine, and  neuter, they have some forms to denote the singular  and others to denote the plural, and they have five  cases ; the vocative is not indicated by a separate  spoken form. They have this of their own, that  some are definite, like hie ' this/ feminine haec, and  others are indefinite, like quis 4 which,' feminine  quae. But since their system of Regularity is  shadowy and thin, it is not necessary to speak  further of it in this book. a   d Cf. viii. 14.   § 30. • Cf. x. 19-20.   557     VARRO     31. Secundum genus quae verba tempora habent  neque casus, sec? 1 habent personas. Eorum declina-  tuum species sunt sex : una quae dicitur temporalis,  ut legebam gemebam, lego 2 gemo ; altera perso-  narum, ut sero meto, seris metis ; tertia rogandi, ut  scribone legone, scribisne legisne. Quarta respon-  dendi, ut fingo pingo, fingis pingis ; quinta optandi,  ut dicerem facerem, dicam faciam ; sexta imperandi,  ut cape rape, capito rapito.   32. Item sunt declinatuum species quattuor quae  tempora habent sine personis : in rogando, ut fodi-  turne seriturne, et fodieturne sereturne. Ab re-  spondendi specie eaedem figurae fiunt extremis  syllabis demptis ; op(t)andi species, ut vivatur  ametur, viveretur amaretur. Imperandi declinatus  sz'ntne habet 1 dubitationem et eorum sitne 2 haec  ratio : paretur pugnetur, parafor pugna/or. 3   33. Accedunt ad has species a copulis divisionum  quadrinis : ab infecti et perfecti, (ut) 1 emo edo, emi   § 31. 1 Aug. , for si. 2 For logo.   § 32. 1 Aug., for sum ne habent. 2 Aug.,, for sint ne.  3 Canal, for parari pugnari.  § 33. * x Added by L. Sp.     §31. ° Cf. x. 17. 6 Respectively tense, person, inter-  rogative (indicative), declarative indicative, subjunctive,  imperative ; the technical vocabulary was not fully developed  in Varro's time.   § 32. ° Corresponding to the last four of the categories in  § 31 ; Varro shows a good understanding of the impersonal  passive.   §33. a C/.x. 14-17.   558     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, X. 31-33     31. The second subdivision a consists of those  words which have tenses but not cases, and have  persons. The categories of their inflections are six & :  one which is that of the tenses, as legebam 1 I was  reading,' gemebam * I was groaning,' lego ' I read,'  gemo * I groan ' ; the second is that of the persons, as  sero * I sow,' meto ' I reap,' seris ' thou sowest,'  metis ' thou reapest ' ; the third is the interrogative,  as scribone 1 do I write ? ', legone * do I read ? ', scribisne,  legisne ; the fourth is that of the answer, as Jingo * I  form,' pingo * I paint, ' Jingis, pingis ; the fifth that of  the wish, as dicerem * would I were saying,' facerem  * would I were making,* dicam * may I say,' faciam  ' may I make * ; the sixth that of the command, as  cape ' take,' rape ' seize,' capito, rapito.   32. Likewise there are four categories of inflec-  tions which have tenses without persons a : in the  interrogative, as foditume ' is digging going on ? ',  seriturne ' is sowing going on ? ' and fodieturne 4 will  digging be done ? ', sereiurne ' will sowing be done ? * ;  of the category for the answer the same forms are  used, but without the last syllable ne ; the category  for the wish, as vivatur * may there be living,' ameiur  ' may there be loving,* viveretur * would there were  living,' amaretur * would there were loving.* Whether  the inflections for the impersonal command exist, is  somewhat doubtful ; there is also doubt about the  scheme of the forms, which is given as parehir * let  there be preparation,' pugneiur * let there be fight-  ing,' or parator, pugnator.   33. There are added to these categories those  which proceed from the four sets of pairs a consisting  of the divisions : from that of the incomplete and  the completed, as emo ' I buy ' and edo * I eat,' emi * I   559     VARRO     edi ; ab semel et saepius, ut scribo lego, scriptito  lectito 2 ; (a) 3 faciendi et patiendi, ut uro ungo, uror  ungor ; a singulari et multitudinis, ut laudo culpo,  laudamus culpamus. Huius generis verborum cuius  species exposui quam late quidque pateat et cuius  modi efficiat figuras, in libris qui de formulis verborum  erunt diligentius expedietur.   34. Tertii generis, quae declinantur cum tem-  poribus ac casibus ac vocantur a multis ideo partici-  palia, sunt hoc ge(nere) 1 . . .   HIC DESUNT FOLIA III IN EXEMPLARI 2   35. ... quemadmodum declinemus, 1 quaerimus  casus eius, etiamsi siqui 2 finxit poeta aliquod vocabu-  lum et ab eo casu(m) 3 ipse aliquem perperam de-  clinavit, potius eum reprehendimus quam sequimur.  Igitur ratio quam dico utrubique, et in his verbis quae  imponuntur et in his quae declinantur, neque non  etiam tertia ilia, quae ex utroque miscetur genere.   36. Quarum una quaeque ratio collata cum altera   2 L. Sp.,for scriptitaui lectitaui. 3 Added by L. Sp.   § 34. 1 Added by Rhol. ; F here leaves blank the rest of  the page (a little more than 28 lines) and all the next page  (39 lines). 2 F 1 , in margin.   § 35. 1 L. Sp., for declinamus. 2 L. Sp., for is qui.   3 L. Sp., for casu.     b Verbs. c Not extant.   § 34. a Adjective to the more common term participia or  participles ; both meaning * taking part ' in the features of  two sets of words (nouns and verbs). For the form partki-  palia (in F) rather than -pialia (in p), cf. M. Niedermann,  Mnemosyne, lxiii. 267-268 (1936). b The lost text contained  the discussion of participles, that of adverbs, and the be-  ginning of that on ratio.   § 35. ° This is perhaps the simplest way of giving a mean-  ing to the incomplete sentence. h Referring to the previous  discussion, now almost entirely lost. c The independent   560     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, X. 33-36     have bought * and edi * I have eaten ' ; from that of  the act done once and the act done more often, as  scribo * I write ' and lego * I read/ scriptito 1 I am  busy with writing,' and lectito * I read and reread ' ;  from that of active and passive, as uro 1 I burn ' and  ango ' I anoint,' uror * I am burned ' and ungor * I  am anointed ' ; from that of singular and plural, as  laudo ' I praise ' and culpo * I blame,' laudamus ' we  praise * and culpamus ' we blame. ' With regard to the  words of this class 6 whose categories I have described,  the matter of how full an equipment of forms each  has, and what sort of forms it makes, will be set forth  with more attention to detail in the books c which  are to be on the paradigms of verbs.   34. The words of the third subdivision, which  are inflected with tenses and cases and are by many  therefore called participials, a are of this kind ... 6   HERE THREE LEAVES ARE LACKING IN THE MODEL  COPY   35. ... When w T e meet a new word, a we ask  about its case-forms, as to how we shall inflect them ;  and yet if some poet has made up some word and has  himself formed from it some case-form in an incorrect  way, we blame him rather than follow his example.  Therefore Ratio or Relation, of which I am speaking,  is present in both 6 : in the words which are imposed  upon things, 6 and in those which are formed by in-  flection d ; and then also there is that third kind of  Relation, which combines the characteristics of the  two.*   36. Among these, each and every relation, when   words. d The paradigms. e In derivatives formed by  suffixes.     VOL. II     o     561     VARRO     aut similis aut dissimilis, aut saepe verba alia, ratio  eadem, et nonnunquam ratio alia, verba eadem.  Quae ratio in amor amori, eadem in dolor dolori,  neque eadem in dolor dolorem, et cum eadem ratio  quae est in amor et 1 amoris sit in amores et amorum,  tamen ea, quod non in ea qua oportet confertur 2  materia, per se solum efficere non potest analogias  propter disparilitatem vocis figurarum, quod verbum  copulatum singulare 3 cum multitudine : ita cum est  pro portione, ut candem habeat rationem, turn  denique ea ratio conficit id quod postulat analogia ;  de qua deinceps dicam.   III. 37. Sequitur tertius locus, quae sit ratio  pro portione ; (e)a Greece 1 vocatur 2 dva Xoyov ; ab  analogo dicta analogia. Ex eodem genere quae res  inter se aliqua parte dissimiles rationem habent  aliquam, si ad eas duas alterae duae res allatae sunt,  quae rationem habeant eandem, quod ea verba bina  habent eundem Xoyov, dicitur utrumque separatim  dvdXoyov, simul collata quattuor dvaXoy(t)a. z   38. Nam ut in geminis, cum simile(m) 1 dicimus  esse Menaechmum Menaechmo, de uno dicimus ;  cum similitudine(m) 2 esse in his, de utroque : sic  cum dicimus eandem rationem habere assem ad   § 36. 1 After et, a repeated amor et has been deleted.   2 After confertur, Aug, deleted a. 3 Aug., for singularem.   § 37. 1 L. Sp., for agrece. 2 Aug., for uocantur.   3 OS. ; analogia Mue., with G ; for analoga.   §38. 1 C. F. W. Mueller, for simile. 2 Aug., for  similitudine.     § 36. a Because of the difference in number.   § 37. a As in mathematics, two ratios of equal value make  a proportion.   § 38. a In the comedy of Plautus.  562     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, X. 36-38     compared with another, is either like or unlike ; and  often the words are different but the relation is the  same, and sometimes the relation is different but the  words are the same. The same relation which is in  amor ' love * and dative amort is in dolor 1 pain ' and  dative dolori, but not in dolor and accusative dolorem.  The same relation which is in amor and genitive  amoris is in plural amores and genitive amorum ; and  yet, because the subject-matter in it is not compared  as it should be, a this relation cannot of itself effect  Regularities, on account of the differences in the  forms of the spoken word, because a singular word  has been associated with a plural. So, when it is by  a proportionate likeness that the word has the same  relation, then and not until then does this relation  achieve what is demanded by Analogia or Regularity ;  of which I shall speak next.   III. 37. There follows the third topic : What is  Ratio or Relation that is pro portione ' by proportionate  likeness ' ? This is in Greek called 4 according to  logos * ; and from analogue the term Analogia or  Regularity is derived. If there are two things of the  same class which belong to some relation though in  some respect unlike each other, and if alongside  these two things two other things which have the same  relation are placed, then because the two sets of  words belong to the same logos each one is said  separately to be an analogue and the comparison of  the four constitutes an Analogia,   38. For it is as in a matter of twins : when we say  that the one Menaechmus is like the other Menaech-  mus, a we are speaking of one only ; but when we say  that a likeness is present in them, we are speaking of  both. So, when we say that a copper as has the same   563     VARRO     semissem quam habet in argento 3 libella ad simbeli&mf  quid sit dvdXoyov ostendimus ; cum utrubique dici-  mus et in aere et in argento esse eandem rationem,  turn dicimus de analogia.   39. Ut sodalis et sodalitas, civis et civitas non est  idem, sed utrumque ab eodem ac coniunctum, sic  dvdXoyov et dvakoyta idem non est, sed item est con-  generatum. Quare si homines sustuleris, sodalis  sustuleris ; si sodalis, sodalitatem : sic item si sus-  tuleris Xoyov, sustuleris dvdXoyov ; si id, dvaXoytav.   40. Quae cum inter se tanta sint cognatione, de-  bebis suptilius audire quam dici expectare, id est cum  dixero quid de utroque et erit co(m)mune, (ne) 1  expectes, dum ego in scribendo transferam in re-  liquum, sed ut potius tu persequare ammo.   41. Haec fiunt in dissimilibus rebus, ut in numeris  si contuleris cum uno duo, sic cum decern viginti :  nam (quam) 1 rationem duo ad unum habent, eandem  habent viginti ad decern ; in nummis in similibus sic  est ad unum victoriatum denarius, si(cut) 2 ad alterum  victoriatum alter denarius ; sic item in aliis rebus  omnibus pro portione dicuntur ea, in quo est sic  quadruplex natura, ut in progenie vois ' nature ' as an originating or  moving power. * Properly, of sounds.   § 56. ° Principia are the singular forms, in whichever  direction the argument is carried ; but perhaps quam in  singular} should be inserted between ordiri and quod.  b Because the B and the C ending the stems can be seen in the     deleted      repeated from above.     2 L.     576     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, X. 55-57     to two, should the conclusion be drawn that in teach-  ing the later thing cannot be the clearer, for the  purpose of beginning from it, to show what the prior  thing is. Therefore even those who deal with the  nature of the universe and are on this account called  physici a ' natural philosophers,' proceed from nature  as a whole and show by backward reasoning from the  later things, what the beginnings of the world were.  Though speech consists of letters, 6 it is nevertheless  from speech that the grammarians start in order to  show the nature of the letters.   56. Therefore in the explanation, since one ought  rather to set out from that which is clearer than  from that which is prior, and rather from the un-  corrupted than from a corrupt original, from the  nature of things rather than from the fancy of men,  and since these three factors which are more to be  followed are less present in the singulars than in the  plurals, one can more easily commence from the  plural than from the singular, because in the latter  as starting-points ° there is less of a basis for relation-  ship in the forming of words. That the singular  forms of words can be more easily interpreted from  plural forms than plural forms from the singular, is  shown by these words 6 : plural trabes * beams,* singular  trabs ; plural duces * leaders,' singular dux.   57. For we see that from the plural nominatives  trabes and duces the letter E of the last syllable has  been eliminated and thereby in the singular have been   plural, but cannot be inferred with certainty from the nomi-  native singular, especially if we read not trabs but traps  (Roth, Philol. xvii. 176, and Mueller's note to § 57), which  represents the actual pronunciation. Yet Varro wrote trabs  and not traps, according to Cassiodorus, Gram. Lat. vii.  159. 23 Keil.     VOL. II     p     577     VARRO     lari factum esse trabs dux. Contra ex singularibus  non tam videmus quemadmodum facta sint ex B et S  trabs 1 et ex C et S du#. 2   58. Si mwl(t)itudinis 1 rectus casus forte figura  corrupta erit, id quod accidit raro, prius id corrigemus  quam inde ordiemur ; (ab) 2 obliquis adsumere  oportetf 3 figuras eas quae non erunt ambiguae, sive  singulares sive multitudims, 4 ex quibus id, cuius modi  debent esse, perspici possit. 5   59. Nam nonnunquam alterum ex altero videtur,  ut Chn/sippus scribit, quemadmodum pater ex filio  et filius ex patre, neque minus in fornicibus propter  sinistram dextra stat quam propter dextraw 1 sinistra.  Quapropter et ex rectis casibus obliqui et ex obliquis  recti et ex singularibus multitudims 2 et ex multi-  tudinis singulares nonnunquam recuperari possunt.   60. Principium id potissimum sequi debemus, ut  in eo fundamentum sit 1 natura, quod in declina-  tionibus ibi facilior ratio. Facile est enim animad-  vertere, peccatum magis cadere posse in impositiones  eas quae fiunt plerumque in rectis casibus singulari-  bus, quod homines imperiti et dispersi vocabula rebus  imponunt, quocumque eos libido invitavit : natura   § 57. 1 Aug.,, for trabes. 2 Aug., for duces.   § 58. 1 si multitudinis Mue.,for similitudinis. 2 Added  by Canal. 3 L. Sp., for oportere. 4 Aug., for multi-  tudines. 5 Sciop.,for possint.   §59. 1 Laetu s, for dextras. 2 Vertranhis, for multitu-  dines.   § 60. 1 After sit, L. Sp. deleted in.     § 59. a Frag. 1 55 von Arnim.  578     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, X. 57-60     made the nominatives trabs and dux. But on the  other hand, if we start from the singulars we do not  so easily see how they have become trabs, from B  and S, and dux, from C and S.   58. If the nominative plural is by any chance a  corrupted form, which rarely occurs, we shall correct  this before we make it our starting-point ; it is proper  to take from the oblique cases, either singular or  plural, some forms which are not ambiguous, from  which can be seen the make-up which the other forms  ought to have.   59- For sometimes the one is seen from the other  and at other times the other is seen from the one, as  Chrysippus writes, as the father s qualities may be  seen from the son, and the son's from the father, and  in arches the right-hand side stands on account of the  left-hand side, no less than the left on account of  theright. Therefore the oblique forms can sometimes  be regained from the nominatives, and sometimes the  nominatives from the oblique forms ; sometimes the  plural from the singular forms, and sometimes the  singular forms from the plural.   60. The principle that we should most of all follow,  is that in this the foundation be nature, because in  nature a there is the easier relationship in inflections.  For it is easy to note that error can more easily make  its way into those impositions b which are mostly  made in the nominative singular, because men, being  unskilled and scattered/ set names on things just as  their fancy has impelled them ; but nature d is of   § 60. a Rather than in voluntas. b Or imposed word-  names, characterized by voluntas, e For this point of the  Stoic philosophy, cf. Cicero, de Inventione, i. 2. d The  quality underlying the paradigms.   579     I     VARRO     incorrupta plerumque est suapte sponte, nisi qui  earn usu inscio deprava&it.   61. Quarc si quis principium analogiae potius  posuerit in naturalibus casibus quam in (im)positiciis, 1  non multa 2 (inconcinna) 3 in consuetudine occurrent  et a natura libido humana corrigetur, non a libidine  natura, quod qui impositionem sequi voluerint  facient contra. 4   62. Sin ab singulari quis potius proficisci volet,  inift'um 1 facere oportebit ab sexto casu, qui est pro-  prius Latinus : nam eius casuis 2 litterarum dis-  criminibus facilius reliquorum varietate(m) 3 discer-  nere poterit, quod ei habent exitus aut in A, ut hac  terra, aut in E, ut hac lance, aut in I, ut hac (c)lavi, 4  aut in O, ut hoc caelo, aut in U, ut hoc versu. Igitur  ad demonstrandas declinationes biceps v?a 5 haec.   63. Sed quoniam ubi analogia, tria, 1 unum quod  in rebus, alterum 2 quod in vocibus, tertium quod in  utroque, duo priora simplicia, tertium duplex, ani-  madvertendum haec quam inter se habeant rationem.   64-. Primum ea quae sunt discrimina in rebus,  partim sunt quae ad orationem non attineant, partim  quae pertineant. Non pertinent ut ea quae obser-  vant in aedificiis et signis faciendis ceterisque rebus   §61. 1 L. Sp. ; in impositivis Aug.; for in positiciis.  2 Aug., for multae. 3 Added by Christ. 4 Aug., for  contraria.   § 62. 1 Groth, for inillum. 2 A. Sp. ; cassuis Mue. ;  for casus his. 3 Aug., for uarietate. 4 Groth^for leui;  cf Varro, R. R. i. 22. 6. 5 Canal, for una.   § 63. 1 Aldus, for atria. 2 alterum is repeated in F.   e By making wrongly inflected forms.   § 62. a The name 4 ablative ' had not come into use in  580     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, X. 60-64     itself for the most part uncorrupted, unless somebody  perverts it by ignorant use.*   61. Therefore, if one has founded the principle  of Regularity on the natural cases rather than on the  imposed case-forms, not many awkwardnesses will be  his to face in usage ; human fancifulness will be cor-  rected by nature, and not nature by fancy, because  those who have wished to follow imposition will in  reality act in the opposite way.   62. But if one should prefer to start from the  singular, he ought to start from the sixth case, a which  is a case peculiar to Latin ; for by the differences in the  letters b of this case-form he will be more easily able to  discern the variation in the remaining cases, because  the ablative forms end either in A, like terra * earth,*  or in E, c like lance ' platter,' or in I, like clavi ' key/  or in O, like caelo * sky,' or in U, like versu ' verse.'  Therefore, for the explaining of the declensions, there  is this way, which may proceed from either of two  starting-points.   63. But where there is Regularity, there are three  factors, one which is in the things, a second which is  in the spoken words, a third which is in both ; the first  two are simple, the third is twofold. In view of this,  attention must be given to the relation which they  have to one another.   64% First, of the differences which exist in the  things, there are some which have no bearing on  speech, others which are connected with it. Those  which are not connected with it are like those which  the artificers observe in making buildings and statues   Varro's time. b That is, the endings. e Varro does not  list separately the ablative of the fifth declension, ending in  long E.   581     VARRO     artifices, e quis vocantur aliac Aarmonicae, sic item  aliae nominibus aliis : scd nulla harum fit (in) 1  loquendo pars. 2   65. Ad orationem quae pertinent, res eae sunt  quae verbis dicuntur pro portione neque a similitudine  quoque vocum declinatus habent, ut Iupiter Mars-  piter, Iovi Marti. Haec enim genere 1 nominum et  numero et casibus similia sunt inter se, quod utraque  et nomina sunt et virilia sunt et singularia et casu  nominandi et dandi.   66. Alterum genus vocale est, in quo voces modo  sunt pro portione similes, non res, ut biga bigae,  nuptia nuptiae : neque enim in his res singularis  subest una, cum dicitur biga quadriga, neque ab his  vocibus quae declinata sunt, multitudinis significant  quicquam, id 1 quod omnia multitudinis quae decli-  nantur ab uno, ut a merula merulae : sunt (enim) 2  eius modi, ut singulari subiungatur, sic merulae duae,  catulae tres, faculae quattuor.   67. Quare cum idem non possit subiungi, quod 1  (non) 2 dicimus biga una, 3 quadrigae duae, nuptiae  tres, scd pro eo unae bigae, binae quadrigae, trinae  nuptiae, apparet non esse a biga et quadriga 4 bigae  et quadrigae, sed ut est huius ordinis una 5 duae tres   § 64. 1 Added by L. Sp. 2 Sentence division of Boot.   § 65. 1 Mue.,for genera.   § 66. 1 Fay, for ideo. 2 Added by Fay,   §67. 1 Sciop., for cum. 2 Added by Sciop. 3 L.  Sp. ; una b\g&Sciop. ; for bigae unae. 4 After quadriga,  L. Sp. deleted et. 5 Aug., for unae.   § 65. ° The unlikeness is in the forms of the nominative ;  but both words denote male deities.   § 66. a The two words belong to the same declension and  both lack the singular forms ; but the objects denoted are  entirely unlike.  582     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, X. 64-67     and other things, of which some are called harmonic,  and others are called by other names ; but no one of  these becomes an element in speaking.   65. The differences which pertain to speech,  consist of those things which are expressed by the  words in a proportionate way, and yet do not have a  likeness of the spoken words also to help in forming  the inflections : such as nominative Iupiter and  Marspiter, dative Iovi and Marti. a For these are like  one another in the gender of the nouns, and in the  number, and in the cases ; because both are nouns,  and are masculine, and singular, and nominative and  dative in case.   66. The second kind has to do with the sounds,  in which the spoken words only are similar in  a proportionate way — and not the things — as in  biga and bigae, nuptia and nuptiae. a For in these  there is no underlying unit thing expressed by  the singular when we say biga or quadriga, nor  have the plural forms which are derived from these  words any plural meaning. Yet all plurals which  are derived from a unit singular, like merulae from  merula ' blackbird,' do have such plural meaning ;  for they are of such a sort that there is subordina-  tion to a singular form : thus two merulae * black-  birds,' three catulae 1 female puppies,' four Jaculae  ' torches/   67. Therefore since there cannot be the same sub-  ordinating relation because we do not say una biga,  duae quadrigae, ires nuptiae, but instead unae bigae  ' one two-horse team/ binae quadrigae ' two teams of  four horses/ trinae nuptiae ' three sets of nuptials,' it is  clear that bigae and quadrigae are not from biga and  quadriga, but belong to another series : the usual   583     VARRO     princip(i)um una, sic in hoc ordine altero unae binae  trinae principium est unae.   68. Tertium genus est illud duplex quod dixi, in  quo ct res et voces similiter pro portione dicuntur ut  bonus malus, boni mali, de quorum analogia et Ari-  stophanes et alii scripserunt. Etenim haec denique  perfecta ut in oratione, illae duac simplices inchoatae  analogiae, de quibus tamen separatim dicam, quod  his quoque utimur in loquendo.   69- Sed prius de perfecta, in qua et res et voces  quadam similitudine continentur, cuius genera sunt  tria : unum vernaculum ac domi natum, alterum  adventicium, tertium nothum ex peregrino hie natum.  Vernaculum est ut sutor et pistor, sutori pistori ;  adventicium est ut Hectores Nes tores, Hectoras  Nestoras ; tertium ilium nothum ut Achilles et Peles.   70. De (his primo) 1 genere multi utuntur non  modo poetae, sed etiam plerique omnes qui soluta  oratione loquuntur. Haec primo 2 dicebant ut quaes-  torem praetorem, sic Hectorem Nestorem : itaque  Ennius ait :   Hectoris natum de mnro iactari and  lavo ' I wash,' perf. lavi, d pungo ' I prick/ perf.  pupugi, tundo 1 1 pound/ perf. tutudi t e and pingo * I  paint/ perf. pinxi. (7) And although/' he con-  tinues, " from ceno ' I dine * and prandeo ' I lunch '  and poto * I drink * we form the perfects cenatus sum,  pransus sum, and potus sum, f yet from destringor * I  scrape myself and extergeor * I wipe myself dry *  and lavor ' I bathe myself we make the perfects  destrinxi * I am scraped * and extersi ' I am dried *  and lavi ' I have had a bath.'* 7   (8) " Furthermore, although from Oscus ' Oscan/  Tuscus * Etruscan/ and Graecus ' Greek ' we derive  the adverbs Osce ' in Oscan/ Tusce * in Etruscan/   9 Active perfects of passive verbs, yet with passive (intransi-  tive, reflexive) meaning : this meaning of the perfect lavi is  regular in Plautus, but is nowhere attested for destrinxi and  extersi.   601     VARRO     Osce Tusce Graece, a Gallo tamen et Mauro Gallice  et Maurice dicimus ; item a probus probe, a doctus  docte, sed a rarus non dicitur rare, sed alii raro dicunt,  alii rarenter."   (9) Idem M. Varro in eodem libro : " Sentior,"  inquit, " nemo dicit et id per se nihil est, adsentior  tamen fere omnes dicunt. Sisenna unus adsentio  in senatu dicebat et eum postea multi secuti, neque  tamen vincere consuetudinem potuerunt."   (10) Sed idem Varro in aliis libris multa pro dva-  Xoyia. tuenda scribit.   Librorum XI-XXIV Fragmenta  XI   Fr. 6. 1 Et ubi auctoritas maiorum genus tibi non de-  monstraverit, quid ibi faciendum est ? Scripsit Varro  ad Ciceronem : " Potestatis nostrae est illis rebus  dare genera, quae ex natura genus non habent."   Fr. 7a. 1 Nunc de generibus dicamus. Varro dicit  " genera dicta a generando. Quicquid enim gignit  aut gignitur, hoc potest genus dici et genus facere."   Fr. 6. 1 Julianus Toletanus, Commentarius in Donatum>  v. 318. 31-34 Keil.   Fr. 7. 1 [Sergii] Explanat. in Donation, iv. 492. 37-493. 3  Keil.     h Charisius, i. 217. 8 Keil, cites rare as used by Cicero,  Cato, and Plautus (Budens 995) ; but editors usually replace  it by raro. * That is, not a deponent unless compounded ;  even in a passive meaning, the passive form of the un-  compounded verb is rare, though occasionally found, as in  Caesar, Bellum Civile i. 67 (sentiretur), where it is however  impersonal. > Notably in ix.  602     FRAGMENTS, 5-7a     and Graece * in Greek/ yet from G alius ' Gaul * and  Maurus * Moor ' we have Gallice 1 in Gallic ' and  Maurice ' in Moorish ' ; also from probus * honest '  comes probe ' honestly/ from doctus * learned ' docte  ' learnedly/ but from rarus * rare ' there is no  adverb rare, but some say raro, others rarenter" h   (9) In the same book Varro goes on to say : " No  one uses the passive sentior* and that form by itself is  naught, but almost every one says adsentior 1 1 agree/  Sisenna alone used to say adsentio in the senate, and  later many followed his example, yet could not  prevail over usage."   (10) But this same Varro in other books 3 wrote a  great deal in defence of Regularity.   Fragments of Books XI -XX IV a  XI   Fr. 6. Where the authority of our ancestors has not  shown you the gender of a word, what in this instance  must be done ? Varro wrote, in the treatise addressed  to Cicero : " We men have the right and power to  give genders to the names of those things which by  nature have no gender." °   Fr. 7a. Now let us speak of genders. Varro says :  " Genera * genders ' are named from generare 1 to  generate.' For whatever gignit * begets * or gignitur  * is begotten/ that can be called a genus and can   XI.-XXIV. a On Books XI.-XIIL, see also vii. 110, viii.2,  20, 34, x. 33 ; and on Books XIV.-XXV., see vii. 110.   Fr. 6. ° Varro uses genus both for grammatical gender  and for natural sex ; each is a * kind ' or 4 class/ cf. Frag. 7,  note a.   603     VARRO     Quod si verum est, nulla potest res integrum genus  habere nisi masculinum et femininum.   Fr. 7b. 2 Tractat de generibus. Varro ait " genera  tantum ilia esse quae generant : ilia proprie dicuntur  genera." Quodsi sequemur auctoritatem ipsius, non  erunt genera nisi duo, masculinum et femininum.  Nulla enim genera creare possunt nisi haec duo.   Fr. 8. 1 Ostrea 2 si primae declinationis fuerit, sicut  Musa, feminino genere declinabitur, ut ad animaZ 3  referamus ; si 4 ad testam, ostreum 5 dicendum est  neutro genere et ad secundam declinationem, ut sit  huius ostrei, huic ostreo, 6 quia dicit 7 Varro " nullam  rem animalem neutro genere declinari."   Fr. 9- 1 Ait Plinius Secundus secutus Varronem :  " Quando dubitamus principale genus, redeamus ad  diminutionem, et ex diminutivo cognoscimus princi-  pale genus. Puta arbor ignoro cuius generis sit :  fac diminutivum arbuscula, ecce hinc intellegis et  principale genus quale sit. Item si dicas columna,   2 Pompeius, Commentum Artis Donati, v. 159. 23-26 Keil.   Fr. 8. 1 Cledonius, Ars Grammatica, v. 41. 24-28 Keil.  2 For ostria. 3 Keil, for animam. 4 For sic. 5 For  ostrium. 6 Keil, for sicui ostri. 7 For dicitur.   Fr. 9. 1 Pompeius, Commentum Artis Donati, v. 164. 13-  18 Keil.     Fr. 7. The root gen- lies at the basis of all these words ;  but genus has the weakened meaning * kind, class,* from  which the idea of * begetting ' has faded out. 6 Donatus,  the eminent grammarian who flourished about 350 a.d.  c That is, ' kinds ' ; cf Frag. 6, note a.   Ft. 8. This distinction is not borne out by the use of the  words in the Latin authors. 6 Almost precisely true for  Latin, though there are many exceptions in Greek and in the  Germanic languages (cf tIkvov, German das Kind, and the  neuter diminutives in -iqv, -chen, -lein).   604     FRAGMENTS, 7a-9     produce a genus" a If this is true, then the genus  that a thing has is not perfect unless it is masculine  or feminine.   Fr. 7b. He 6 treats of genders. Varro says : " Only  those are genera * genders ' which generant ' generate ' ;  those are properly called genera.* 1 But if we follow  his authority, there will be only two genders, mascu-  line and feminine. For no genders e can procreate  except these two.   Fr. 8. If ostrea 'oyster* is of the first declension,  like Musa 4 Muse,* it will be declined in the feminine  gender, so that we refer the word to the liying being ;  if we use it for the shell, then the word must be  ostreum, inflected in the neuter and according to  the second declension, so that it is genitive ostrei,  dative ostreo a : because Varro says : " No living  creature has a name which is inflected in the neuter  gender." 6   Fr. 9- Plinius Secundus a says, following Varro :  " When we are in doubt about the gender of a main  word, let us turn to the diminutive form, and from  the diminutive we learn the gender of the main word. 6  Suppose that I do not know the gender of arbor  1 tree ' ; form the diminutive arbuscula, and lo !  from this you observe as well the gender of the word  from which it comes. Again, if you say, What is the   Fr. 9. a This and subsequent citations from Pliny are  taken from the Elder Pliny's Dubitts Sermo, a work in eight  books, mentioned by the Younger Pliny, Epist. Ui. 5. 5.  6 Diminutives have in Latin the gender of the words from  which they are derived; the exceptions are very few. In  Greek and in the Germanic languages, however, diminutives  are commonly neuter without regard to their primitives ; cf.  Frag. 8, note 6.   605     VARRO     cuius generis est ? facis inde diminutivum, id est  columella, et inde intellegis quoniam principale  feminini generis est."   Fr. 10. 1 " Jiypocorismata semper generibus suis  und(e oriuntur consonant, pauca dissonant, velut  haec rana) hie ranunculus, hie ung(u)is haec ungula,  h(oc glandium haec glandula, hie panis hie pastillus  et) hoc pastillum," ut Varro dixit : " haec beta hie  betace(us, haec malva hie malvaceus), hoc pistrinum  haec pistrilla, ut Terentius in Ad(elphis, hie ensis  haec ensicula et hie ensiculus) : sic in Rudente  Plautus."   Fr. II. 1 Dies communis generis est. Qui mascu-  lino genere dicendum putaverunt, has causas reddi-  derunt, quod dies festos auctores dixerunt, non festas,  et 2 quartum et quintum Kalendas, non quartam nec  quintam, et cum hodie dicimus, nihil aliud quam hoc  die intelligstur. 3 Qui vero feminino, catholico utun-  tur, quod ablativo casu E non nisi producta finiatur,   Fr. 10. 1 Charisius, Instit, Gram, i. 37. 13-18 Keil, The  right-hand edge of the manuscript is destroyed, but the restora-  tions are made with certainty from almost verbatim repetitions  Charisius i. 90. 10-12, 155. 14-17, 535. 21-25, 551. 36-38 Keil,  in which Varro is not mentioned as the source. Hie pastillus,  required by the space, was added by Keil from i. 90. 11, i.  94. 4.   Fr. 11. 1 Charisius, Instit, Gram, i. 110. 8-16 KeiL  2 For ut. 3 For intellegatur.     Fr. 10. ° As substantive, for pes betaceus : but betaceus is  an adjective, not a diminutive. 6 Also an adjective ; its  application as substantive is not known. c Adelphoe 584.  «Rudens 1156-1157.   Fr. 11. a Dies was by origin a masculine; in Latin,  because it was declined like the feminines of the fifth de-  clension, possibly also because its counterpart nox was   606     FRAGMENTS, 9-H     gender of columna ' column * ?, make from it the  diminutive, that is, columella, and therefrom you  understand that the word from which it comes is of the  feminine gender."   Fr. 10. " Diminutives always agree in gender  with the words from which they come : a few differ,  such as fern, rana ' frog,' diminutive masc. ranunculus  'tadpole'; masc. unguis 'nail (of finger or toe), 1 fern.  ungula ' hoof, talon ' ; neut. glandium ' kernel of  pork fem. glandula * tonsil * ; masc. panis 4 loaf  of bread,' masc. pastillus and neut. pastillum ' roll,' "  as Varro said ; " fem. beta ' beet,' masc. betaceus °   * beet-root'; fem. malva 'mallow,' masc. malvaceus h   * mallow-like vegetable ' ; neut. pistrinum ' pound-  ing-mill,' fem. pistrilla ' small mill,* as Terence says  in The Brothers e ; masc. ensis ' sword,' fem. ensicula  and masc. ensiculus ' toy-sword ' : so Plautus in The  Rope* "   Fr. 1 1 . Dies ' day * is of common gender. Those  who thought that it must be used as a masculine,  offered these reasons : that their authorities said dies  festi 'holidays,* with the masculine adjective, not the  fem. festae ; that they said the fourth and the fifth day  before the Kalends, 6 with the masculine and not the  feminine form of the adjective ; and that when we  say hodie * to-day,' it is understood as hoc die 'on this  day,' with the masculine article,* 5 and nothing else.  On the other hand, those who regard dies as feminine,  use the general argument, that in the ablative the   feminine, it acquired use as a feminine in some meanings.  6 Full phrase : ante diem quartum (quintum) Kalendas.  e The demonstrative was an * article/ in the grammatical  terminology of the Romans ; cf. viii. 45.     607     VARRO     et quod deminutio eius diecula sit, non dieculus, ut  ait Terentius :   Quod tibi addo dieculam.   Varro autem distinxit, ut A masculino genere unius  diei cursum significare(t), feminino autem temporis  spatium ; quod nemo servavit.   Fr. 12. A Catinus masculino genere dicitur . . . et  hinc deminutive catillus fit. . . . Sed Varro ad  Ciceroncm XI " catinuli " dixit, non catilli.   Fr. 13. 1 Naevus generis neutri, sed Varro ad  Ciceronem " hie naevus."   Fr. 14a. 1 Antiquissimi tamen et hie gausapes et  haec gausapa et hoc gausape et plurale neutri haec  gausapa quasi a nominativo hoc gausapum protulisse  inveniuntur, . . . Varro vero de Lingua Latina-ait,  " talia ex Graeco sumpta ex masculino in femininum  transire et A litera finiri : 6 Ko\^ta unless the genitive is identical with the nomina-  tive, when the ablative ends in i ; an adjective also has the  ablative in i if it stands before a noun which it modifies. The  scientific formulation is that consonant-stems should have  short e in the ablative, and t-stems should have long % : a  status much disturbed by the encroachment of the ^-ending  on the t-ending. c Not all these should, by the ' rule,'  end in i ; for carbo, falx, mons,fons t pons, teges do not have  identical nom. and gen. ; and the nom. of asse is as, very  rarely assis. As to the actual forms of the ablative, igni is  commoner than igne ; orbi, turri,frni, strigili, avi, axi, navi\     612     FRAGMENTS, 17-20     said and wrote senatuis, domuis, and jluctuis as the  genitive case of the words senatus ' senate,' domus  ' house,' and Jluctus * wave,* and used senatui, domui,  fiuctui as the dative ; and that they used other simi-  lar words with the corresponding endings.   Fr. 18. Amni was used by Vergil a as ablative of  amnis * river,* as in   He drifts with the stream of the river.   On this point, Pliny in the same book says : " By the  old writers, whom Varro criticizes adversely, all  observance of the rule 6 is disregarded, yet not  utterly. For we still say," says he, " canali ' canal,*  stti ' thirst,' tussi * cough,' febri ' fever * as the abla-  tive forms. But in most words the form has been  changed, and uses the ablative which ends in E :  cane ' dog,' orbe 1 circle,' carbone ' charcoal,* iurre   * tower,' falce ' sickle,' igne ' fire,' teste * garment,'  fine * limit,' monte * mountain,* fonie * spring,* ponte   * bridge,* sirigile * scraper,* tegeie ' mat,' ave ' bird,'  asse ' as,' axe * axle,' nave ' ship,' classe * fleet.' " c   Fr. 19. Varro, whom Pliny mentions as having  said, in the eleventh book of his treatise addressed to  Cicero " a plantation of trees set in rows rare a 1 in  the country.' "   Fr. 20. Fonteis * springs,' accusative plural spelled  with EIS : " The nouns which gain an I in the genitive  plural before the ending UM," says Pliny, " have the   classi are found in authors of the first century b.c, but are  less common than the forms with e, or are used to satisfy  metrical requirements ; ponti is found once in older Latin ;  monti and fonti are cited by Varro, ix. 112.   Fr. 19. Instead of the usual locative form ruri.     613     VARRO     accusativus," inquit Plinius, " per EIS loquetur,  montium monteis ; licet Varro," inquit, " exemplis  hanc regulam confutare temptarit istius modi, falcium  falces, non falceis facit, nec has merceis, nec hos axeis  lmtreis ventreis stirpeis urbeis cor&eis 3 vecteis men-  teis. 4 Et tamen manus dat praemissae regulae  ridicule, ut exceptis his nominibus valeat regula."   Fr. 21. 1 Poematorum et in II et in III idem Varro  adsidue dicit et his poematis, tarn quam nominativo  hoc poematum sit et non hoc poema. Nam et ad  Ciceronem XI, horum poematorum et his poematis  oportere dici.   Fr. 22. 1 Git : Varro ad Ciceronem XI per omnes  casus id nomen ire dcberc conmeminit ; vulgo autem  hoc gitti dicunt.   XIII   Fr. 23. 1 Palpetras per T Varro ad Ciceronem  XIII dixit. Sed Fabianus de Animalibus primo pal-  pebras per B. Alii dicunt palpetras genas, palpebras  autem ipsos pilos.   3 For curueis. 4 GS. t for inepteis, cf. viii. 67.   Fr. 21. 1 Charisius, Inst. Gram. i. 141. 29-31 Keil.  Fr. 22. 1 Charisius, Inst. Gram. i. 131. 7-8 Keil.  Fr. 23. 1 Ckarishts, Inst. Gram. i. 105. 14-16 Keil.     Fr. 20. ° This EI does not represent an earlier diphthong,  but was often written for a long i after the original diphthong  had become identical in sound with the long i. There are  scattered examples of the ending EIS in the accusative, found  in inscriptions and manuscripts.  614     FRAGMENTS, 20-23     accusative in EIS, a like genitive montium * mountains,'  accusative monteis ; although Varro," he continues,  " tried to refute this rule by examples of the following  sort : to the genitive fold urn ' sickles * the accusative  is folces and not folceis, nor is the proper spelling  merceis 1 wares,* nor axeis * axles/ lintreis ' skiffs,*  ventreis * bellies/ stirpeis * stocks/ urbeis ' cities/  corbeis * baskets/ vecteis * levers/ menteis * minds.'  And yet he gives up the fight against the aforesaid  rule in a ridiculous fashion, saying that apart from  these nouns the rule holds."   Fr. 21. In the second and the third books Varro  constantly uses the genitive poematorum * poems * and  the dative poematis, as though the word were poema-  tum in the nominative and not poema. For in the  eleventh book of the treatise addressed to Cicero he  says that genitive poematorum and dative poematis are  the proper forms to be used.   Fr. 22. Git * fennel ' a : Varro in the eleventh  book of the treatise addressed to Cicero states that  this form ought to be used in all the cases ; but  people quite commonly say gitti in the ablative.   XIII   Fr. 23. Varro in the thirteenth book of the treatise  addressed to Cicero used palpetrae, with T. But  Fabianus, a in the first book On Animals, wrote palpe-  brae with B. Others say that palpetrae means the  eyelids, and palpebrae the eyelashes.   Fr. 22. a Xigella sativa.   Fr. 23. ° Papirius Fabianus, who wrote on philosophy  and on natural history in the time of Augustus.   615     VARRO     Fr. 24. 1 Oxo : " Varro ad Ciceronem XIII olivo  et oxo putat fieri/' inquit Plinius Sermonis Dubii  libro VI.   XVIII   Fr. 25. 1 Indiscriminatim, indiflferenter. Varro de  Lingua Latina lib. XVIII : " Quibus nos in hoc libro,  proinde ut nihil intersit, utemur indiscriminatim,  promisee."   XXII   Fr. 26. 1 Rure Terentius in Eunucho :   Ex meo propinquo rure hoc capio commodi.  Itaque et Varro ad Ciceronem XXII " rure veni."   XXIII   Fr. 27. 1 Varro ad Ciceronem in libro XXIII :  " ingluvies tori," inquit, " sunt circa gulam, qui  propter pinguedinem fiunt atque interiectas habent  rugas." Sed nunc pro gula positum.   Fr. 24. 1 Charisins, Inst. Gram. i. 139. 15-16 Keil.  Fr. 25. 1 Nonius Marcellus, de Compendiosa Doctrina,  127. 24-26 M.   Fr. 26. 1 Charisius, Inst. Gram. i. 142. 18-20 Keil,  Fr. 27. 1 Serv. Dan, in Georg. iii. 431.     Fr. 24. a Antecedent unknown. b Greek 6£os (neuter,  third decl.), denoting sour wine, and vinegar made therefrom.  Fr. 25. Antecedent unknown.   Fr. 26. a 971. b These are examples of rure as a pure  ablative. The continuation is our Fragment 19, in which  examples of rure as a locative are discussed.   Fr. 27. « That is, double chins.  616     FRAGMENTS, 24-27     Fr. 24. Ojco, ablative : " Varro, in the thirteenth  book of the treatise addressed to Cicero, expresses  the opinion that it a is composed of olive-oil and oxos b  * vinegar/ " says Pliny in the sixth book of the treatise  entitled Variations in Speech.     XVIII   Fr. 25. Indiscriminaiim means ' without differ-  ence.' Varro in the eighteenth book of the treatise  On the Latin Language says : " Which a in this book  we shall use indiscriminatim 1 without distinction/  promiscuously, just as if there were no difference  between them."   XXII   Fr. 26. The ablative rure is used by Terence in  the Eunuchus a :   I get this comfort from my near-by country-seat.   So also Varro, in the twenty-second book of the  treatise addressed to Cicero, says : " I have come  rure * from the country/ " 6   XXIII   Fr. 27. Varro, in the twenty- third book of the  treatise addressed to Cicero, says : " The ingluvies is  the bulging muscles around the throat, which are  produced by fatness and have creases between  them/* a But now the word is used merely for the  throat.     617     VARRO     Fr. 28. 1 (1) Cum in disciplinas dialecticas induci  atque imbui vellemus, necessus fuit adire atque  cognoscere quas vocant dialectici €itrayu>yas. (2)  Turn, quia in primo 7repl a^tw/xarwv discendum, quae  M. Varro alias profata, alias proloquia appellat, Com-  mentarium de Proloquiis L. Aelii, docti hominis, qui  magister Varronis fuit, studiose quaesivimus eumque  in Pacis Bibliotheca repertum legimus. (3) Sed in  eo nihil edocenter neque ad instituendum explanate  scriptum est, fecisseque videtur eum librum Aelius  sui magis admonendi quam aliorum docendi gratia.   (4) Redimus igitur necessario ad Graecos libros.  Ex quibus accepimus a£ta>/jta esse his verbis (defini-  tum) : XtKTuv avroreXh diro^avTov ovov etf> avra>.  (5) Hoc ego supersedi vertere, quia no vis et incon-  ditis vocibus ntendum fuit, quas pati aures per inso-  lentiam vix possent. (6) Sed M. Varro in libro de  Lingua Latina ad Ciceronem quarto vicesimo ex-  peditissime ita finit : " Proloquium est sententia in  qua nihil desideratur."   (7) Erit autem planius quid istud sit, si exemplum  eius dixerimus. 'A^tw/xa igitur, sive id proloquium  dicere placet, huiuscemodi est : Hannibal Poenus  fuit ; Scipio Numantiam delevit ; Milo caedis  damnatus est ; Neque bonum est voluptas neque  malum ; (8) et omnino quicquid ita dicitur plena  atque perfecta verborum sententia, ut id necesse sit  aut verum aut falsum esse, id a dialecticis d£«o/m   Fr. 28. 1 Aulas Gellius, Nodes Atticae, xvi. 8. 1-14 ;  Rolfe's text, in the Loeb Classical Library,     Fr. 28. a Rolfe's translation, in the Loeb Classical Library,  with modifications. b In Vespasian's Temple of Peace, in  the Forum Pacis. c Page 75 Funaioli.  618     FRAGMENTS, 28     Fr. 28. a (1) When I wished to be introduced to  the science of logic and instructed in it, it was neces-  sary to take up and learn what the logicians call  curaycoyac, or ' introductory exercises.' (2) Then  because at first I had to learn about axioms, which  Marcus Varro calls, now prof ata or ' propositions,' and  now proloqitia or ' forthright statements,' I sought  diligently for the Commentary on Proloquia of Lucius  Aelius, a learned man, who was the teacher of Varro ;  and finding it in the Library of Peace, 5 I read it.  (3) But I found in it nothing that was written to  instruct or to make the matter clear ; Aelius c seems to  have made that book rather as suggestions for his own  use than for the purpose of teaching others.   (4) I therefore of necessity returned to my Greek  books. From these I obtained this definition of an  axiom : " a proposition complete in itself, declared  with reference to itself only." (5) This I have for-  borne to turn into Latin, since it would have been  necessary to use new and as yet uncoined words, such  as, from their strangeness, the ear could hardly  endure. (6) But Marcus Varro, in the twenty-fourth  book of his treatise On the Latin Language, dedicated  to Cicero, thus defines the word very briefly : "A  proloquium is a statement in which nothing is lacking."   (7) But his definition will be clearer if I give an  example. An axiom, then, or a forthright state-  ment, if you prefer, is of this kind : " Hannibal was  a Carthaginian " ; 11 Scipio destroyed Numantia " ;  '* Milo was found guilty of murder " : " Pleasure is  neither a good nor an evil " ; (8) and in general any  saying which is a full and perfect thought, so expressed  in words that it is necessarily either true or false, is  called by the logicians an axiom ; by Marcus Varro,   619     VARRO     appellatum est, a M. Varrone, sicuti dixi, proloquium,  a M. autem Cicerone pronuntiatum, quo ille tamen  vocabulo tantisper uti se adtestatus est, " quoad  melius," inquit, " invenero."   (9) Sed quod Graeci crvvrjfxfxevov aftw^ta dicunt, id  alii nostrorum adiunctum, alii conexum dixerunt.  Id conexum tale est : Si Plato ambulat, Plato move-  tur ; Si dies est, sol super terras est. (10) Item quod  illi o-vfjLTreTrXeyfiei'ov, nos vel coniunctum vel copu-  latum dicimus, quod est eiusdemmodi : P. Scipio,  Pauli filius, et bis consul fuit et triumphavit et censura  functus est et collega in censura L. Mummi fuit.  (1 1) In omni autem coniuncto si unum est mendacium,  etiamsi cetera vera sunt, totum esse mendacium  dicitur. Nam si ad ea omnia quae de Scipione illo vera  dixi addidero Et Hannibalem in Africa superavit,  quod est falsum, universa quoque ilia quae coniuncte  dicta sunt, propter hoc unum quod falsum accesserit,  quia simul dicentur, vera non erunt.   (12) Est item aliud quod Graeci Siefrvy/itvov a£iw/xa,  nos disiunctum dicimus. Id huiuscemodi est : Aut  malum est voluptas aut bonum, aut neque bonum  neque malum est. (13) Omnia autem quae disiun-  guntur pugnantia esse inter sese oportet, eorumquc  opposita, quae dvriKd^va Graeci dicunt, ea quoque  ipsa inter se adversa esse. Ex omnibus quae dis-   d Tusc. Disp. i. 7. 14. * Two connected statements, of  which the second follows as the result of the first. f This  is the younger Africanus, who destroyed Carthage in 146 b.c;  it was the older Africanus who defeated Hannibal at Zama  in 202 b.c.  620     FRAGMENTS, 28     as I have said, a proloquium or ' forthright state-  ment ' ; but by Marcus Cicero d a pronuntiatum  or * pronouncement/ a word however which he  declared that he used " only until I can find a better  one."   (9) But what the Greeks call a i-  charmus), S6 ; vi. 61 ; viL 35,  71, 101, 104 ; ix. 107   Epicurus, vi. 39   Euripides, vii. 82   Fasti, v. 84   Flaccus flamen Martialis, vi. 21  Fulvius, vi. 33   Glossae, Glossemata, vii. 10, 34, 107  Grammatici et similes, sine nomine   citati, v. 30, 34, 43, 49, 51, 53,   85, 120, 146, 147, 154, 157 ; vi.   7, 34, 96 ; vii. 10, 17, 34, 36, 46,   107 ; viii. 23, 44   llesiodus, v. 20 (Theogonia)  Homerus, vii. 74, 85  Hortensius, viii. 14 ; x. 78  Hypsicrates, v. SS   Iunius Brutus, v. 5, 42, 48, 55 ; vi.   33 bis, 95 (commentaria)  Iuventius, vi. 50 ; vii. 65, 104 note   Leges, vi. 60 ; v. Duodecim Tabulae  Leges privatae aedificiorum, v. 42  Lex mancipiorum, v. 163 ; vi. 74  Lex Plaetoria, vi. 5  Lex praediorum urbanorum, v. 27  Lex venditioni* fundi, ix. 104  Litterae antiquae, v. 143 ; vi. 33  Livius (poeta). v. 9 ; vii. 3  Lucilius, v. 17, 24, 44, 63, SO, 138  (Urbs); vi. 69; vii. 30, 32, 47  ter, 94, 96, 103 bis ; ix. 81  Lutatius, v. 150   Maccius, vii. 104 ; see Plautus  Manilius, vii. 10 bis, 17, 2S, 105  Manlius, v. 31  Matius, vii. 95, 96  Mimus, vi. 61   632     Mucius Scaevola pontifex, v. 5, 83 ;   vi. 30 ; vii. 105   Naevius, v. 43, 53, 153; vi. 70;   vii. 7, 23, 39, 51, 53 bis, 54 bis  (Cemetria, Romulus), 60 (Corol-  laria), 70 (Fretum), 92, 107  novies (Aesiona, Clastidium,  Dolus, Demetrius, Lampadio,  Xagido, Romulus, Stigmatias,  Technicus), 108 ter (Tarentilla,  Tunicularia, Bellum Punicum) ;  ix. 78 (Clastidium)   Nelei Carmen, v. Carmen Nelei   Opillus, v. Aurelius   Pacuvius, v. 7 Ur, 17 bis, 24, 60;  vi. 6 bis, 60 (Medus), 94 (Her-  miona) ; vii. 6 (Pertboea), 18, 22,  34 (Medus), 59, 76, 87, 88, 91,  102   Papinius(?), vii. 28(Epigrammation)   Parmeniscus, x. 10   Physici, v. 69 ; x. 55   Piso, v. 148, 149 (Annales), 165   (Annates)  Plato, vii. 37  Plautus :   Amph. vi. 6 ; vii. 50   Asin. vi. 7 ; vii. 79   Aid. v. 14, 108, 181 ; vii. 103   Bae. vii. 16   Cos. vii. 104, 106   Cist. v. 72 ; vii. 64 bis, 98, 99 bis   Cure. v. 146 ; vii. 60, 71   Epid. v. 131   Men. vii. 12, 54, 56, 93   Merc. vii. 60   Miles, v. 108 ; vii. 52, 86   Most. ix. 54   Persa, vl. 95 ; vii. 55   Poen. v. 6S ; vii. 52, 69, 8S note   Pseud, v. 10S ; vii. 81   Rud. F. 10   Stick, v. 68   Trin. vii. 57, 78   True vi. 11 ; vii. 70 ; ix. 106  Lost plays :   Astraba, vi. 73 ; vii. 66   Boeotia, vi. 89   Cesistio, vii. 67   Colax, vii. 105   Condalium, vii. 77     INDEX     Cornicuiaria, v. 153 ; vii. 52  Faenerairix, vii. 96  FrivoJaria, v. 80 ; vii 58  Fugitivi, vii 63  Aerro/aria, vii. 65, 68  Pagon, vii. 61  Parasitus piger, vii, 62, 77  SiteUUergus, vii. 66  Unnamed : vii. 38, 91, 103  Poetae sine nomine citati, v. 1, 88 ;   vi. 11, 60, 67, S3; vii. 52; v.   Comici, Mimus, Scaenici, Tra-   gici   Polybius, v. 113   Pompilius, vii. 93   Pontifices, v. 23, 9S   Porcius, v. 163 ; vii. 104   Priami Carmen, v. Carmen Priam i   Procilius, v. 148, 154   Pythagoras, v. 11 ; viL 17   Sacra vel Saerijicia Argeorum, v.  47-54 ; in aliquot sacris et sacel-  lis scriptum, vii 84 ; v. Athenis   Saliorum carmina, v. 110; vL 14,  49 ; vii. 2, 3 bis, 26, 27 ; ix. 61   Saturnii versus, vii. 36   Scaenici, vi 76     Scaevola, v. Mucins  Scenici, v. Scaenici  Scriptores antiqui Graeci, v. 123  Sergius, v. Commentarium  SibylHni libri, vi. 15  Sisenna, viii. 73, F. 5. 9  Sophron, v. 179  Sueius, vii 104 bis  Sulpicius, v. 40   Terentius: AdeL vi. 69; vii. 84,  F. 10   Tragici, vi. 67 bis, 72 ; vii. 23, 24,   25   Valerius So ran as, vii. 31, 65 ; x. 70  Varro :   Antiquitatum libri, vi 13, IS   De Aestuariis, ix. 26   De Poematis, vii 36; De Poet is,  vi 52   Epistulae, F. 14 c   Tribuum liber, v. 56  Vergilii commentarium Xaevi, vii 39  Volnius, v. 55   Zenon Citieus, v. 59     633     INDEX OF LATIN WORDS AND  PHRASES   References are to Book (Roman numeral) and Section (Arabic number),  and to Fragment (F.) and serial number (Arabic), with subdivisions.     A, viii. 68 ; ix. 3S, 52 ; A additum,  v. 97 ; A exitus, x. 62 ; A littera  finita, F. 14 a, F v 14 b ; A : E, vii.  94 ; AS : ES : IS : IS, ix. 109 ;  cf. E   abacus, ix. 46   abies, ix. 41   aborigines, v. 53   aboriuntur, v. 66   abrogatae, v. vetus   abscessit, vi. 3S   Acca Larentia, vi. 23 ; sepulcruin   Accae, vi. 24  accanit, vi. 75   accensus, v. 82 ; vi. 88, 89, 95 ; vii.  58   accessit, vi. 38   accipe, vii. 90   Acculeia, v. Curia   accusandi casus, viii. 66 ; accusati-  ve, viii. 67 ; v. casus   acetum (non aceta), ix. 66, 67   Acherusia templa, vii. 6   Achilles, x. 69   acquirere, vi. 79   acsitiosae, v. axitiosae   actio, v. 11, 12 ; vi. 41 ; actiones  tres, vi. 42 ; in actionibus, vi. 89,  vii. 93   actor, vi. 77; actores, v. 178, vi. 58,  x. 27   actus, v. 22, % 34, 35 ; actus numero-   rum, ix. 86-88  adagio, vii. 31  addici numo, vi. 61  addico, vi. 30   634     add ictus, vi. 61   additio litterarum, v. 6 ; v. I   addixit iudicium, vi. 61   adicere, v. litterae   adiectio (syllabarum), v. 6   adiunctum, F. 28. 9   artlocutum ire, vi. 57   adlucet, vi. 79   adminiculandi pars, viii. 44   administra, vii. 34 ; administros,   v. 91 ; cf. amminister  ad ilurciae, v. Circus  adsentior adsentio, F. 5. 9  adseque, vi. 73  adserere manu, vi. 64  adsiet, vi. 92   adventicium (genus similitudinis),   x. 69 ; adventicia (verba), x. 70  advocare, v. contio  adytum, v. 8   aedificia, v. 42, 141 ; viii. 29, 30 ; ix.  20 ; x. 64   aedilis, v. 81 ; v. Publicius   aedis aedes, v. 80, 160 ; vL 61 ;  vii.UO, 12 ; v. Aesculapii, cavum  aedium, Concordia, deus, Dius  Fidius, Iuno, Iupiter, Minerva,  Portunus, Quirinus, Romulus,  sacrae, Salus, Saturnus, Venus,  Vesta   aeditumus, v. 50, 52 ; viii. 61 ; aedi-   tuum non aeditumum, vii. 12  aedus, v. haedus  aeges, vii. 21  Aegeum fretum, vii. 22  aegrotus, v. 71 ; x. 46     INDEX     Aegyptiomm vocabula, viii 65   Aegyptus, v. 57, 79   Aelia, viii. SI   Aelius Sextus, vii 46   Aemilius -lii, etc., viii. 4 ; Aemilius   -ia, ix. 55 ; p. Basilica  aenea, v. vas  Aeneas, v. 144 ; vi 60  Aeolis, v. 25, 175; Aeolis Graeci,   v. 101, 102  aeqnabilitas, ix. 1, etc.  Aequimaelium, v. 157  aequinoctium, vi. 8 ; vii 14 ; ix. 25 ;   v. circulus  aequor, vii. 23  aequum, vi. 71 ; v. pila  aer, v. 65 ; cf. animalia  aerariae (non aerelavinae), viii. 6*2  aerarii, v. milites, tribuni  aerarium, v. 180, 1S3  aes, v. 169-171, 173, 180-1S3 ; ix. 81-   S3 ; x. 3S ; aes et libra, vii. 105,   ix. 83 ; r. militare, mille, raudus  Aesculapii aedes vetus, vii 57  aesculetum, v. 152  aestas, v. 61 ; vi 9  aestivum, vi 9 ; aestiva triclinia,   viii. 29  aestus, vii. 22 ; ix. 26  aetas, vi. 11 ; ix. 93  aeternum, vi. 11  Aethiops, viii. 38, 41 ; ix. 42  Aetolia, vii. 18  aeviternum aeternum, vi. 11  aevum, vi. 11  Africa, v. 159  Africae bestiae, vii. 40  Africus vicus, v. 159  Agamemno, v. 19  Agenor, v. 31   ager, v. 13, 34, 37 ; cultus, incultus,  v. 36 ; Roma mis, v. 33, 55 ; agro-  rum genera quinque, v. 33 ; v.  Aricimis, Calydonitis, Gabinus,  hosticus, incertus, Latius, nova-  Ms, peregrinns, Praenestinus,  Reatinus, restibilis, Romanus,  Sabinus, Tusculanus, uliginosus   agger, v. 141   agitantnr quadrigae, vi. 41, 42  agitatus, v. 11, 12 ; vi. 41, 78 ; men-  tis; vi. 42  agnus, v. 99   ago, v. 34 ; vi. 41, 42, 77, 78 ; agit     gestuni tragoedus, vi. 41 ; agitur  pecus pastum, vL 41 ; agitur  fabula, vi. 77 ; agere causam,  augurium, vi 42 ; agere ex sponsu,  vi 72 ; v. facio, gerit, gradus   agonales, v. dies   Agonenses, vi. 14   Agonia, vi. 14   agrarius, v. 13; agrarii, viii. 15  agrestis hostias, vii 24 ; p. loca  agricola, v. 13  agroshis, v. agmrtus  aio, F. 36  ala, v. 33   alauda alaudas (GalL), viii. 65  Alba, v, 144 ; viii 35 ; Alba Longa,  v. 144   Albani Albenses, viii 35 ; r. Aven-  tinus   Albanus mons, vi. 25 ; rex, v. 43  albatus, v. 82   Albius, viii. 80 ; x. 44 ; Albia, x. 44  Albula, v. 30   albus -a -um, etc., viii. 38, 41, 80;   ix. 42, 55; x. 22, 24, 44, 73;   album albius albissimum, viii.   52, 75  alcedo, v. 79 ; vii. 88  Alcmaeus Alcmaeo, ix. 90  alcyonia, vii 83  Alcyonis ritn, vii 88  Alexander (Magnus), ix. 79 ; eius   statua, ix. 79  Alexander (Paris), vii 82  Alexandres , v. 100  Alfena, viii 41 ; ix. 41  altena verba, v. 10  alienigenae, v. 90  alites, v. 75  allecti, vi 66  Allia, Alliensis dies, vi. 32  alpha, viii. 64  altiores, x. 29   altisono caeli clipeo, v. 19 ; vii. 73   altitonantis Iovis, vii. 7   amator, viii 57   ambages, vii. 30   ambagio, vii. 31   am be, vii 30   ambecisns, vii 43   ambegna bos, vii. 31   ambiectum, v. 132   ambiguus rectus casus, ix. 103   ambit, v. 23   635     INDEX     ambitiosus, vii. 30   ambitus, v. 22, 28 ; vii. 30 ; v. in-   dagabilis  Ambivius, vii. 30   ambulatur, vi. 1 ; ambulans, am-   bulaturus, viii. 59  amburvom, v. 127  ambustum, vii. 31  amens, vi. 44  amia, vii. 47  amicitia -am, x. 73  amictui, v. 131, 132  amiectum, v. ambiectum  amitans (non est), viii. 60  Amiternini, v. 28  Amiternum, vi. 5   amminister, vii. 34 ; cf. administra  amnis, v. 2S   amo amor, etc., viii. 58, 60; ix. 97,  110 ; x. 32, 48, 78 ; amans ama-  turus amatus, viii. 58, ix. 110   amoramorem, etc., x. 36, 42   amphimallum, v. 167   analogia, viii. 23, 25-27, etc ; ix. 1,  2, 7, 74, etc ; x. 1, 36-38, 43, 44,  51, 52, 63, 70, 72, 74, 79, 83, etc,  F. 34; perfecta, inchoata analogia,  x. 68, 69 ; index analogiae, ix.  109 ; analogiae genus deiunctum,  coniunctum, x. 45-47 ; poetica  analogia, x. 74 ; v. genus, poetica,  principium, proportione, ratio,  similitudo   anas, v. 78   ancilia, vi. 22 ; vii. 43  Andrius ab Andro, viii. 81  Andromacha, vii. 82  anfractum, vii. 15  Angerona, Angeronalia, vi. 23  angiportum, v. 145 ; vi. 41  anguilla, v. 77  angulus, vi. 41  ani, vi. 8   anicula anicilla, v. anus  anima, v. 59, 60 ; animae hominum,  ix. 30   animalia, v. 75, 102 ; ix. 113 ; aqua-  tilia, v. 77 ; in aere, v. 75 ; in  aqua, v. 78 ; in locis terrestribus,  v. 80 ; animalium semen, v. 59 ;  species, x. 4'; voces, vii. 103   animalis res, F. 8   animantium (animalium) voces, v.  75, 78, 96, 100 ; vii. 103   636     animum, v. despondisse  Anio, v. 23   annales, v. 74, 101 ; (feriae), vi. 25,  26   annus, vi. 8 ; v. novus   anomalia, viii. 23; ix. 1, 3, 113; x.   1, 2, 16; v. dissimilitudo  anquisitio, vi. 90, 92  anser, v. 75  Antemnae, v. 28   antiqua, vi. 61, cf. vi. 82 ; antiqui, v.  34, 71, 79, 96(Graeci), 131, vi. 19,  33, 58 (nostriX 63, vii. 26, 36, 73  (rustici), 84, ix. 17, 68, 83, 87,  x. 73, F. 1 ; antiquissimum, v. 133 ;  antiquissimi, v. 132 ; antiqui  Graeci, v. 103, 166 ; antiquae  mulieres, v. 69; antiquum oppi-  dum Palatinum, v. 164, vi. 34 ;  antiquum Graecum, vi, 84 ; anti-  quum nomen, v. 50 ; antiquis  litteris, v. 143, vi. 33 ; v. Graecus,  grammatica, Iupiter, numerus,  urbs, verbum   Antonius, v. Tullius   anuli, vi. 8   anus, viii. 25 ; anicula anicilla, ix.   74 ; v. Liber  a parte totum, v. 155 ; vii. 18, 75  Apelles, ix. 12  aper, v. 101 ; viii. 47  apexabo, v. Ill  Aphrodite, vi. 33  Apollinar, v. 52  Apollinares ludi, vi. 18  Apollo, v. 68 ; vii. 16, 17 ; cortina   Apollinis, vii. 48 ; v. Sol  appellandi pars, viii. 44 ; partes   quattuor, viii. 45  Aprilis, vi. 33  aprunum (Sab.), v. 97  Apula, v. lana  Apulia, v. 32   aqua, v. 61, 122, 123 ; v. animalia,  ignis   aquae caldae, v. 25, 156 ; ix. 68,   69   aquae frigidae, v. 25  aqualis, v. 119  aquarium, v. vas  aquatilia, v. animalia  aquila, viii. 7 ; ix. 28 *  Aquiliani gladiatores ab Aquilio,  ix. 71     INDEX     Aquilo, ix. 25   ara, v. 33 ; arae, v. 74 ; v. Consus,  deus, Elicii, Hercules, Iupiter,  Lavernae, Tatius   arationes, v. 39   aratrum, v. 135   Arbernus -na, v. Arveraus   arbitrium (=censio), vii. 53   arbor arbuscula, F. 9 ; arbores, vii.  S, 9, ix. SO   arborariae falces, v. 137   area, v. 128 ; ix. 74   Areas, v. 21   arcera, v. 140   arcs, v. Arc   arcula, ix. 74   ardor, v. 38, 61   area areae, v. 38   arefcicit, v. 33   arena, tr. asena   Areopagus, Areopagitae, vii. 19  Argei, v. 45 ; viL 44 ; Argeorum   sacrificia, v. 52 ; sacra, v. 50 ;   sacellum quartum, v. 47 ; sex-   tum, v. 48 ; sacra ria septem et   viginti, v. 45, e/. 47  argentarii, vi. 91  argenteum argentea, be 66  argentifex non dicitur, viiL 62  argentifodinae, v. 7 ; viiL 62  argentum, v. 169, 173, 174 ; ix. 66   (non argenta) ; x. 33  Argi, vii. 44 ; ix. S9  Argiletum, v. 157  Argivi, vii. 33 ; v. Hercules  Argos, ix. 89   Argus, ix. 89 ; Argus Larisaeus, v.  157   Aricia, v. 32, 143  Aricinus ager, v. 32  aries, v. 98, 117  ariga, v. ariuga  Arimnias, ix. 12  arista, vi. 49  Aristarchum, vi. 2  ariuga ariugus, v. 9S  anna, v. 115 ; v. sonant  armamentarium, v, 128  armarium, v. 128  Armenia (lingua), v. 100  armenta, v. 96  Armilustrinm, v. 153 ; vi. 22  arrabo, v. 175  arruit, v. 135     ars, v. 93 ; viiL 6 ; v. medicina,   mnsica, sntrina  Arte mas, viii. 21  Artemidorus, viii 21, 22  articuli, viiL 45, 51, 52, 63 ; x, 1S-   20, 30, 50 ; v. genus, infiniti  artifex artufex, v. 93; ix. 12, 18,   111; X. 64; artincum vocabula,   v. 93   aruspex, v. haruspex  Arvales (Fratres), v. 85  Arvernus -na/Viii. SI  arviga, v. ariuga  arvus, v. 39   Arx, v. 47, 151 ; vL 2S, 91, 92 ; vii.   S, 44 (arcs)  as, v. 169, 171, 174 ; ix. 81, 83, S4 ;   x. 33 ; asses, v. 170, 182 ; as assem   asses, x. 83 ; asse, F. 18  asbestinon, v. 131  ascriptivi, vii. 56  asellus, v. 77 ; ix. 113  asena (= arena), vii. 27  Asia, v. 16, 31 ; viL 21 ; viii. 56 ;   ix. 27  Asiatici, viiL 56  asinus -a, ix. 28 ; asini, ix. 93  asparagi, v. 104  aspicio, vi. S2  assarius assarium, viiL 71  asserere, v. adserere  asseres, vii. 23  assiduus, viL 99  assipondium, v. 169  assuetudo, ix. 20  assum, v. 109, etitum, vi. 91 ; au-  spicia, v. 33, 143 (urbana), vi. 53  (caelestia), vii. 8, 97 (sinistra);  v. Index of Authors, s.v. Augures   Auster, ix. 25   autumnus, vi. 9   auxilium, v. 90   Aventinus (mons), v. 43, 152 ; vi.   94 ; rex Albanus, v. 43  avermncassint, vii. 102  Averruncus, vii. 102  aviarium (non avile), viii. 54  avicula, v. avis  aviditas, v. aures   avis, viii. 54 ; ix. 76 ; avi et ave,  viii. 66 ; ave, F. 18 ; aves avium,  viii. 70 ; avis avicula aucella,  viii. 79 ; avem specere, vi, 82   axis, vii. 74 ; axe, F. 18 ; axes non  axeis, F. 20   axitiosae, acsitiosae, vii. 66   B, ix. 38 ; BA*, ix. 51 ; BS, x. 57  bacca in Hispania vinum, vii. 87  Bacchae, vii. 87  Bacchides Baccliidas, x. 71   638     Bacclms, vii. 6; Bacchi sacra, vii.   87 ; Bacchi templa, vii. 6  Baebii -iae -iis, x. 50  Balatium ( = Palatium), v. 53  balneae (non balnea), viii. 48, 53 ;   ix. 68, 106, 107 ; balneum, viii.   48, ix. 68  balneator, viii. 53  balteum, v. 116   barbara (vocabula), barbari, viii. 64   barbatus, v. 119 ; ix. 15   Basilica Aemilia et Fulvia, vi. 4 ;   Opimia, v. 156  beatus, v. 92  Bellona, v. Duellona  bellum, v. Carthaginiense, duellum,   indicit, Punicum, Pyrrbi, Sabi-   num   bes olim des, v. 172   bestiae, v. Africae   beta betaceus, F. 10 ; v. pes   bibo, vi. 84   bicessis, v. vicessis   bigae, viii. 55 (non duigae), ix. 63   64 ; x, 24, 66 (non biga), 67  binaria, v. formula  bini (non duini), viii. 55 ; binae   bina, ix. 64. x. 24, 67 ; v. nnus  bisellinm, v. 128   bonus boni, x. 68 ; bonum malum,  v. 11, viii. 34 ; melius optimum  (non bonius bonissimum), viii.  75, 76 (optnm optius, melum  melissimum desunt) ; v. Copia,  dea, duonus, melioseni, quod bo-  num, scaeva   bos boves, etc., v. 96 ; vii. 74 ; viii.  54, 74 (bos non bous ; bourn et  boverum) ; ix. 28, 113 ; bovis vox,  vii. 104 ; v. ambegna, Luca   bovantes, vii. 104   Bovarium Forum, v. 146   bovile (non dicitur), viii. 54 ; ix.  50   brassica, v. 104  breviores, x. 29  bruma, vi. 8 ; ix. 24, 25  Bruti, v. Mucius  bubo, v. 75  bncco, vi. 68  bucinator, vi. 75  bulbum, v. 112  bura, v. 135  Busta Gallica, v. 157     INDEX     C: G, v. 64, 101, 116; vi. 95; CS:   X, ix. 44, x. 57  Gabirum delubra, vii. 11  caccabus. v. 127  cad us, ix. 74   Caeciliani gladiatores a Caecilio,  ix. 71   Caecilms Cecilius, vii. 96  Caecina, x. 27   caecus -a -urn, ix. 5S ; r. cubi-  cnliim   caelare, v. 13   Caeles Vibenna, v. 46   caelestia, v. auspicium   Caeliani, v. 46   eaeligeua, v. 02 ; r. Venus   Caelii -iae -iis, x. 50   Caeliolum, v. 46   caelites, vii. 5, 34   Caelius mons, v. 46, 47   Caelum, v. 57-60, 63, 65, 67 ; caelum,  v. 16-18, 20, 31, viL 20; hoc  caelo, x. 62; caeli loca supera,  v. 16 ; caelum principium, v. 64 ;  caeli regiones, v. 31 ; v. signuni   Caeriolensis (locus), v. 47   caesa, v. exta, ruta   caesius (caesior non diciturj caesis-  simus, viiL 76   Calabra, r. curia   calamLstrum, v. 129   calatio, v. 13   calcearia taberna non dicitur, viii.  55   calcei, viii. 55 ; ix. 40  caldor, v. 59   caldus caldo, x. 73 ; caldum caldius   caldissimum, viii. 75 ; v. aquae  Calendae, v. lanuariae, Kalendae  calix, v. 127  calo (kaloX vi. 16, 27  calor, v. 60  Calpurnins, C, vi. S3  Calydon, vii. 18   Calydonius ager, non terra, vii. IS  camelopardalis, v. 100  came las, v. 100   Camena, vi. 75 ; vii. 27 ; Camena-  rum priscuni vocabulum, \iL 26 ;  r. Casmena   camillns Camilla, vii. 34   Campania, v. 137   campus, v. 36 ; vi. 92 (Martius) ; r.  Flaminras, Martius     canali, F. 18   cancer, viL SI   candelabrum, v. 119   candens, v. siguum   candid us -nm candid ins candidis-  simum, viii. 17 ; Candidas -a can-  did issimus -a, viiL 77   canes, vii. 32 (canes laniorum), 33  (caninam non est); canis, v. 99,  vii. 32 ; canis catulns cateilus,   ix. 74 ; caue, F. IS  canicula (piscis), v. 77  canistra, v. 120   canit can ere, vi. 75 ; canite cante,   vii. 27  cantatio, vi. 75  cantator non dicitur, viiL 57  cantitat, vi. 75 ; cantitans, viii. CO   (cantitantes non dicitur)  canto cantat, vi. 75  cape, viL 90 ; cape capito, x. 31  caperrata fronte, viL 107  capides, v. 121  capilli (gen. sing.), vii. 44  capital, v. 130  capitales, v. triumviri  capiteUum, r. caput  capitium, v. 131   Capitol in us, v. 41 ; Capitolinus   clivus, vL 32  Capitolium, v. 149, 15S ; vL 27, 63 ;   Capitolium vetus, v. 153  capitulum, v. caput  capra, v. 97  caprea, v. 101  capriticns, vL 18   Caprotina (iuno), vi 18; Capro-  tinae Xonae, vL 18   Capua Capuanus, x. 16   capulae, v. 121 ; ix. 21   caput capitis, etc, ix. 53 ; x. 82,  F. 32 ; caput capitulum, viii. 14 ;  capitellum(deest), viiL 79; caput  Sacrae viae, v. 47 ; caput unde  declinatur, x. 50, ef. ix. 102, 103,   x. 50  carbone, F. 13   career, v. 151 ; carceres, v. 153  care re (la nam), viL 54  Carinae, v. 47, 48  cariosas, vii. 23  Cannena -ae, vii. 26, 27  Carmentalia, vi, 12  Carmen tis feriae, vi. 12   639     INDEX     carminari, vii. 54   carnaria taberna non dicitnr, viii.  55   caro, viii. 55 ; carnem petere (ex  Albano nionte ex sacris), vi. 25 ;  v. pecus   Carrinas (non Carrinius), viii. 84   Carthaginien.se bellum, v. 165   cartibulum, v. 125   Cascelliani gladiatores a Cascellio,   ix. 71   cascus -i, x. 73 ; cascns -a, vii. 28 ;   Casca, vii. 28  caseus, v. 106, 108 ; vi. 43  Casinum, vii. 29  Casmena -ae, vii. 26-28  Casmilus, vii. 34  casnar (Osc), vii. 29  cassabundus, vii. 53  Castor, v. 58, 66, 73  castra, v. 121, 162, 166  casuale (genus declinationis), viii.   52 ; oration is prima pars casualis,   x. 18   casus, v. 4 ; vi. 36 ; viii. 11, 16, 22,  42, 44, 46, 58, 63-67 ; ix. 31, 34,  50-52, 54, 70, 77, 81, 88-90, 94,  110 ; x. 7, 10, 17, 21, 22, 26, 29-31,  34, 35, 42, 47, 54, 65, SO, 82 ; de  cassu in cassum, viii. 39 ; casuum  vocabula, x. 23 ; casuum iacturae,  ix. 78 ; (casus) quis, quemadmo-  dum, quo, a quo, cui, cuius  vocetur, viii. 16; cum vocaret,  cum daret, cum accusaret, viii.  16; secundum naturam nomi-  nandi est casus, ix. 76 ; casus com-  munis, viii. 46 ; casus singuli,  terni, etc., ix. 52 ; casus naturales  etimpositicii, x. 61 ; v. accusandi,  dandi, declinatio, exitus, nomi-  nandi, obliqui, patricus, patrius,  ratio, rectus, series, sextus, trans-  itus, vocandi   eatellus, v. canes   Catinia -ae, viii. 73   catinus, v. 120 ; catinuli, F. 12   Cato Catulus, v. 99   catulae, x. 66   catulus, v. 99 v ; p. canes   catus -a, vii. 46   caulis, v. 103   caullae, v. 20   causam orare, vii. 41 ; causae ver-   640     bornm, vi. 37; v. ago, dicis,   nascendi  cava, v. 19 ; cava cortina, vii. 48  cavatio, v. 19, 20  cavea, v. 20  cavernae, v. 20   cavum, v. 19, 20, 135; cavum  caelum, v. 19, 20 ; cavum clipeum,   v. 19 ; v. cava, chaos, couin  cavum aedium, v. 161, 162  Cecilins, v. Caecilius  celare, v. 18   cella, v. 162   cenaculum, v. 162   ceno cenatus sum, F. 5. 7   censio ( = arbitrium), v. 81 ; vii. 58   censor, v. 81 ; vi. 86, 93 ; censores,   vi. 11, 87, 90, 92   censorium iudicium, vi. 71 ; cen-   soriae tabulae, vi. 86  centenarius, v. gradus, numerus  centum, ix. 82, 87 ; x. 43  centumvirum (non -virorum), ix. 85  centuria, v. 35, 88 ; v. ollus  centuriato constituit, vi. 93 ; v.   comitium  centurio, v. 88   centussis, v. 169, 170; ix. 81, 84  cerei, v. 64  cereo, vi. 81   Ceres, v.' 64; vi. 15; templum   Cereris, vii. 9  Cerialia, vi. 15   Cermalus, Germalus, Germalense,  v. 54   cerno, cernito, cernere vitam, vi.   81 ; cernere crevi, vii. 98  Ceroliensis, v. Caeriolensis  cerus, vii. 26   cervices cervix, viii. 14 ; x. 78  cervns cerva, viii. 47 ; cervus cerve,   x. 51 ; cervi, v. 101, 117  Cespius Mons, v. 50  chaos, v. 19, 20  charta, F. 14 a, F. 14 b  Chersonesice, v. 137  Chio mum, ix. 67  chlamydes, v. 133 ; clamide, v. 7  chorda citharae, x. 46  choum, v. 19   Chrysides Chrysidas, x. 71  Chrysion, F. 38  cibaria, v. 64, 90  cibus, viii. 30     INDEX     ciccum, vii. 91   cicer, viii. 48, 63 ; cicer ciceri   ciceris, x. 54  cicur cicurare, vii. 91  Cicurini, v. Veturii  cilibantum, v. cilliba  cilliba, v. 11S, 121  cinctus, v. 114  cinerarius, v. 129  cingillum, v. 114  cippi pomeri, v. 143  Ciprius, v. Cyprius  ciprum, v. cyprum  circulus aequinoctialis, solstitialis,   septemtrionalis, brumalis, ix. 24,   25 ; circuli, v. 106  circumiectui, v. 132  circum muros, vi. 90, 92, 93  eircumtextum, v. 132  Circus, v. 153 ; vi. 20 ; Flaminius,   v. 154 ; Maximns, v. 153 ; ad   Murciae, v. 154 ; v. oppidum  cista cistula, viii. 52 ; cista ci.stnla   cistella, viii. 79, ix. 74  cis Tiberim, v. 83  cistula, v. cista  cithara, viii. 61 ; x. 46  civilia vocabula dierum, vi. 12  civis, x. 39   civitas, x. 39 ; civitatum -ium, viii.  66   clam, vii. 94  c lama re, vi. 67  clamide, v. chlamydes  classes, v. 91 ; classe, F. 18  classicus, v. 91 ; vi. 92  claustra, vii. 21  clavi, x. 62   clepere clepsere, vii. 94  clipeus, v. 19   Clivos, v. Capitolinus, Cosconius,   proximus, Publicius, Pullius  cloacae, v. 149  Cloaca Maxuma, v. 157  clucidatus, vii. 107  clupeat, v. 7  cobius, vii. 47  cochlea, F. 14 a, F. 14 b  Cocles, vii. 71  cocus, vii. 38  coemptio, vi. 43  Coeus Titan, vii 16  cogitare, vi. 42, 43  cogitatio, vi. 42   VOL. II     cognatio verbonim, v. verbum  cognomina, viiL 17 ; ix. 71,  cohors, v. 88   colem colis cole, ix. 75 ; colis non   cols, ix. 76  collatio verborum, vin. 78  collecta, vL 66  collega collegae, vi. 66, 91  colles (Romae), v. 36, 51, 52; v.   Latiaris, ilucialis, QuirinalLs,   Salutaris, Viminalis  Collina tribus, VT 56 ; regio, v. 45  col loca turn, v. 14  colloquium, vi. 57  colo colis colui, ix. 108  colonia nostra, v. 29 ; coloniae nos-   trae, v. 143  columba, v. 75 ; ix. 56 ; columbus,   ix. 56   columna columella, F. 9   coma, v. frondenti   comissatio, vii. 89   comiter, vii. 89   comitiales (dies), vi. 29   comitiatum (ad c. vocare), v. 91 ;   vi 93 ; c/. vi 91  comitiavit, r. quando rex  comitium, v. 155 ; vi 5, 29, 31 ;   comitia, v, 85, 91, 155, vi 91, 92,   vii 42, 97 ; comitia centuriata,  vi 88, 92, 93 ; comitia curiata, v.  155   commentum, comminisci, vi. 44  commode, viii 44  Commotiles Lymphae, v. 71  communis, v. casus, consensus, con-   suetudo, nomen  conunutatio (syllabarum, littera-   rumX v. 3, 6, 79, 103, 137 ; vi. 2,   62, 83; vii. 31 ; ix. 99 ; x. 25 ;   commutatio vocis, x. 77  comoedia comoediae, vi 55, 71, 73  comoedus, ix. 55  comparativi, F. 31 a  compendium, v. 183  competa, v. compitum  compitalia, vi 25, 29  compitum, vi. 43 ; competa, vi. 25  eompluium, v. 161 ; compluvium,   v. 125   composita, viii 61 ; compositi   numeri, ix. 84  compositicium genus, viii 61 ; com-   positicia (verba), vi. 55   T 641     INDEX     computatio, vi. 63  conceptis verbis, vii. 8  conceptivns, v. dies, feriae  concessit, vi. 38  concliae, ix. 28  conchylia, v. 77  conciliari, vi. 43  concilium, vi. 43  concinne loqui, vi. 57  conclavia, viii. 32   Concordia, v. 73; (=templum), v.   148 ; aedis Concordiae, v. 15G  concubitus, vii. 78  concubium, vi. 7 ; vii. 78  condere, v. lustrum, oppidum, urbs  conexum, F. 28. 9  confessi, vi. 55  contictant, vii. 107  confingere, v. 7  congerro, vii. 55  coniugationes qnattuor, F. 34  coniunctae res, x. 24 ; v. analogia  coniunctio (ignis et humoris), v.   03; (verborum), vii. 110, cf.   viii. 1   coniunctum, F. 28. 10, 11   conpernis, ix. 10   conquaestor, v. quaestor, vi. 79   conregio, vii. 8   consensus communis, viii. 22   Consentes, v. deus   conserere manum, vi. G4 ; con-   sertuui mamim, vi. 04  consilium, vi. 43  Consiva, v. Ops  consortes, vi. 65  conspicare, vii. 9  conspicio, vi. 82 ; vii. 9  conspicio -nis, vii. 8, 9  consponsus, vi. 69 ; vii. 107 ; con-   sponsi, vi, 70  constantia, ix. 35  Consualia, vi. 20   consuetudo (communis), v. 1, 0, 8 ;  vi. 78, 82 ; vii. 32 ; viii. 6, 23, 26,  27, 32, 74, etc. ; ix. 1, 2, 8, 74, 76,  78, etc., 114; x. 2, 15, 16, 73,  etc. ; F. 5. 9 ; non repugnante  consuetudine communi, x. 74, 76,  73 ; consuetudo nostra, veterum,  vi. 2 ; consuetudo vetns, haec,  x. 73 ; v. prisca   consul, v. 80, 82; vi. 61, 88, 91, 93,  95 ; x. 28 ; con.sules, vi. 91, 99,   642     viii. 10; v. Curtius, Manlius,   Tullius  Consus (et eius ara), vi. 20  contemplare contempla, vii. 9  contentiones, viii. 75  conticinium, vi. 7 ; vii. 79  contio, vi. 43, 90 ; contionem advo-   care, vi. 91, 93  contraria (verba), viii. 58, 59 ; v.   deus   convallis cavata vallis, v. 20  convivium, v. 124, 168 ; convivium   publicum, v. 122  conum, v. 115   Copia Bona, vii. 105; copia ver-  bomm, viii. 2, 20   copis copiosus, v. 92   copulae, viii. 10 ; trinae copulae,  naturae et usuis (cf. viii. 14), per-  sonarum multitudinis ac finis, ix.  4 ; divisionis quadrinae copulae,  x. 33 ; v. faciendi   copulatum, F. 28. 10   cor, vii. 9, 48   corbes corbulae, v. 139 ; corbes   non corbeis, F. 20  corda, v. chorda  Corduba, v. 102  Cornelius, vi. 4  Corneta, v. 140, 152  cornicen, vi. 91 ; cornicines, vi. 75  cornices, vi. 56  cornua, v. 117 ; vii. 25  cornutus, vii. 25, 39  corolla Veneria, v. 62 ; corollae in   scaena datae, v. 178  corollarinm, v. 175, 178  corona, v. 62 ; coronas iaciunt in   fontes, puteos coronant, vi. 22  corpus, v. 11, 12, 59-61 ; a corpore   declinata, viii. 15  correptio (syllabarum), v. 6  cortina, v. Apollo, cava  cortumio, vii. 8, 9  corvus, v. 75 ; ix. 55, 56 (non   corva) ; corvi, vi. 56  Cosconius (Clivus), v. 158 ; vio-   curus, v. 15S  coum a cavo, v. 135 ; v. chouni  Covella, v. Tuno  coxendices, vii. 67  Cozevi, vii. 26  eras, viii. 9  cratis, vii. 55     INDEX     creatus, v. vitio  ere pa re, vi. 67   crepe rum, creperae res, vi. 5; vii.  77   Crepusci, vi. 5   crepusculum, vi. 5 ; vii. 77   Cretaea, vi 69   cretaria taberna, viii. 55   cretio, vi. 81   crocodilos, v. 78   cnula holera, v. 108   crusta, v. 107   crustulmn, v. 107   Crustumerina secessio, v. 81   crux cruce cruces, ix. 44   cubicularis gradus, viii. 32   cubiculum, v. 162 ; viii. 29, 54 ;   cubiculum caecum, ix. 58  cuculus, v. 75  cucumeres, v. 104  culcita, v. 167  culmen, v. 37  culmi, v. 37  culpo culpamus, x. 33  cultus, r. ager  cumerus, vii. 34  cum muliere fuisse, vi. SO  Cupidini.s Fomm, Forum Cuppe-   dinis, v. 146  cuppedium, v. 146  cupressi cupressus, ix, 80  cur, viii. 9  cura, vi. 46  curare, vi. 46   cura tores omnium tribuum, vi. 86  Cu reuses, vi. 86  Cures, v. 51   Curia Acculeia, vi. 23 ; Calabra, v.   13, vi. 27; Hostilia, v. 155, vii.   10 ; curiae, v. 83, 155, vL 15, 46 ;   curiae veteres, v. 155  curiata, v. comitinm  curiones, v. 83 ; vi 46  curiosus, vi. 46   currit, viii. 11, 53; currens cur-   surus, viii. 59  cursio, v. 11  curso cursito, x. 25  cursor, v. 11, 94; viii. 15, 53  cursus, vi 35   Curtius, v. 148 ; Curtius lacus, v.  148-150 ; Mettius Curtius Sabinus,  v. 149; Curtius, consul, v. 150   curvor, vii. 25 ; cf. v. 104     Cutiliensis lacus, v. 71  cyathus, v. 124  cybium, v. 77  Cyprius Vicus, v. 159  cyprum (Sab.) bonum, v. 159  Cyzicenus (non Cyzicius) a Cyzico,  viii 81   D : R, vi. 4, cf. vi. S3  damnum, v. 176   dandi casus, viii. 36 ; x. 21, 65 ; v.   casus ; cf. viii/ 16  dea bona, r. quis  decern, x. 41, 43, 45  December, vi. 34  decemplex, v. logoe  decemvirum (non -virorum) iudi-   cium, ix. 85  decernunt de vita, vi. 81  decessit, vL 38  decessus, v. Galli   deciens, hoc deciens, huius deciens,   ix. 88   Decimns, ix. 60 ; r. decuma  declinata verba vel vocabula, v. 7 ;  vi. 37; viii. 1, 2, 9; ix. 115; de-  clinata nomina, viii. 5  declinatio -ones, viii. 3, 5, 11, 13,  15, 20, 21, 24 ; ix. 10, 17 (novae),  110; x. 3, 11, 12, 16, 2S, 44, 51,  53, 60, 62, 74, 76 (verbi), 77;  declinatio in casus, vii. 110 ; de-  clinatio naturalis et voluntaria,   viii. 21-23, ix. 35, x. 15 (volun-  tas), 17, 51, 77, 83; declinatio-  num genus, viiL 17, 21 ; declina-  tionum genera quattuor, viiL 52 ;  declinationes verborum, vi. 2, 36,  3S, ix. 3, x. 1, 2, 9, 11, 26, 44 ;  r. declinatus, derectae, iuniores,  nothus, priscum, recentes, simili-  tndo, transitus   declinatus, viii. 6, 10; ix. 37, 38,  51, 53; x. 51, 76; declinatus  voluntarius, naturalis, ix. 34, 62,   x. 77, 83; vocum declinatus, x.  65; verborum declinatuum genera  quattuor, vi. 36; declinatuum  species quattuor, x. 32 ; sex, x. 31 ;  imperandi declinatus, x. 32, cf.   ix. 32, 101 ; v. ordo declinatuum  decuma, v. Hercules   decuriae numerorum, ix. 86, 87 ; cf.  v. 34, 91   643     INDEX     decuriones, v. 91   decussis, v. 170 ; ix. 81   dedicat dedicatur, vi. 61   definitiones grammaticorum, x. 75   deierare sub tecto, v. 66   Dei Penates, v. dens   deiunctum, v. analogia   Deli, vii. 16   Deliadae, vii. 16   delicuum, deliquare, vii. 106   Delphi, vii. 17   delubra, v. Cabirum   Demetrius rex, vii. 52   demptio litterarum, v. 6 ; vii. 1   denarius denarii, v. 170, 173, 174;   viii. 71 ; ix. 85 ; x. 41 ; denarinm  (non -oruin), viii. 71, ix. 82, 85 ;  v. formula, gradus, numeri   denasci, v. 70   dens, v. 135 ; viii. 67 ; dentuin   dentes, viii. 67  densum, v. 113   deorsum, v. 101 ; deorsum versus,   ix. 86  depsere, vi. 96   derectae declinationes, x. 44  derectus, v. ordo, ratio  des, v. bes  despicio, vi. 82   despondet, vi. 69 ; desponsa, vi. 70 ;   despondisse, vi. 71 ; despondisse   animum, filiam, vi. 71  desponsor, vi. 69  destringor destrinxi, F. 5. 7  detrectio (syllabarum), v. 6  detrimentum, v. 176  detritum, v. E, S  deunx, v. 172   dens deei, viii. 70 ; del, v. 57, 65,  66, 71 ; deos, F. 1 ; dei contrarii,   v. 71 ; deo principe, vi. 34 ; dei  principes, v. 57 ; Dei Consentes,  viii. 70 ; Deum (non Deorumj  Consentium aedem, viii. 71 ; dei  magni, v. 58, vii. 34 ; diis inferis,   vi. 34 ; Dii Penates nostri, v. 144 ;  Dei Penates, viii. 70 ; aedes Deum  Penatium, v. 54 ; Di Manes ser-  viles, vi. 24 ; ara deum, v. 3S ;  arae deorum, v. 62 ; liberorum  dei nomina, ix. 55, 59 ; v. Samo-  thraces ; cf. Novensides   dextans, v. 172  dextra, v. propter   644.     diabathra, vii. 53   Dialis flamen, v. 84 ; vi. 16   Diana, v. 68 (Diviana), 74; vii. 16;   Dianaetemplum, v. 43; v. Titanis,   Trivia  dibalare, vii. 103  dicare, vi. 61  dicendi pars, viii. 44  dicis causa, vi. 61, 95  dico, vi. 30, 61, 62; dicit, vi. 78;   dicere, vi. 42 ; dico dicebam dixe-   ram, ix. 34 ; dicerem dicam, x.   31 ; v. do  dictata in ludo, vi. 61  dictator, v. 82 ; vi. 61, 93 ; v. Poe-   telius  dictiosus, vi. 61   dictum in mimo, vi. 61 ; dicta in  manipulis castrensibus, vi. 61   dies, v. 68 ; vi. 4 ; ix. 73 ; x. 41 ; F.  11; Dies Agonales, vi. 12; die  auspicate, v. 143 ; dies concepti-  vus, vi. 25 ; dies fasti, vi. 29, 53 ;  dies Fortis Fortunae, vi. 17 ; dies  nefasti, vi. 30, 53 ; dies sacri  Sabini, v. 123 ; dies et nox, v. 11 ;  diemm nomiua, vi. 10-32 ; dierum  singulorum vocabula, vi. 33 ; v.  Alliensis, atri, civilia, comitiales,  februatus, intercisi, lupiter,  Larentinae, prodixit, quando,  quartus, septumus, statuti, Venus   Diespiter, v. 66; Diespiter Dies-  pitri Diespitrem, ix. 75, 77   dilectus, vi. 65   diligens, vi. 65; diligentior dili-   gentissimus -ma, viii. 78  Di Manes, v. deus, Manes  diminntio, F. 9  diminutivum, F. 9  diobolares, vii. 64  Diomedes -di -dis, x. 49  Dionem, vi. 2 ; Diona, viii. 41, ix. 42  Diores, ix. 12  Diovis, v. 66, 84  directus, v. derectus  discere, vi. 62 ; discebam disco dis-   cam, didiceram didici didicero,   ix. 96  discerniculuni, v. 129  discessit, vi. 3S   disciplina, vi. 62 ; loqnendi, x. 1  discordia verborum novorum ac  veterum, v. 6     INDEX     discrimen, vi. 12 (naturale), 81 ; ix.  56 ; x- 20, 77 (verbi); discrimina  verborum, re rum, vi. 36, 38, viii.  1, 2, 10, 14, 16, 17 (cf. 51), ix. 32,  x. 64 (in rebus); discrimina lit-  terarum, x. 62 ; discriminum  numerus, x. 10   disertus, vL 64   disparilitas vocis figuranim, x. 36  Dis pater, v. 66  dispendiura, v. 183 ; ix. 54  dispensator, v. 1S3  dispntare, disputatio, ri. 63  disserit, vi 64   dissimilia, viii. 34, etc. ; v. simile  dissimilitude), viii. 23, 24, 29, 31, 32,   etc ; ix. 46, etc. ; x. 1, 3, etc.  distractio doloris, vii. 60  distrabuntur, viL 60  dius, v. 66 ; vii. 34  Dius Fidius, v. 66 ; aedes Dei Fidi,   v. 52  diva, v. Palatua  dives, v. 92 ; viii. 17  Diviana, r. Diana  dividia, viL 60   divisio, vii. 60 ; ix. 97 ; x. 14, 15,   17, 33; divisiones, viii. 44, ix.   95, 101 ; ex eodem genere et ex   divisione, ix. 96, 97  divum, v. 66; viL 27, 50; diva;,   F. 1 ; sub divo, v. 66 ; divi potes,   v. 58 ; v. deus  do dico addico, vi 30  do, r. ollus   doceo, vL 62 ; docet, x. 17 ; doceo  docui, x. 25 ; docentur inducun-  tur, vi. 62 ; docens, x. 17 ; doctus,  F. 5. S   docilis, x. 17   docte, viii. 12, 44 ; x. 17 ; F. 5. S  doctiloqui, vii. 41  doctor, vi. 62   doctus -a -tun, viii. 46; ix. 57;   doctus -a doctissimus -a, viii. 77 ;   doctus docte, viii. 12  documenta, vi 62  dodrans, v. 172  dolla, v. sirpata  doliola, v. 157  dolo dolas dolavi, ix. 10S  dolor dolori dolorem, x. 36, 42 ; r.   distractio  dolus mains, dolo malo, x. 51     domare, vi. 96   domus, v. 160; domus domuis  domui, F. 17 ; v. hibernum, Mae-  lius, video   donum, v. 175   dos, v. 175   Dossennus, viL 95   drachmae, ix. 85   dncenti, v. 170; x. 43   ducere ductor, vL 62   Duellona Bellona, v. 73, vii. 49   duellum, v. 73 pvii. 49   duigae, v. bigae   duini, v. bini   dulcis dulcior dulcissimus, viii. 76  duo duae, ix. 64, 65, 87 ; x. 24, 41,   43, 45, 49, 67, S3  duode nanus numerus, v. 34  duonus, vii. 26   duplex verbum, ix. 97 ; duplicia   vocabula, ix. 63 ; v. logoe  duplicarii, v. 90   dupondium dupondius, v. 169, 173 ;   ix. SI (-um), S3, 84  dux, vi. 62 ; duces dux, x. 56, 57   E, viii. 68; ix. 52; E : AE. v. 97,  vii. 96; SI: US, ix. SO; E : A, v.  114, vii. 94; 1:1, vi 95; E:U,  v. 91 ; E detritum, vii. 74 ; E ex-  clusum, x. 57 ; E exemptum, ix.  44 ; E exitus, x. 62   ecbolicas aulas, v. 108   echinus, v. 77   ecurria, vi. 13   edictum, vi. 92   edo, vi. S4 ; edo edi, x. 33   edulium, viL 61 ; edulia, vL 84   edus, t?. hedus   effari, templa effantur, fines effan-   tur, vL 53  effata, vL 53  efiFutitum, vii. 93  Egeria, vii. 42  elegantia, viiL 31  elephans, elephantos, viL 39  Elicii Iovis ara, vL 94  eliquatum, viL 106  elixum, v. 109  eloquens, \i. 57  eloqui, vi. 57  eminisci, vi. 44  emo emi, x. 33 ; v. homo  em pa, viL 27   645     INDEX     ensis ensiculus ensicula, F. 10  eo, v. i, ite  Epeus, vii. 38  Ephesi (loc.), viii. 21  Ephesius, viii. 21, 22  epiphysis, v. 124  epicrocum, vii. 52  epigrammation, vii. 28  Epimenides, vii. 3  epityrum, vii. 85  Epulo, vi. 82  equa, v. eqtras   eqnes equites, vii. 4 ; x. 28 ; v.   ferentarius, magister  equile, viii. 18, 20, 52  equirria, v. ecurria  equiso, viii. 14 ; x. 28  equitatum, vii. 4, 103  equus, vii. 4; viii. 11, 14, 52; ix.   113 ; x. 4, 28 ; cquus equi, ix. 63 ;   equoequum, viii. 52 ; equus equa,   ix. 28, 56 ; equus publicus, viii.   71 ; equi dissimiles eadem facie,   ix. 92, 93 ; v. Troianus  errare, vi. 96   erus eri ero, x. 12  esca, vi. 84   escaria mensa, v. 118, 120  esculentum, vi. 84  escnletum, v. aesculetum  Esquiliae, v. 25 (Exq-), 49, 50, 159  (Exq-)   Esquilina (regio), v. 45 ; (tribus), v.   56; Esquilinus lucus, v. 50  esum es est, v. sum  et, viii. 9, 10   Etruria, v. 30, 32, 46 ; vii. 35   Etrusco ritu, v. 143   etymologia, vii. 109   etymologice, vii. 3   etymologus, vi. 39   eu, vii. 93   Euander, v. 21, 53   euax, vii. 93   eum {gen. pi.), vii. 26   Europa, v. 16, 31, 32 ; vii. 21 ; ix. 27   exbolas, v. ecbolicas   exceptum, v. os   excessit, vi. 38   exercitus, v. 87 ; v. urbanus   exiguitas, viii. 14   exitium, v. 60   exitus v. 60 ; exitus nominatuum,   x, 21 ; exitus casus sexti, x. 62   646     ex hire (coctum), v. 109   ex iurc raanum consertum vocare,   vi. 64  exorat, vi. 76  ex parte, x. 84  explanandi, v. gradus  expecto, vi. 82  cxpensum, v. 183  ex quadam parte, x. 74, 76, 78  exquaeras, vi. 91   Exquiliae, v. 25, 159 ; v. Esquiliae  exta ollicofiua, v. 104, cf. v. 98 ; exta   caesa et povrecta, vi. 16, 31  extern plo, vii. 13  extergeor extersi, F. 5. 7  extermcntarium, v. 21  externa, ix. 102   extremum, vi. 59 ; v. littera, syllaba  extrita, v. syllaba, I, R, S   F : H, v. 97  faba, ix. 38 ; x. 84  fabri, vi. 78   fabulae, vi. 55 ; nova fabula, vi. 58 ;   v. ago  facete, x. 17   faciendi et patiendi copulae, x. 33  facies, vi. 78 ; ix. 92  facilis, x. 17   facio facere, vi. 42, 77, 78 ; facit, x.   17 ; poeta facit fabulam (non   agit), vi. 77 {v. ago, gerit) ;   facerem faciam, x. 31 ; faciens, x.   17 ; facere verba, vi. 78 ; v. lumen,   lustrum, velatura  factiosae, vii. 66   faculam, vi. 79; faculae, v. 137,   x. 66  facundi, vi. 52   Facutalis lucus, v. 49, 50; v.  Fagutal   Faeneratricem Feneratricem, vii. 96  faenisicia fenisicia, vii. 96  faenus, vi. 65   Fagutal, Iovis Fagutalis, v. 152 ; v.   Facutalis  Falacer flamen, pater, v. 84 ; vii. 45  falces, v. 137 ; falce, F. 18 ; falcium   falces, non falceis, F. 20; v.   arborariae, fenariae, lumariae,   sirpiculae  falera, v. phalera  Falerii, v. Ill, 162  Faliscus venter, v. Ill     INDEX     fallacia, vi. 55   falli, vi. 55   falsum, vi. 55   falx, v. falces   fama, vi 55   famigerabile, vi. 55   familia, v. funesta, mater, pater,   purgare  famosi, vi. 55   fana, v. 51 ; vL 54 ; fanorum servi,  viii, 23 ; v. Fortis Fortunae, Liber,  magmentaria, Quirinus, Sabinus,  Saturnus   fanatur, vi. 54   far, v, 106 ; v. mola   farcimina, v. Ill   fari fatur, vi. 52, 56 ; vii. 36   farina, v. 106, 107   fariolus, vi 52   farticulum, v. Ill   fartum, v. Ill   fartura, v. Ill   fas, vi 31 ; v. quando   fasces, v. 137   fasciola, v. texta   fassi, vi 55   fasti, v. dies   fastidium, v. 146   fateles res, vi 52   fatidici, vi 52   Fatuae, vi. 55   fat am, vi. 52   fatuus, v4. 52 ; Fatuus, vi. 55  fauces, v. 42 ; vii. 21 ; (non faux),  x. 78   Fauni (Faunus, Fauna), vii. 36  Faustiani glad ia tores a Faustio, ix.  71   Faustini gladiatores a Fausto, ix.  71   Faventinus a Faventia, viii 83  febri, F. 18   Februarius, vi. 13 (Nonae), 34  februatio, vi. 13  februatur, vi. 34  februatus dies, vi 13, 34  februm (— extremum), v. 79  februm (Sabini, purgamentum), vi.  13   fed us, v. 97   felix, v. quod bonum   femina, ix. 57 ; feminae, v. 130, ix.   67 ; feminae nomen, ix. 40 ; v.   mas     femininum, F. 14 a, F. 14 b; femi-  ninum genus, F. 9, F. 11   fenariae falces, v. 137   Feneratricem, v. Faeneratricem   fenestrate, viii 29   fenisicia, v. faenisicia   ferae, v. 80; ferarum vocabula, v.  100   feralia, vi 13  fere, vii. 92   ferentarins, ferentarii equites, \*ii.  57   feretrum, v. 166   feriae voncepti^'ae, vi. 26 ; con-  ceptae, vi 29 ; menstruae, vi.  13 ; v. annales, Carmentis, Furi-  nales, Latinae, paganicae, rex,  sementivae   ferio, F. 36; ferio feriam percussi,  feriam ferio feriebam, ix. 98   ferme, vii. 92   fero, F. 36 ; fero ferebam, x. 14 ;   ferte, vi 96 ; ferendo, viii. 57 ;   ferundo, v. 104  Feronia, v. 74  ferreus ferreei, viii 70  ferrifodinae non dicitur, viii. 62  fertor non dicitur, viii. 57  ferns fero ferum, x. 12  fervere, vi 84  fetiales, v. 86  fetus, v. 61  fiber, v. 79  fibra, v. 79  ficedulae, v. 76  ficta (verba), v. 9   fictor, vi. 78 ; fictores, vi, 78, vii.  44   Ficuleates, vi. 18   ficus, v. 76; ficus fici, ix. 80; v.  ruminalis   Fidenates, vi. 18   Fides, v. 74   Fidius, v. Dius   fidus, v. foedus   figlinae, v. 50   figuli : inter figulos, v. 154   figura figurae, vi. 78 ; viii. 39, 71 ;  ix. 39, 40, 42, 52, 93 ; x. 4, 11, 27,  32, 33, 58, 77 ; figura vocis, r, 25,   36, 51 ; figura verbi, viii 39, ix.   37, x. 11, 25; figurae vocabu-  lorum, ix. 55; v. Graecus, ob-  liqui, singularis   647     INDEX     filius, x. 59 ; filius -a, ix. 55, x. 41  filum, v. 113  fimbriae, v. 79   fingo, v. 7 ; vi. 78 ; flngo fingis, x.  31   finis fine, F. 18 ; v. copulae, effari  finitum ct infinitum, v. 11 ; viii.   45 ; ix. 31, 64, 85 ; x. 18, 20, 30 ;   v. infinitei, nmnerus ; c/. templum  fircus, v. 97  fiscina, v. 139  fistula, v. 123  fixum, F. 2   Flaccus flamen Partialis, vi. 21   flamen vinnm legit, vi. 16 ; flamines,  v. 84, vii. 45 ; v. Pialis, Falacer,  Flaccus, Floralis, Furinalis,  JIartialis, Palatualis, Pomonalis,  Quirinalis, Volcanalis, Volturnalis   Flaminius circus, campus, v. 154   flexura, x. 28   Flora, v. 74, 158 ; viU 45   Floralis flamen, vii. 45   flnctus fluctuis fluctui, F. 17   flumen, v. 27, 28   fluvius, v. 27   fodari, vii. 100   foditurne fodieturne, x. 32   foedus, v. 86 ; fidus, v. 86 ; foede-  sum, vii. 27   Fons, v. 74; vi. 22; fons, v. 123;  fonte, F. 18 ; fonti et fonte, ix.  112; fontis fontes, viii. 66; v.  corona   Fontanalia, vi. 22   forda (quae fert in ventre), vi. 15   Fordicidia, vi. 15   forma, vi. 78; viii. 9, 47; ix. 21,  39-41, 82 ; x. 1 (vocabulorum), 22,  27, 49 ; forma etymologiae, vii.  109 ; formain declinando, ix. 37 ;  formae verborum, ix. 101, 102,  109, 115, x. 56 ; formae Graecae  verborum, x. 70 ; v. similitudi-  num   formido, vi. 48   formo, vi. 78   formula, ix. 103 ; x. 44 ; formula  numerornm, x. 43 ; formulae ver-  borum, x. 33 ; analogiarum for-  mula binaria, denaria, x. 44  fornices, v. 19 (caeli) ; x. 59  Fortis Fortunae fanum, vi. 17 ; v.  dies   648     Fortuna, v. 74 ; vii. 93 ; u. vocabula  fortunatum, v. quod bonum  forum, v. 47, 145, 148, 149 ; vi. 59 ;   vii. 94; ix. 17; t>. Bovariuin,   Cupidinis, Holitorium, Pis-   carium, vetus  fossa, v. 143 ; vii. 100  Fratres, v. Arvales  fratria, v. 85  fremere, vi. 67 ; vii. 104  fremor oritur, vi. 67  frendit, vii. 104  frequens, vii. 99  frequentare, vii. 99  fretum fretu, vii. 22  frigidum, v. 59 ; v. aquae  frigus, v. 60  fringuillae vox, vii. 104  fringuttis, vii. 104  fritinnit, vii. 104  frondenti coma, vii. 24  fructus, v. 37, 40, 104  fruges, v. 37, 104 ; frugis frux   (haec), ix. 76; frugis -i -em, ix.   75   frugi (non frugalus -a) frugalissumus   -ima, viii. 77  frumentum, v. 104  fruor, v. 37, 104  fugitiva, v. 5  fulgur, v. 70  fulguritum, v. 70, 150  fullo, vL 43  fulmen, v. 70  fulmentum, viii. 10  Fulvia, v. Basilica  fumificus, vii. 38  fundolus, v. Ill  fundula, v. 145  fundus, v. 37  funesta familia, v. 23  funus, v. indicit, indictivum  Furinalis flamen, v. 84 ; vi. 19 ;   vii. 45 ; Furinales feriae, v. 84  Furnacalia, vi. 13  furo, F. 36   Furrina, v. 84 ; vi. 19 ; vii. 45  Furrinalia, vi. 19  fustes, v. 137  futis, v. 119  futurum, viii. 20, 58   G, v. C ; GL, v. 134 ; GS : X, ix. 44  Gabii, v. 33     INDEX     Gabinus ager, v. 33  galea, v. 116  galeritus, v. "6   Galli obsederunt Romam, vi. 32;  decessus Gallorum, vL 18 ; Gallo  rum ossa, v. 157 ; vocabula, viii.  65   Gallica (lorica), t. 116 ; (vocabula),   v. 167 ; v. Busta  Gallicana, v. lana  Gal lice, F. 5. 8  gallina, v. 75   Gallus Gallice, F. 5. 8 ; r. Galli  gannit, vii. 103  gargarissare, vi 96  gartibulum, v. cartibulum  garum (non gara), ix. 66  gaunaca, v. 167  gausapa, F. 14 a, F. 14 b  gemere, vi. 67 ; gemebam gemo, x.  31   gemini simillimi, x. 4; v. Ianus,   Menaechmi  geniculis, ix. 11  gens gentium gentis, viiL 67  gentilicia natura, ix. 59; nomina,   ix. 60  Genucins, M., v. 150   genus, ix- 40, 110 ; x. 8, 16, 21, 29,  31, 33-35, 37, 65; genera, ix. 55-  57, 67, 68, x. 11, IS, 22, 79, F. 10 ;  genus vocale, x. 66; ex eodem  genere, viii. 39, ix. 96, x. 37 ;  analogiae genus naturale, volun-  tarium, ix. 33 ; genus (vet genera)  nominatus (rel nominnm), ix. 62,   x. 8, 21, 65 ; genera articulorum,  x. 30 ; re rum, v. 13 ; verborum,  v. 4, 13, viii. 9, ix. 95, 102;  genera a generando, F. 7 a, F. 7 b ;  genera rebus dare, F. 6 ; r. ana-  logia, augendi, declinatio, de-  clinatus, femininum, mas, mascu-  linum, minnendi, muliebre,  natura, neutrum, principale,  virile ; ef mas, neutrum, simili-  tudo, virile   geometrae, x. 42   gerit (id est sustinet), vi. 77 ; res   gerere (non agere, facere), vi 77  Germalus Germalense, r. Cermalus  gerra, viL 55   Geryon Geryoneus Geryones, ix. 90  gignitur, vi 96     git, F. 22   gladiatores, ix. 71 ; Samnites, v.  142   gladium, v. 116 ; viii. 45 ; gladium   gladius, ix. 81  glandio, vii. 61 ; glandiumglandula,   F. 10   gleba abiecta in sepulcrum, v. 23  glebarii valentes, vii. 74  globi, v. 107  glossae, vii. 10   glossema gloss^mata, vii. 34, 107  grabatis, viii. 32   gradus in lectum, v. 168; gradns  agendi, vi. 77, ef. vi. 41, 51;  gradus analogiae, x. 83, 84 ; gradus  explanandi, v. 7-9 ; gradus nnme-  rorum, ix. 86; gradus singularis  denarius centenarins, ix. 87   Graecanica, x. 71 ; Graecanici nomi-  natus, x. 70   Graecanice, ix. S9   Graece, v. 77, 88, 96, 112, 120, 122,  175 ; vi. 4, 6, 10, 84 ; vii. 52, SS ;  ix. 89 ; x. 37 ; F. 5. 8   Graecia, v. 21, 96, 124; viL 47, 82.  87, S9 ; ix. 21   Graecostasis, v. 155, 156   Graecus, viL 42 ; Graeca, v. 100 ;  Graeci, v. 2, 21, 34, 36, 65, 66, 73,   76, 78, 79, 97, 101, 102, 105, 111,  112, 118, 119, 156, 160, 166, vi. 2,  4, 6, 11, 15, 61, vii. 20, 31, 50, 74,   87, 96, viii. 16, 23, 65, ix. 31, 34 ;  Graeci antiqui, v. 103, 166;  Graeco ritu, viL S8; Graeca  figura, v. 119; Graeca lingua, v.  66, vi. 12, 40, 96, ef. vi 84;  Graeca origo, vi 61, 96, vii. 37,   88, 89 ; Graecus Graece, F. 5. S ;  Graecum verbum rel vocabulum,  Graeca verba vtl vocabula, v. 6S,   77, 78, 85, 96, 103, 104, 106, 107,  113-115, 120, 121, 130, 131, 133,  138, 160, 167, 168, 175, 1S2, vi 9,  58, S4 (antiquum), vii 14, 31, 34,  53, 55, 61 (antiquum), 67, 82, 94,  97, 108, x. 70, 71, F. 14 a, F. 14 b ;  Graecum nomen, v. 73, 119, ix.  68 ; Graecum cognomentum, vi.  6S; Graeca oppida, vii 16; r.  Aeolis, forma   graguli, v. 76  grallator, vii. 69   649     INDEX     grammatica antiqua, v. 7  grammatici, x. 55, 75  granarium, v. 105  grandis olea, v. 108  gran uni, v. 106  greges, v. 76  gubernator, ix. 6  gustat, vi. 84  guttus, v. 124   haedus, v. 97 ; haedi vox, vii. 104   hahac, vii. 93   harmonicae res, x. 64   Ilarpocrates, v. 57   haruspex, vii. 88 ; haruspices, v. 14S   hasta, v. 115   hastati, v. 89   haurierint, F. 29   Hectorem, viii. 72 ; Hectorem -is -a,   x. 71 ; Hectores Hectoras, x. 69  Hecuba, viii. 3  hedus, v. 97  hehae, v. hahae  heiulitabit, vii. 103  Helena, viii. SO  Helicon ides, vii. 20  Hellespoutus, vii. 21  hemisphaerium, vii. 7  Ileraclides Heraclide, viii. 68  Hercules, v. 66 ; vii. 82 ; viii. 16   (-les -lis, etc.), 26 (-li an -lis) ; ix.   79 (non Hercul) ; Hercules -li -lis,   x. 49 ; Herculi immolata iuvenca,   vi. 54 ; Herculi in aram, vi. 54 ;   Herculi decuma, vi. 54 ; Hercules   Argivus, v. 45  herma, F. 14 b  herois tritavus atavus, vii. 3  heu, vii. 93  hibernacula, vi. 9  hibernum, vi. 9 ; hibernum domus,   v. 162 ; hiberna triclinia, viii. 29  hie, viii. 22 ; x. 18 ; hi his hibus,   viii. 72 ; hie haec, viii. 45, x. 30 ;   hie hi haec hae, viii. 46; hie   hunc, x. 50  hiems, v. 61 ; vi. 9  hilum hila, v. Ill ; hilum hili, ix.   54   hinnitus, vii. 103  hinnulei, ix. 28  hippos potamios, v. 77  hircus, v. 97  hirpices, v. irpices   650     hinindo, v. 75   Hispania, vii. 87   historia (vcrborum), viii. 6   holitor, vi. 64 ; holitores, vi. 20   Holitorium Forum, v. 146   holus holera, v. 104, 108, 146 ; x. 50   homo, viii. 11, 12, 14, 44, 52, 79  (non homen) ; ix. 113 ; x. 4, 6, 28,  29 ; hominis, viii. 1 ; homines,   viii. 7, 14 ; homines imperiti et  dispersi vocabnla rebus im-  ponunt, x. 60 ; homines emendi,   ix. 93 ; hominum vocabula, v. 80 ;  v. nihil, senescendi   homunculus, viii. 14  honestum, v. 73   honor publicus, v. 80 ; honos, v. 73  hora, v. 11 ; hora prima, secunda,   ix. 73 ; horae lunares, ix. 26  hordeum, v. 106 ; vi. 45 ; ix. 27  horologium ex aqua, vi. 4  horrent, vi. 45   horti, vi. 20 ; hortorum, vi. 146 ;   quae in hortis nascuntur, v. 103  hostia, vii. 31 ; v. agrestis, infulatae,   piacularis  hosticus ager, v. 33  Hostilia, v. Oiiria  Hostilius rex, v. 155  hostis, v. 3  humanitas, viii. 31  humanus -a -nm, viii. 47  humatus, v. 23  humectus, v. 24   humidus, v. 24 ; humidum, v. 59 ;   humidissimus, v. 24  humilior humillimus, v. 23  humor humores, v. 24, 59-61, 63  humus, v. 23, 59  hypocorismata, F. 10   I, viii. 67 ; I littera extrita, v. 96 ;   I : E, ix. 106 ; I additum, ix. 76 ;   I exitus, x. 62 ; v. E  i (imperative), vi. 96 ; v. ite  Iapetus, v. 31   Idus, vi. 14, 28, 29 ; v. Itus, Iuniae  ignis, v. 59, 61, 63, 70 ; igne, F. 18 ;   ignis et aqua in nuptiis, v. 61  Ilium, viii. 56, 80   Ilius (non Ilienns), viii. 56 t 80 ; ab  Ho, viii. 80 ; Ilia, viii. 56, 80   illex inlex, vi. 95 ; inlicis, vi. 94 ;  illici, vi. 94     INDEX     illicit, vi. 95 ; v. inlicere  immortales, v. 75 ; immortalia in   locis, v. 57  impendium, v. 1S3 ; vL 65  imperandi (facie.s), x. 31, 32 ; in im-   perando, x. 32 ; cum impe ramus,   ix. 101 ; r. declinatus  imperator, v. 87 ; vi. 77 ; vii 37  impius, vi. 30  impluium, v. 161  imponenda (vocabula), vi 3  impos, r. inpos   impositicia nomina, viii. 5 ; imposi-   ticii casus, x. 61  impositio verborum (vocabulorum),   v. 1,3; vi. 3 ; vii. 32, 100, 110 ;  viii. 5, 7; x. 15, 16, 34, 51, 53,  60, 61   impositor, v. IS ; vii. 1, 2  impositum (verbum, vocabulum,   nomenX v. 1-3 ; viii. 1, 9, 10, 22,   27 ; ix. 34, 52  impurro, v. amburvom  inaequabilitas, viii. 28, 30; ix. 1  incertus ager, v. 33  in cess it, vi. 38   inchoata (=infecta) res, ix. 96; v.   analogia  incircum, v. 25  inclinanda verba, x. 13  inclinatio inclinationes, ix. 1, 113 ;   c/. x. 13  incommntabilia, ix. 99  incrementum, viii. 17  increpitare, vi. 67  incultus, t\ ager  incurvicervicuin, v. 7  indagabilis ambitus, v. 28  indagare, v. 5   indeclinabilia, x. 14, 79, SO, S2 ;   viii. 9  indicandi, ix. 101   indicit belhun, vi. 61 ; indixit funus,   vi. 61  indicium, vi. 61   indictivum funus, v. 160 ; vii. 42  indiscriminatim, F. 25  indoctus, viii. 62 ; indocti, ix. 22  indusiatam, v. 131  indusium, v. 131  indutui, v. 131 ; x. 27  infantes, vi. 52   infecta (verba), ix. 97, 100, 101 ; x.  4S ; infecti verba, ix. 99, 101, x.     33, 4S; infecti tempora, ix. 96;   infectae res, ix. 32 ; cf. in-  choata  infeineitei, r. infinite!  inferi, vii. 37, r. deus ; infera loca,   v. terra  inficientem esse, vi. 7S  infima Nova Via, v. 43  infinite* articuli, viiL 50; infinita   natura articulorum, viiL 52 ; in-   finitae naturae verborum, viii. 3 ;   infinitum, v.ll, viii. 45, ix. S4 ;   v. finitum  infrequens, 99  infulae, vii. 24  infulatae hostiae, vii. 24  ingeniosi, viii. 15  ingluvies, F. 27  inhumatus, v. 23  inimicitia -am, x. 73  initia, v. 60; rerum initia, v. 11 ;   initiorum quadrigae, v. 12 ; initia   regis, v. S ; initia analogiae, x.   53 ; v. nascendi Sam oth races  inlex inlicis, u. Ulex  inlicere populum, vi 90 ; inliciatur   ad magistratus cons pec turn, vi   94   inlicium vocare, visere, vi. S6-S8,   93-95 ; v. illicit  inlocabilem, v. 14  inminutio, F. 31 a  inops, v. 92  inpos, v. 4  insane, vii. 86  insicia, v. 110  insidiae, v. 90  insignia militaria, vii. 37  insipitur, v. 105  Insteianns Vicns, v. 52  institutum, x. 27   instrumentum, v, 105 ; instrumen-   tum mulieris, ix. 22 ; v. rustica  instil sus, viiL 62  intempesta nox, vi. 7 ; vii 72  Interamna, v. 28  intercisi dies, vi 31  interduo, vii 91  intennestris, vi. 10  interpolate (verba), v. 3  interrex, vi. 93  interrogando, ix. 32  intertrigo, v. 176  intertrimentum, v. 176   651     INDEX     intervallum mundi motus, vi. 3, cf   v. 12  intuiti, vii. 7  intusium, v. indusium  inumbravit, vi. 4   invident, vi. 80; invidit inviden-  dum, vi. 80   Ion, viii. 21, 22   Iones, v. 146 ; vi. 9   Ionia, v. 16 ; viii, 21   ircus, v. hircus   irpices, v. 136   irundo, v. hirundo   is ea id, ea eae, eius eaius, ei eae,  ieis eais, viii. 51 ; eius viri, eius  mulieris, eius pabuli, viii. 51   Isis, v. 57   iste istunc, x. 50   Italia, vii. 86   ite (imperat.), vi. 96   iter, v. 22, 35   Itus (Tuscorum), vi. 28   iactarier, x. 70   iaculum, v. 115   iam, viii. 9   ianeus, vii. 26   ianitor ianitos, vii. 27   Ianualis Porta, v. 165   Ianuarius, vi. 34; Kalendae Ianu-   ariae, vi. 28  Ianus, v. 165 ; Ianus geminus, v.   156, cf vii. 26; Iani signum, v.   165   Ioum Ioverum, v. lupiter  iuba, vii. 76, cf. vi. 6  iubar, vi. 6, 7 ; vii. 76  iubilare, vi. 68  iucunditas, ix. 46  iudex, vi. 61 ; iudices, vi. 88  iudicare, vi. 61   iudicium, v. addixit, censorium,   decern virum  iugerum, v. 35  iuglans, v. 102  Iugula, vii. 50  iugum, v. 135  iumentum, v. 135  iungendi pars, viii. 44  Iuniae Idus, yi. 17 ; lunius mensis,   vi. 17, 33  iuniores, vi. 33, (declinationes) x.   71 ; v. iuvenis  Iuno, v. 65, 67 ; Iunonis, viii. 49 ;   652     IunoCovella, vi. 27 ;aedes Iunonis  Lanuvi, v. 162 ; Iuno Lucina, v.  69, 74 ; aedes Iunonis Lucinae, v.  50 ; Iucus Iunonis Lucinae, v. 49 ;  Iuno Regina, v. 67 ; v. Caprotina,  lupiter, terra  lupiter, v. 65, 67, 84 ; vi. 4 ; vii.  12, 16, 85 ; lupiter non lous,  viii. 74 ; lupiter Iovi, viii. 34, x.  65 ; Inppitri, viii. 33 ; lupiter  Iovis Iovem, viii. 49 ; Iovis Iovem  Iovi, viii. 74 ; Ioum Ioverum, viii.  74 ; aedes Iovis, v. 41 ; aedes  (Iovis) in Capitolio, v. 158 ; ara  Iovis Vimini, v. 51 ; sacellum  Iovis Iunonis Minervae, v. 158 ;  dies Iovis non Veneris, vi. 16 ;  Iovis Iuno coniunx, v. 67 ; Iovis  filium et filiam (non) Iovem et  Iovam, ix. 55 ; antiquius Iovis  nomen, v. 66 ; v. Elicii, Fagutal  iurgare, inrgium, vii. 93  ius, v. ex hire, praetorium  Iuturna lympha, v. 71  iuvencus, v. 96 ; v. Hercules  iuvenis iunior, F. 31 a, F. 31 b     Kalendae, vi. 20, 27-29 ; v. lanuariae  kalo, vi. 16, 27   L, v. G ; L : S, v. 79  Lacedaemonii, v. 146  lact, v. 104  lactuca, v. 104   lacus, v. 26 ; v. Curtius, Cutiliensis,   Velini  laena, v. 133  laeta, vi. 50  laetari, vi. 50  laetitia, vi. 50   Iana, v. 113, 130, cf. 133 ; vii. 24 ;   ix. 92 ; lana Gallicana et Apula,   ix. 39 ; v. carere, vellere  lanea, v. 130  Iangula, v. 120  laniena, viii. 55  Lanuvium, v. 162  lanx lance, x. 62  lapathium, v. 103  lapicidae, viii. 62  lapidicinae, v. 151  Larentalia, vi. 23  Larentia, v. Acca     INDEX     Larentinae dies, vL 23   Lares, v. 74 ; Lares Lasibus, vi. 2 ;   Lares viales, vi. 25 ; La rum Quer-   quetulanum sacellum, v. 49 ; v.   Mania  Larisaeus, v. Argus  Larunda, v. 74  Lasibus, v. Lares  lata latae, x. 24  Latiaris Collis, v. 52  Latinae feriae, vi. 25, 29  Latine, vL 6, 84 ; vii S9 ; ix. 89  Latinus (rex), v. 9, 32, 53, 144;   Latinos (adj.\ v. 29, passim;   Latinus casus sextus, x. 62 ;   La t inum vocabulum, Latina vo-   cabula, v. 29, 68, 78, 79, 103, 167,   vi. 35; Latini populi, vi. 25;  Latini, v. 30, 43, 69, vi 25,   vii. 23, 36, viii. 23, ix. 34; r.  lingua, litterae, nomen, sermo,  verbum   latiores, x. 29   Latium, v. 21, 29, 30, 32, 42, 57, 79,  S4, 96, 97, 100, 143, 144, 162; vi  16, 18 ; vii. 35 ; ix. 34, 59   Latius ager, v. 32   La to, vii. 16   latomiae lautumia, v. 151  Latona, vii. 16  Latonius, viii. 19  latrat, vii 103  latratus, vii. 32  latrocinatus, vii 52  latrones, vii 52  latrunculis ludere, x. 22  laudo laudamns, x, 33  Laurentes, v. 152  Lauretum, v. 152  lautolae, v. 156  lautumia, v. latomiae  lavatrina, v. 118 ; ix. 68  J^avemae ara, v. 163  La vernal is Porta, v. 163  Lavinia, v. 144  Lavinium, v. 144   lavo lavor lavat lavator lavare  lavari tautus sum, ix. 105-107 ;  lavo lavi, F. 5. 6; lavor lavi,  F. 5. 7   lea, F. 3   leaena Leaena, v. 100  lecte lectissime, vi 36  lectica, v. 166     lectio, vi 36  lectito, x. 33  lector, vi. 36 ; viii 57  lectus lectulus, ix. 74 ; lecti, viii  32 ; ix. 47 ; lectulorum vocabula,   v. 166 ; lectus mortui, v. 166 ; v.  pes   legasse mille aeris, ix. 83   legati, v. 87 ; vi. 66   legio, v. 87, 89; vi 66; miles   legionis, militis militem legionis,   ix. 54  legitima, vi 66   lego, vi 36, 37 ; viii. 44 (lego legens),   ix. 102 ; x. 33 ; lego legis, x. 4S ;  lego legis legit, ix. 32, 101 ; lego  legis legit legam, vi. 37 ; lego  legam, ix. 96 ; lego legi x. 25, 48 ;  legi lego legam, viii 3, 9, ix. 96 ;  lege bam lego legam, ix. 32, x. 31,  47, 48; legit, viii 11 ; leges lege,  vi 36 ; lege legito legat, ix. 101 ;  legere, vi. 66 ; legisti, vi 35 ;  legi legisti, x. 48 ; legor, viii. 53 ;  legone legisne, x. 31 ; legens lec-  turus, vi 36 ; v. flamen   legulus, v. 94 ; leguli, vi 66  leguruina, vi. 66   Lemnia litora, vii 11 ; Lemnius   Philoctetes, vii 11  lentes, ix. 34   leo, v. 100; vii. 76; leones, ,vii   40 ; leonis vox, vii. 104  Leontion, F. 38  lepestae, v. 123   lepus, v. 101 ; viii. 68 ; ix. 91, 94 ;   x. 8 ; lepus leporis, F. 5. 6 ; lepus  lepori, viii 34 ; le pores, ix. 94   Lesas non Lesius, viii 84   Lesbo vinum, ix. 67   letum, vii 42 ; v. ollus   lex, vi 71 ; lex legi, x. 47 ; leges,   vi. 60, 66, vii 15, ix. 20; v.  poetica, vetus   libella, v. 174 ; x. 38   Libentina, v. Venus   Liber, vii. 87 ; Liberi cognomentum  Graecum, vi 68; Liberi fannm,  v. 14 ; sacerdotes Liberi anus, vi.  14 ; v. Loebeso   Liberalia, vi. 14   liberi, ix. 59 ; v. deus, servus   liberti, v. Romanus   libertini a mnnicipio mannmissi,   653     INDEX     viii. 83 ; orti a publicis servis   Romani, viii. 83  Libethrides, vii. 20  libidinosus, vi. 47  libido, vi. 47 ; x. 60, 61 ; v. lubido  Libitina, v. Venus  Libo, v. Poetelius  libra, v. 169, 174, 182 ; vii. 14 ; v. aes  librarii, viii. 51 ; ix. 106  libum, v. 106; libum libo, ix. 54;   liba, vii. 44  Libya, vii. 40 ; viii. 56  Libyatici non dicitur, viii. 56  Libyci, vii. 39  lictores, vii. 37  ligna, vi. 66   lignicidae non dicitur, viii. 62   ligo, v. 134   lilium, v. 103   lima, vii. 68 ; limae, x. 14   limax, vii. 64   lingere, vi. 90   lingua Latina, v. 1, 29 ; vii. 55, 110 ;  viii. 58 ; ix. 113 ; lingua nostra,   v. 3, 29 ; v. Armenia, Graecus,  Osca, Sabinus   lingula, vii. 107  lingulaca, v. 77  lintres non lintreis, F. 20  linum lino, ix. 54  liquidum, vii. 106  liquitur, vii. 106  lis, vii. 93   liticines, v. 91 ; vi. 75  litora, v. Lemnia   litterae, v. 30; vi. 2, 66; vii. 2;  viii. 63 ; ix. 52 ; x. 25, 26, 55, 82 ;  antiqnae litterae, v. 143, vi. 33 ;  litterae Latinae, v. 73, vii. 2, ix.  51 ; litterae Graecae, viii. 64, 65 ;  interpretationein exili littera ex-  peditam, vii. 2 ; littera praeterita,  vii. 2 ; littera extrema, ix. 44, x.  21, 25; littera extrita, v. 96;  litteram adicere, vii. 1 ; litteras  assumere, vi. 2 ; litteras mittere,   vi. 2 ; litteraruin vocabula, ix.  51 ; v. additio, commntatio,  demptio, discrimina, productio,  traiectio   lixulae, v. 107  locare, v. 14, 15  locarium, v. 15  locatum, v, 14   654     locus, v. 11-15, 57; viii. 12; loca,   vi. 97, vii. 5 ; loca agrestia, vii.  10 ; loca Europae, v. 32 ; loci  muliebres, v. 15 ; loca naturae,  v. 16 ; loca urbis, v. 45 ; origines  locorum, vii. 110 ; vocabula vel  verba locorum, v. 10, 184, vi. 1 ;  v, animalia, caelum, Caeriolensis,  terra, Tutilinae, urbs   Loebeso (=Libero), vi. 2   logoe, x. 43 (duplex, decemplex),   cf. x. 2, 37, 39  lolligo, v. 79  longavo, v. Ill   longus, viii. 17; longiores, x. 29  loquax, vi. 57  loquela, vi. 57   loquor, viii. 59 ; loquontur, vi. 1 ;  loqui, vi. 56 ; loquens locuturus  locutus, viii. 59 ; v. concinne,  disciplina   lorica, v. 116   Lua Saturni, viii. 36   Lubentina, v. Venus   lubere, vi. 47   lubido hominum, x. 56 ; lubidinem,   F. 4 ; v. libido  Luca bos, vii. 39, 40; Lucana bos,   vii. 39   Lucani, v. 32, 111; vii. 39, 40 ;   Lucana origo, v. 100  Lucanica, v. Ill  lucere, vi. 79  Luceres, v. 55, 81, S9, 91  lucerna, v. 9, 119   Lucia, ix. 61 ; Lucia Volumnia, ix.  61   Lucienus, vi. 2   Lucina, v. Iuno   lucifer (stella), vii. 76   Lucius, ix. 60 ; Lucii, vi. 5 ; v.   Aelius ; cf. Lucia  Lucretia, vi. 7  lucrum, v. 176  Lucumo, v. 55   lucns, v. Esquilina, Facntalis, Iuno,   Mentis, Poetelius, Venus  ludens, vi. 35   ludus, ix. 15 ; ludi qnibus virgines  Sabinae raptae, vi. 20; v. Apol-  linares, dicta ta, Taurii   lumariae falces, v. 137   lumecta, v. 137   lumen facere, vi. 79     INDEX     Luna, luna, v. 68, 69, 74 ; vi. 10 ;   vii. 16 ; is. 25 ; v. hora, nova  lunaris, t*. hora   luo luam, viii. 36; luit, ix. 104;   luendo (id est solvendo), vi. 11 ;   v. sol vii nt  Lupe (voc.), vii. 47  Lupercal, v. 85; vi. 13; Luper-   calia, vi. 13 ; Lupercalibus, v. 85  Luperci, v. 85; vL 13; Luperci   nudi, vi. 34  lupinum, ix. 34   lupus, v. 77 (piscis) ; ix. 28 ; lupus  lupi, F. 5. 6 ; lupus lupo lupe,   viii. 34, 68, ix. 91, 113 (piscis) ;  lupi vox, vii 104   lusciniola, v. 76   luscus (non luscior luscissimus), ix.  72   lustra re, vi. 93   lustrum, vi. 11, 22 ; lustrum facere,   condere, vi. 87  Intra, v. 79  lux, vii. 40 ; v. primo  Lyde, vii. 90   lympha, v. 71 ; vii. 87 (a Nympha) ;   v. Commotiles, Iuturna  lymphata, lymphatos, vii. S7  Lysippus, ix. 18   M : N, vi. 75  Macedonia, vii. 20  Macellnm, v. 14C, 147, 152  Macellus, v. 147   macer macri mac nun, ix. 91 ; x. 28 ;   macer macricolus macellus, viii.   79 ; macri, vi. 50 ; macrior inacer-   rimus, viii. 77  Maecenas (non Maecenius), viii. 84  Maelius (et eius domus), v. 157  maerere, vi. 50  Maesinm, v. Mesium  niagida, v. 120  magis, viii. 9 ; ix. 73  magister equitum, populi, v. 82 ;   vi 61   magistratus, v. 82 ; vi. 87, 91 ; viii.   83 ; v. vitio  magmentaria fana, v. 112  magmentum, v. 112  magnetae lapides, ix. 94  magnitude ix. 74 ; magnitudinis   vocabula, viii. 79  magnus, v. deus, pes     maiores, v. 5 ; vi. 17, 33 ; ix. 16  Mains (mensis), vi. 33  malaxare, vi. 96   malum, v. 102; mala, ix. 92; v.  Punicum   malus mali, x. 68 ; malum peius  pessimum (non malius malis-  simum), viii. 75, 76 (peium non  dicitur) ; v. bonum, dolus   malva, v. 103 ; malva malvaceus,  F. 10   Mamers (Sab.), 73   mammosae, viii. 15   Mamuri Veturi, vi. 49   mancipium, vi. 85 ; vii. 105   mandier, vii. 95   manducari, vii. 95   Manducus, vii. 95   mane, vi. 4 ; (manius manissirae   non dicuntur) viii. 76, ix. 73;   magis mane surgere, ix. 73 ; primo   mane, ix. 73  Manes, v. 148 ; v. dens  Mania mater Larum, ix. 61  manica, vi. 85  manicula, v. 135  Manilius Maniliorum, viii. 71  manipularis, vi. 85  manipulus, v. 88; vi. 61, 85  Manius, ix. 60  Manlius, T., consul, v. 165  mantel ium, vi. 85   manubrium, vi. 85 ; manubria, viii.   15, cf. v. 118  manum ( = bonum), vi. 4  manumissi, viii. 83 ; v. vitio  manupretium, v. 178 ; vi 85  manus, vi. 85 ; ix. 80 ; quae manu   lacta, v. 105 ; v. adserere, con-   serere   mappae tricliniares, ix. 47   mareescere, vi 50   Marcius Marci, viii. 36   Marcus Marci, viii. 36 ; Marcus  Marco, viii. 46, x. 51 ; Marcus  non Marca, ix. 55 ; v. Perpenna   margaritum margarita margiiri-  tarum, F. 14 c.   Maro, v. 14   Mars, v. 73 ; vi. 33 ; Mars Martes,  x. 54 ; Marspiter Marti, x. 65 ;  Maspiter, viii. 49 ; Maspiter sed  non Maspitri Maspitrem, ix. 75 ;  Marspitrem, viii. 33   655     INDEX     Martialis (fiamen), v. 84 ; vii. 45 ;   v. Flaccus  Martius (mensis), vi. 33 ; Martius   campus, v. 28, vi. 13, 92  mas femina, v. 5S, 61 ; viii. 7, 40 ;   ix. 38 ; mas femina neutrum, ix.  55, 57, 59, 62, c/. viii. 36, 47, 78,   x. 22 ; v. genus ; c/. virilia  masculinum, F. 14 a, F. 14 b ; mas-   culino genere, F. 11  Maspiter, v. Mars  matellio, v. 119   mater, x. 41 ; matres familias, vii.   44 ; v. Mania, Ops, terra  materia, x. 11, 36  Matralia, v. 106  mattea, v. 112  matula, v. 119  Maurus Maurice, F. 5. 8  maximus, v. Circus, Cluaca  Mecinus, v. maximus  media, v. 118 ; media nox, x. 41 ;   media vocabula, viii. 79  medicina ars, v. 93 ; vii. 4 ; ix. Ill  medicus, v. 8, 93 ; ix. 11 ; x. 46  Meditrinalia, vi. 21  Mefitis lucus, v. 49  Megalesion, vi. 15 ; Megalesia, vi. 15  mel mellis melli melle, viii. 63  melander, v. 76   Melicertes Melicerta, viii. 68 ; ix. 91  melios, vii. 26; meliosem, vii. 27;   v. bonus  melius, v. bonus  Melius, v. Maelius  meminisse, vi. 44, 49  memoria, vi. 44, 49  Menaechmum -mo, x. 38 ; Me-   naechmi gemini, viii. 43  mendicus, v. 92   mens, v. 59 ; vi. 43-45, 48, 49 ; mens  mentium mentes, viii. 67 ; mentes  non menteis, F. 20 ; v. agitatus   mensa, v. 118; vii. 43; v. escaria,  urnarium, vasaria, vinaria   mensis, v. 69 ; vi. 10, 33 ; mensium  nomina, vi. 33 ; v. novus, lanu-  arius, Februarius, Martius,  Aprilis, Maius, lunius, Quintilis,  Septembres, October, December   menstruae, v. feriae   mensura, ix. 67 ; mensura ac pon-  dera, ix. 66   menta, v. 103   656     meo meas, ix. 109   mera ( = sola), v. 76   merces, v. 44, 175, 178 ; .vii. 52 ;   viii. 19 ; merces non merceis,   F. 20  mergus, v. 78   meridies, vi. 4 ; vii. 7 ; x. 41  merula, v. 76 ; ix. 28, 55 (non meru-   lus) ; merula merulae, x. 66 ;   merulae vox, vii. 104  Mesium rnstici, non Maesium, vii.   96   messor, viii. 57   Metellus Metella, ix. 55   meto metis, x. 31 ; meto me tarn   metebam, ix. 89 ; metendo, viii.   57   Meto Metonis Metonem, ix. 89   Mettius, v. Curtius   metuere, vi. 48 ; metuit (non   sperat), vi. 73 ; metuisti, vi. 45  metus, vi. 45  Mico, ix. 12  miliariae (aves), v. 76  miliariae (decuriae numerorum), ix.   87 ; miliaria (vocabula), ix. 85  miliens, ix. 88   militare aes, v. 181 ; v. raudus ;   militaria, v. insignia, ornamenta  milites, v. 89 ; milites aerarii, v.   181 ; militis stipend ia, v. 182 ; v.   legio, tribuni  milium, v. 76, 106  mille milia, ix. 82, 85, 88 ; mille   aeris, ix. 83 ; hi, hoc, hums,   horum mille, ix. S7, 88 ; haec duo   milia, ix. 87  Minervae, v. 74 ; aedes Minervae,   vi. 17 ; v. Iupiter  Minervium, v. 47  minima vocabula, viii. 79  minores, ix. 87   minuendi (genus declinationis), vii.   52   minusculae, v. Quinquatrus  minuta opera, v. Myrmecidis  miraculae, vii. 64  miriones,' vii. 64  miser, v. 92  mitra, v. 130  moenere, v. 141  moenia, v. 141   nioeras, v. 141; mocri, vi. 87; v.  mums     INDEX     mola (sale et farre), v. 104 ; molae,  v. 13S   monere, vi. 49 ; monerint, vii. 102  monimenta, vi. 49  monitor, v. 94   montes (Romae), v. 41 ; vi. 24 ;   monte, F. 18 ; monti monte, ix.   112 ; montes montis, viii. 66 ; v.   Albanus, Caelius, Cespius, Op-   pius, Ripaei, Saturnius, Tarpeius  morbus, v. quartus, septumus  mors, v. vita   mortales, v. 75 ; mortalia in locis,  v. 57   morticinum, vii. 84  mortui lectus, v. lectus  motacilla, v. 76   motus, v. 11, 12 ; vL 3, 4, 8 ; ix. 34  (caeli) ; motus in mari, ix. 25 ; v.  sol   mox, x. 14, 79, 80  Mucialis collis, v. 52  Mucionis porta, v. 164  Mucins, Q., vL 30; viii. 81; Muci  et Bruti sedulitas, v. 5 ; Mucia,   viii. 81  Mugionis, t?. Mucionis  mugit, vii. 104  mulgere, vi. 96   muliebre, viii. 46, 51 ; muliebria,   ix. 41, 48, 110, x. 30; nomina  muliebria, viii. 36 ; v. locus, mun-  dus, stola, tunica   mulier, viii. SO ; x. 4 ; mulieris,  mulieribus, viii. 51 ; praenomina  mulierum antiqua, ix. 61 ; v.  antiqua, cum muliere   multa, v. 95, 177   multitudo multitudinLs, viii. 7, 14,  36, 46, 4S, 60, 66, 67 ; ix. 64-66,  68, 69, 76, 81, 82, 84, 85, 87 ; x.  28, 33, 36, 54, 56, 58, 59, 66, 83 ;  multitudinis solum, ix. 63, x. 54,  66; multitudinis vocabula, ix.  64, 65 ; multitudo verborum, vi.  35, 40 ; v. copulae   miilas mula, ix. 28 ; v. mutunm   mundus, vi. 3; (=ornatus mulie-  bris), v. 129 ; v. iutervallum, terra   municipes, v. 179   municipium, viii. 83   munus, v. 141, 179   muraena, v. 77 ; ix. 2S, 113   Murciae, v. Circus   VOL. II     Murmecidis, v. Myrmecidis   murmurantia litora, vi. 67   murmurari, vi. 67   murtatum, v. 110   Murteae Veneris sacellum, v. 154   murtetum, v. 154   murus, v. 143 ; v. circum, moerus,  postici, Saturnii, terreus   Musa, ix. 63; Musae, vii. 20, 26,  ix. 64   musica, ix. Ill   mussare, viL 101"   mustela, ix. 113   muti, vii. 101   Muti, v. Mucins   mutuum, v. 179 ; mutua muli, vii.  23   Myrmecidis opera minuta, ix. 108 ;  obscuram ope ram Myrmecidis,  viL 1   mysteria, vii. 11, 19, 34  mystica vada, vii. 19   X, cf. M   Naevia Porta, v. 163; Naevia   nemora, v. 163  naevus, F. 13  nanus, v. 119;  narratio, vi. 51  narro, vi. 51  narus, vi. 51   nascendi initia, v. 15 *, causa, v. 61 ;   cf. v. 60, 70  natare, viii. 74 ; ix. 71  natator, v. 94   natura, ix. 37, 38, 58, 62, 63, 70, 72,  76, 78, 94, 101 ; x. 15, 17, 24, 41  (quadruplex), 51-53, 55, 56, 60,  61, 83, 84, F. 6 ; natura novenaria,  octonaria, ix. 86; natura ser-  monis, viiL 25 ; natura verborum,  viii. 43, x. 51, 74 ; naturae verbi,  v. 2 ; naturarum genera, x. 28 ;  v. copulae, gentilicia, infinitei,  locus   uatvLralis, v, casus, declinatio, dis-   crimen, genus  naviculae ratariae, vii. 23  na\is longa, viL 23 ; nave, F. 18  Xeapolis (Novapolis), v. 85 ; vi. 58  necatus sum necor necabor, x. 48  necessitas, viii. 31  nefas, vi. 30, 31  nefasti, v. dies   u 657     INDEX     nemus nemora, v. 36 ; ix. 94 ; x. 8,   50 ; v. Naevia  neo nes, ix. 109  Neptunalia, vi. 19  Neptunus, v. 72 ; vi. 19 ; v. Salacia  nequam, x. 79-81   Nestor, viii. 44; Nest6rem Nestoris,  viii. 72, x. 70 ; Nestores Nestoras,  x. 69   neutrum, viii. 46, 51 ; ix. 41 ; x. 8,   31 (neutra) ; F. 8 (genus) ; v. mas,   simile  nexus, nexum, vii. 105  niger nigricolus nigellus, viii. 79  nihil nihili, ix. 53 ; nihili nihilum,   homo nihili (non hili), ix. 54,   x. 81   nobiles nobilitas, viii. 15  Noctiluca, v. 68 (et eius templum) ;   vi. 79  noctua, v. 76  noctulucus, v. 99  Nola, Nolani, viii. 56  nolo, x. 81   nomen nomina, viii. 13, 14, 40, 45,  53, 56, 80 ; ix. 40, 43, 52, 54, 89, 91 ;  x. 20, 21, 27, 53, 54, 65, 80 ; nomen  an vocabulum, viii. 40 ; nomen  commune, ix. 89 ; nomen Lati-  num, v. 30, 119 ; Latina nomina,   vii. 109 ; nomina nostra, vi. 2,   viii. 64, 84 ; v. deus, dies, Graecus,  impositicia, Iupiter, mensis,  muliebre, Persarum, pisces, pro-  prio, servile, servus, Syriacum,  tralaticio, translaticium, virile   nomenclator, v. 94   nominandi casus, viii. 42 ; ix. 76,   77 ; x. 23, 65 ; nominandi genus   declinationis, viii. 52 ; v. casus  nominare, vi. 60  nominativus, x. 23  nominatus, viii. 45, 52, 63 ; ix. 69,   70, 95, 102; x. 18, 20, 21, 30;   v. exitus, Graecanica, species  Nonae, vi. 27-29; v. Caprotina,   Februarius  nonaginta, ix. 86, 87  Nonalia sacra, vi. 28  nongenta, ix. 86, 87  non hili, v. nihil  nonussis, v. 169   nostri, v. 36, 100, 166 ; vi. 2, 6 ; vii.  39, S7, 83 ; ix. 69 ; x. 71 ; nostra   658     memoria, vi. 40 ; v. antiqua,  colonia, consuetudo, deus, no-  mina, provincia, sacerdotes,  sacra, verba, vetus, vocabulum   nothum (genus similitudinis), x.  69 ; notha (verba), x. 70 ; nothae  declinationes, x. 71   novalis (ager), v. 39 ; vi. 59   nova luna, vi. 28   Nova Via, v. 43, 164; vi. 2t, 59;   v. infima  Novapolis, v. Neapolis  novem, ix. 86, 87  novenarius, v. natura, numerus  Novendiales, vi. 26  Novensides, v. 74   novicius, vi. 59 ; novicii servi, viii. 6  novitas, vi. 59   no\iis annus, mensis, sol, vi. 28 ;  sub Novis, vi. 59 ; novius novis-  simum, vi. 59 ; novissimum ves-  per, ix. 73 ; v. fabulae, nova luna,  Nova Via, senex, verbum   nox, vi. 6 ; x. 14, 41 ; v. dies, in-  tempesta, silentium   Numa, v. Pompilius   numen, vii. 85   Nuraerius (non Numeria), ix. 55  numerus, ix. 66, 67, 81, 85 ; x. 65 ;  numeri, ix. 65, 84, 87, x. 41, 43 ;  numerus novenarius, ix. 86 ; de-  narius, v. 170 ; duodenarius, v.  34 ; centenarius, v. SS ; numerus  singularis, v. 169 ; numerus ver-  borum, vi. 38, 39, viii. 3 ; numeri  antiqui, ix. 86 ; finiti, x. 83 ; v.  actus, decuriae, formula, gradus,  regula   nummi, v, 173, 174 ; ix. 80, 85 ; x.   41 ; v. addici  nuncupare, vi. 60  nuncupatae pecuniae, vi. 60  nuntium, vi. 86  nuntius, vi. 58   nuptiae, v. 72; vi. 70; vii. 28, 34;   x. 66, 67 (non imptia) ; v. ignis  nuptu ( = opertione), v. 72  nuptus, v. 72  nutus, vii. 85  mix, v. 102  Nympha, v. lympha   O exitus, x. 62  obaeratus, vii. 105     INDEX     obiurgat, vii. 93   obliqui casus, viii. 1, 2, 6, 7, 16, 46,  49, 51, 69, 7-t ; ix. 43, 54, 70, 75-  77, 79, 80, 89, 90, 103 ; x. 22, 44,  50-52, 58, 59 ; obliquae figurae, x.  53 ; obliquae declinationes, x. 44 ;  obliqui versus, x. 43   obi i via verba, v. 10   oblivio, v. 5 ; vii. 42   obscaenum obscenum, vii. 96, 97   obscuritas verborum, vi. 35, 40 ;  obscuritates grammatieorum, x.  75   obsidium, v. 90   occasus (solis), vi. 4, 5 ; vii. 7, 51   ocimum, v. 103   ocrea, v. 116   October mensis, vi. 21   octonaria, v. natura   odor olor, vi. 83   odora res, vi. 83   odorari, vi. S3   odoratus, vi. 83   offula, v. 110   olea, v. 108   olet, vi. 83   oleum (non olea), ix. 67  olitores, v. hoi i tores  olitorum, v. Holitorium  ollaner, v. olla vera  olla vera arbos, vii. 8  ollicoqua, t>. exta   ollus olla, vii. 42 ; olla centuria,  vii. 42 ; ollus leto datus est,  vii. 42   olor, v. odor   olus olera, v. holus   Olympiades, vii. 20   Olympus, vii. 20   omen, vi. 76 ; vii. 97   omnicarpa, v. 97   Opalia, vi. 22   Opeconsiva, vi. 21   opercula, v. 167   operimenta, v. 167   Opimia, v. Basilica   opinio, v. 8   oppidum, v. 8, 141 ; x. 20 ; oppidum  in circo, v. 153 ; oppida condere,   v. 143 ; v. antiqua, Graecus  Oppius Mons, v. 50   Ops, v. 57, 64 (mater), 74 ; vi 22 ;  Ops Consiva (et eius sacrarium),   vi. 21 ; v. terra     optandi species, x. 31, 32 ; in op-   tando, ix. 32  optimum, v. bonus  optiones, v. 91  opulentus, v. 92  opus, v. 64   oratio, vi. 64, 76 ; vii. 41 ; viii. 1  (tripertita), 38, 44 ; ix. 9, 11, 30,  32, 33, 35, 36, 45, 46, 48, 56, 112 ;  x. 14, 42, 49, 55, 64, 65, 6S, 77  (vocalis), 79; oratio poetica, vi.  97 ; oratio soiuta, vi. 97, vii. 2,  110, x. 70 ; v. partes, scientia   orator, vi. 42, 76 ; vii. 41 ; viii. 26 ;  ix. 5, 115   orbis, v. 143 ; orbe, F. 18   orchitis, v. 108   Orcus, v. 66 ; vii. 6   ordo, x. 67; ordo declinatuum, x.  54 ; ordines transversi et derecti  (vel directi), x. 22, 23, 43   oriens, vi. 4 ; vii. 7   origo, origines verborum, v. 3, 4, 6,  7, 92, 166; vi. 1, 37, 97; vii. 4,  47, 107, 109 ; viii. 58 ; origo duplex,  vii. 15 ; origo nominatus, ix. 69 ; v.  Graecus, locus, Lucana, poetica,  Sabinns, similitudo   Orion, vii. 50   ornamentum, vi. 76 ; ornamenta   militaria, vii. 37  ornatus (muliebris), v. 129, c/. v.   167   oro, vi. 76 ; v. causam  ortus, v. hortus   ortus (solis), vi, 6 ; vii. S3 ; (Luci-   feri), vii. 76  os exceptum, v. 23 ; ossa, v. Galli  Osce, v. 131, F. 5. 8  Osci, vii. 29, 54 ; Osca lingua, vii.   28 ; Oscus Osce, F. 5. 8  oscines, vi. 76  osculum, vi. 76   osmen (=omen), vi. 76 ; vii. 97  ostrea, v. 77   ovile, viii. 18, (non ovarium) 54 ;   ovilia, ix. 50  ovillum pecus, v. 99  ovis, v. 96 ; viii. 46, 54 ; ix. 76 (non   ovs), 113 ; ovis ovi, viii. 34 ; ovi   ove, viii. 66 ; oves ovium, viii.   70, ix. 26 ; v. peculiariae  ovum, v. 112  oxo, F. 24   C59     INDEX     pa (=patrem), vii. 27  pabulum, viii. 51  Paganalia, vi. 24  paganicae (feriae), vi. 26  pagus, vi. 26 ; v. Succusanus  pala, v. 134  Palanto, v. 53   Palatina tribus, v. 56 ; regio, v. 45 ;  Palatini, v. 53, 54 ; Palatinum, t>.  antiqua   Palatium, v. 21, 53, 68 (Bal-), 164  Palatua diva, vii. 45  Palatualis flamen, vii. 45  Pales, v. 74 ; vi. 15  Palilia, vi. 15  palla, v. 131  Pallantes, v. 53   pallium, v. 133, 167 ; viii. 28 ; ix. 48  palma, v. 62   palpetras, non palpebras, F. 23   Paluda, vii. 37   paludamenta, vii. 37   paludatus, vii. 37   palus, v. 26   panarium, v. 105   Pandana Porta, v. 42   pandura, viiL 61   panificium, v. 105   panis, v. 105 ; panis pastillus pas-   tillum, F. 10  pannus, v. 114   panther, v. 100 ; panthera, v, 100,  (non pantherus) ix. 55, F. 3 ;  pantherae, vii. 40   Pantheris, v. 100   panuvellium, v. 114   Pappus, vii. 29, 96   parapechia, v. 133   Parcae, vi. 52   Parentalia, vi. 23   parentant, vi. 23 ; parentare, vi.  13, 34   parentum parentium, viii. 66  paries, ix. 41   Paris, vii. 82 ; viii. 80 ; Paris Pari,   viii. 34  parma, v. 115  Parma (urbs), viii. 56  Parmenses (non Parmani), viii. 56  paro paretur parator, x. 32 ; paro   paravi, F.*5. 6  partes animae, ix. 30; partes ora-   tionis, viii. 11, 38, 44, 53, x. 7,   c/. vi. 36, viii. 48, ix. 31, x. 17 ;   660     v. casuale, ex quadam, scaena,   templum, urbs  participalia, x. 34  participia, viii. 5S ; ix. 110  patella, v. 120  patena, v. 120   pater, v. 65 ; x. 41, 59 ; pater  patres, viii. 48 ; pater familias,  patres familias familiarum, viii.  73; patres ( = sena tores), vi. 91;  v. Dis, Falacer   paterae, v. 122   patiendi, v. faciendi   patricus (casus), viii. 66, 67 ; ix. 54,  76, 85 ; ef. viii. 16   patrius casus, F. 17   Patulcium, vii. 26   pauper, v. 92 ; pauper (sed non  paupera) pauperrumus pauper-  rima, viii. 77 ; pauper pauperior,  F. 31 a   pavet, vi. 48   pavo, v. 75   pavor, vi. 48   pec ten, v. 129   pectere, vi. 96   pectunculi, v. 77   peculatus, v. 95   peculiariae oves, v. 95   peculium, v. 95   pecunia, v. 92, 95, 175, 177, 180,  1S1 ; vi. 65, 70 ; pecunia debita,  vii. 105 ; pecuniae signatae voca*  bula, v. 169 ; v. nuncupatae   pecuniosus, v. 92 ; viii. 15, 18   pecus (pecoris), v. 80, 95, 110 ; vii.  14 ; ix. 74 ; pecudem, v. 95 ;  peendis caro, v. 109 ; pecus ovil-  lum, v. 99 ; v. ago   pedem posuisse, v. 96   pedica, v. 96   pediseqnus, v. 96   peius, v. malum   pelagus sermonis, ix. 33   Peles, x. 69   Pelium, vii. 33   pellesuina, viii. 55   pellexit, vi. 94   pelliaria taberna non dicitur, viii. 55   pellicula, vii. 84   peloris, v. 77   pelvis, v. 119   penaria, v. 162   Penates, v. deus     INDEX     pensio prima, secunda, etc, v. 183  Percelnus Percelna, viii. SI  percubuit, ix. 49   percutio percussi percutiara, ix.  9S   perdnellis, v. 3 ; vii. 49  peregrinus, v. 3; peregrinus ager,   v. 33 ; peregrina vocabula, v. 77,   100, 103, 167  perfectum, ix. 100, 101; x. 43;   perfecti (verba), ix. 96, 101, x.   33, 4S; perfecta, ix. 97, 99, x.   4S ; perfectae res, ix. 32, 96 ; v.   analogia, similit\ido  Pergama, vi. 15; Pergamum, viii.   56   Pergamenns (non Pergamns -a),  viii. 56   pergendo (=progrediendo), v. 33  periacuit, ix. 49  peripetasinata, v. 168  peristromata, v. 16S  peraa, v. 110  perorat, vi. 76   Perpenna, viii. 41, SI (non Per-  pennus), ix, 41 ; x. 27 ; Marcus  Perpenna, viii. SI   Persarum nomina, viii. 64   persedit, ix. 49   perseverantia, v. 2   persibus, viL 107   personae, verbi, viii. 20 (qui   loqueretur, ad qnem, de quo) ; ix.   32, 95, 100-102, 108, 109; x. 31,   32 ; v. copulae, secunda  perstitit, ix. 49  pertinacia, v. 2  pervade, v. polum  pes, v. 95 ; pes lecti ac betae, vi. 55 ;   pes magnus, v. 95 ; v. pedem  pessinium, v. malus  phalera -am, x. 74  phanclas, v. zanclas  Phanion, F. 3S  Philippi caput, ix. 79  Philolacho, ix. 54  Philomedes -des, viii. 68 ; ix. 91  philosophia, v. 8  Phoenice, v. 31  Phoenicum, v. Poenicum  Phryx Phryge Phryges, ix. 44  physici, v. 69 ; x. 55  piacularis hostia, vi. 30  piaculum, vL 29, 53     pila terrae, vii. 17; pila aequa, vii.  19   pilani, v. 89   pill in corpore, vi. 45   pilum, v. 116, 138   pingo pingis, x. 31 ; pingo pinxi,   F. 5. 6  pinnae, v. 142  pinus, v. 102   pipatus pullorum, vii. 103   Pipleides, vii. 20   pipulo, vii. 103   Piscarium Forum, v. 146   pisces, viii. 61 ; ix. 28, 113 ; piscium  nomina, vii. 47 ; piscium voca-  bnla, v. 77   pisciceps non dicitur, viii. 61   piscina (non dicuntur piscinula pis-  cinilla), ix. 74   pistor pistori, x. 69   pistrinum pistrina, v. 138 ; pis-  trinum pistrilla, F. 10   pistrix, v. 138   placenta, v. 107   platanus platani, ix. 80   plaustrum, v. 140   Plautius Plauti, viii. 36   Plautus Plauti, viii. 36   plebs, v. tribuni   pluit, ix. 104   plombea, ix. 66   plumbum (non plumba), ix. 66   plura, ix. 32 ; x. 31   plusima, xii. 27   poeillum, ix. 66   poculum, vL 84 ; viii. 31 ; pocula,  v. 122   poem a non poo ma turn, F. 21 ; poe-  mata, vii. 2 ; poematorum, F. 21 ;  poematis, vii. 2, 36, viii. 14, F. 21 ;  poematibus, vii. 34   poena, v. 177   Poeni, v. 113, 182   Poenicum, v. 113; Poenicum voca-  bula, viii. 65   poeta poetae, v. 22, 88 ; vi. 52, 58,  67, 77, 83 ; vii. 36, 110 ; ix. 5, 17,  65, 78, 115 ; x. 35, 42, 70, 73, 74 ;  vocabula apud poetas, v. 1 ;  vocabula a poetis comprehensa,  v. 10 ; vocabula ,j>etarum, vii. 1 ;  poetarum verba, v. 7, 9 ; verba a  poetis posita, vii. 5 ; verba apud  poetas, vii. 107 ; cf. poetica, vetus   661     INDEX     Poetelius lucus, v. 50 ; C. Poetelius   Libo Yisolus dictator, vii. 105  poetica verba, v. 9 ; vii. 3 ; poetica   analogia, x. 74 ; de pocticis ver-   bomm originibxis, vi. 97 ; lege   poetica, vii. IS  poetice, vii. 2  polluctnm, vi. 54  Pollux, v. 58, 73 ; Pol luces, v. 73  polus, vii. 14 ; ix. 24 ; pervade   polum, vii. 14  Polybadisce, vi. 73  polypus, v. 78  pom ( = potissimum), vii. 26  poma, ix. 93, cf. v. 10S  pomerium, v. 143  Pomona, vii. 45  Pomonalis flamen, vii. 45  Pompilius (Xuma), v. 157 ; vii. 45 ;   Pompili regnnm, viL 3; Pompilio   rege, v. 165  pondera, v. mensura  pons, v. 4, S3 ; ponte, F. IS ; Pons   Sublicius, v. S3, vii. 44  pontifex, v. 180 ; vi. 61 ; pontifices,   vi. 26, 27, 54 ; pontufices, v. S3,   vi. 61  Poplifugia, vi. 18   populns, v. 1, 35 ; via. 6 ; ix. 5, 6,  18, 114 ; x. 16, 74 ; v. inlicere,  Latimis, magister, rex, Romanus   porca, v. 39   porcus, v. 97   porrecta, v. exta   porta, v. 142 ; v. lanualis, Laver-  nalis, Mucionis, Xaevia, Pandana,  Rauduscula, Romanula, Saturnia,  Tusculanus   Portnnalia, vi. 19   Portunium, v. 146   Portumis (et eius aedes), vi. 19   portus, v. Tiberinus   pos, v. 4 ; potes, v. 58 ; v. pons   posca, v. 122   positivus, F. 31 b   posteriora (vocabxila et verba), viii.  12   postici muri, v. 42   postilionem postulare, v. 14S   postmoerium, v. 143   Postumus, ix. Postuma, ix. 61   potatio, v. 122 ; vi. 84   potens, v. 4   potio, v. 122; vi. S4   662     poto, vi. 84 ; poto potu.s sum, F. 5. 7  Potoni filia, vii. 2S  praebia, vii. 107   praeco, v. 15, 160; vi. 86, 87, 89,   91, 95 ; vii. 42  praeda, v. 178 ; viii. 19  praedium, viii. 4S ; praedium -ii -io,   viii. 63 ; praedia, v. 40, vi. 74,   viii. 4S  praeftca, vii. 70  praelucidum, vii. 10S  praemium, v. 17S  Praeneste, v. 32 ; vi. 4  Praenestinns (ager), v. 32  praenomina, ix. 60  praes, vi. 74 ; praedes, v. 40  praesens, viii. 20, 5S ; ix. 102, 104  praesidium, v. 90  praestigiator, v. 94  praeteritum, viii. 20, 5S ; ix. 104  praetor, v. SO, S7 ; vi. 5, 30, 89, 91,   cf. 93 ; viii. 72 (-toris -torem) ; x.   70 (-torem) ; praetores, vi. 29, 53,  87, 91 ; praetor -tori, x. 2S ; prae-  tor in Comitio supremam pro-  nun tiat, vi. 5 ; praetor urbanus,  vi. 54 ; cf. pretor   praetorium ins, vi. 71   praeverbia, vi. 38, S2   prandeo pransus sum, F. 5. 7   prata, v. 40   pretium, v. 177   pretor (rusticus), vii. 96   Priamidae, viii. 19   Priamus Priamo, viii. 3, 34   prima pars casualis, v. casuale   primigenia verba, vi. 36, 37   primo luci, vi. 92   primo mane, v. mane   principale genus, F. 9   principes, v. 89 ; v. deus   principium, x. 56, 60, 67 ; principia,  vi. 38 ; x. 56 ; principium analo-  giae, x. 61 ; principia verborum,   vi. 37, 39, viii. 5, ix. 99; prin-  cipia (declinationum), x. 11 ;  principia mundi, x. 55 ; v. caelum ;  cf initia   priora (vocabula et verba), viii. 12  priscum vocabuhim, vii. 26 ; prisca  consuetudo, x. 70 ; Prisci Latini,   vii. 28 ; priscae declinationes, x.   71 ; prisca nomina, ix. 22 ; prisca,  vii. 2     INDEX     pro (=anteX vL 5S   probus probi, F. 5. 6; probus   probe, F. 5. S  procare, viL 80   procedere, viL SI ; processit, vi. 38   proceres, F. 30 a, F. 30 b   prodire, viL 81   prodixit diem, vi. 61   productio syllabarum (rtl littera-   rum), v. 6 ; ix. 104  profanatum, vL 54  profanum, vi. 54  profeta, F. 2S. 2  professi, vL 55  Progne, v. 76  proiecta, v. porrecta  prolabitur, vi. 47  prolocutus, vi. 56  proloquram proloquia, F. 2S. 2, 6,   7, 8   prolubium, F. 4  proludit, vi. 5S  Prometheus, v. 31  promisee, F. 25  pronomen, viiL 45 ; ix. 94  pronuntiare, vi. 42, 5S  Propontis, vii. 21   proportione vol pro portione, v.  170, 1S1 ; viiL 50, 68, 78, SO, 83 ;  ix. 27, 29, 30, 33, 4S, 61, 62, S3,  103, 110 ; x. 2, 9, 36, 37, 41, 42,  47, 51, 65, 66, 63 ; proportionem,  viii. 57 ; cf. ratio   propositio, vi. 63, 76 ; v. putari   proprio nomine, vi. 55, 7S   propter dextram sinistra, propter  sinistram dextra, x. 59   prosapia, vii. 71   proscaenium, vL 53   prosectum, v. 110   proserpere, v. 68   Proserpina, v. 6S   prosicixun, v. 110   pros us et rusus, x. 52   protinam, vii. 107   Protogenes, ix. 12   p rovers us, viL SI   providere, vL 96   provincia nostra, v. 16   provocabula, viii. 45   proximus a Flora clivus, v. 158   prudens, viii. 15, 17   psalterium, viii. 61   publici servi, v. libertini     Publicius Clivos, v.M58; Publicii   aediles, v. 15S  publicus, r. honor  Publius, v. Scipio   puer, vii 28 ; viii 41 ; x. 4 ; puer  puella, viii. 25, ix. 29 ; puen, vi.  56, ix. 10, 11, 15, 16   puera, F. 37   pugil, v. 94 ; pngiles, viiL 15  pugnetur pugnator, x. 32; v. vol-  sillis   pulli, ix. 93 ;r.- pi pat us   Pullius Clivus, v. 15S; Pullius   vioenrus, v. 158  pulmentarium, v. 10S  pulmentum, v. 108  puis, v. 105, 107, 103, 127  pulvinar, v. 167  pulvini, ix. 43   pun go pupugi ptmgam, ix. 99; x.  4S ; pungo pupugi, F. 5. 6 ; pun-  gebam pungo pungam, pupuge-  ram pupugi pupugero, ix. 99   Punicttm bellum, v. 159 ; Punicum  malum, viL 91   puppis puppes, viiL 66   purgamentum, p. februm   purgare (familiam), v. 23   purpura, v. 113   pusus pusa, viL 28   putari, propositio putandi, vL 63   putator, vi. 63   Puteoli, v. 25 ; Puteolis, ix. 69  putere, vL 96   putens, v. 25 ; vL S4 ; r. corona  puticuli, v. 25  pntidus, v. 25  putihici, v. 25  putor, v. 25  putum, vi. 63  Pyrrhi bellum, vii. 39  Pythagoras (artifex), v. 31  Pythonos tumulus, viL 17   quadra gin ta, x. 43  quadra ns, v. 44, 171, 172, 174  quadrigae, viiL 55 ; x. 24, 67 ; quad-  riga, i. 66 ; v. agitantur, initia  quadringenti, x. 43  quadrini, viiL 55   quadripertitio, v. 11 ; vii. 5 ; c/. v.   6, 12, viiL 5U, ix. 31, x. 49  quadruple! fons, x. 22 ; natura, x.   41 ; analogia, x. 47, 4S   663     INDEX     quadrupes, v. 34, 79 ; quadripedem   -des, vii. 39  quaerere, vi. 79  quaesitores, v. SI  quaestio, vi. 79   quaestor, vL 79, 90 ; viii. 72 (-toris  -torem), x. 70 (-torem); quaes-  tores, v. SI, vi. 90; v. Septu-  mius, Sergius   quando rex comitiavit fas, dies, vi.  31   quando'stercum delatum fas, dies,   vi. 32  Quarta, ix. 60   quarta chorda citharae, x. 46   quarticeps, v. 50, 52   quartus dies morbi, x. 46   quattuor, ix. 64, S2 ; x. 43, 45, 49, 66   querquedula, v. 79   Querquetulanum, v. Lares   qui, v. quis   quinarii, v. 173   Quinctius, vi. 2 ; v. Quintius   quindecimviri, vii. SS   Quinquatrus, vi. 14 ; minusculac,   vi. 17   quintanae (Nonae), vi. 27  quinticeps, v. 50, 52, 54  Quintilis, vi. 34  Qu in this Trogus, T., vi. 90, 92  Quintus, ix. 60 ; Quintus -to, x. 51 ;   v. Mucius  quintus -ti -to -turn -te, viii. 63  Quirinalia, vi. 13   Quirinalis collis, v. 51, 52 ; flamen,   vii. 45   Quirinus, v. 73, 74 ; vi. 13 ; Quirini  aedes, v. 52 ; Quirini fanum, v. 51  quiritare, vi. 68   Quirites, v. 51, 73; vi. 68, S6 ;   omnes Quirites, vi. 88  quirquir, vii. 8   quis quae, viii. 45 ; x. 18, 30 ; quis  quoius quae quaius, quis quoi  qua quae, quern quis quos ques,   viii. 50 ; qui quis quibus, viii. 72 ;  qui homines, oportuit ques, viii.  50 ; deae bonae quae, dea bona  qua, viii. 50   quod bonum fortunatum felix salu-  tareque siet, vi, 86   R exclusum, v. 133 ; R extrito, vii.  . 27 ; R et D, vi. 4 ; c/. S   664     radix, v. 103 ; radices (nominum et  verborum), v. 74, 93, 123, vi. 37,  vii. 4, 28, 35, viii. 53 ; c/. v. 13   Ramnenses, v. 55 ; Ranines, v. 55,  81, 89, 91   rana, v. 78 ; rana ranunculus, F. 10   rapa, v. 10S   rape rapito, x. 31   rams raro rarenter, sed non rare,   F. 5. 8  rastelli, rastri, v. 136  ratariae naviculae, vii. 23  ratio, vi. 39, 63 ; viii. 57, 67, 72, 79,   83 ; ix. 2, 6, S, 9, 13, 15, 16, etc. ;   x. 1-3, 15, 36, 37, 41, 43, 82, etc. ;   ratio analogiae, x. 54 ; ratio   casuum, x. 14 ; ratio derecta,   transversa, x. 43  ratis, vii. 23  ratiti quadrantis, v. 44  raudus, aes, v. 163  Rauduscula (Porta), v. 163  raudusculum, v. 163  Reatinus ab Reate, viii. 83 ; ager   Reatimis, v. 53 ; Reatinum, vi. 5  recentes (declinationes), x. 71  recessit, vi. 38  reciproca, vii. SO  reciprocare, vii. SO  recordari, vi. 46   rectus casus, v. 4; vii. 33; viii. 1,  4, 6, 7, 16, 36, 42, 46, 49, 51, 53,  63, 69, 74 ; ix. 43, 50, 54, 70, 71,  75, 76, 85, 90, 102, 103 ; x. S, 22,  44, 50-52, 58-60; v. casus, nomi-  nandi   recum, vii. 26   redux, ix. 78   regia, vi. 12, 21   Regina, v. Iuno   regio regiones (Romae), v. 45-54 ; v.   caelum, Collina, Esquilina, Pala-   tina, Suburana  regula, F. 20 ; regula numerorum,   ix. 86  reliquum, v. 175  reloqui, vi. 57  reminisci, vi. 44   Remus, v. 54 ; viii. 45 ; v. Romulus  reno (Gall.), v. 167  repotia, vi. 84   res, v. animalis, creperae, discrimen,   fatales, genus, homo, initia  respicio, vi. 82     INDEX     respondendi, x. 31, 32 ; (species), x.  31, 32   respondet, vi. 69; respondere, vi.   72 ; respondere ad spontem, vi.   72 ; r. species  restibilis ager, v. 39  restipulari, v. 1S2  restis restes, viii. 66  rete, v. 130  reticulum, v. 130  reus, vi. 90 ; reus reei, viii. 70  rex regi, vL 12, 13, 28, 31 ; x. 47 ;   ad regem conveniebat populus,   vi. 2S ; ferias rex edicit populo,   vi. 2S ; v. Attalus, Aventinus,  Demetrius, Hostilius, initia,  Latinus, Pompilius, quando, re-  cum, Romulus, Tatius, Tiberinus,  Tullius   Rhea, v. 144   Rhodius ab Rhodo, viii 81  rica, v. 130  ricinium, v. 132, 133  Ripaei monies, vii. 71  rite, vii. SS   ritu, vii. 88 ; v. Alcyonis, Etrusco,   Graecus, Romanus  Robigalia, vi. 16  Robigo, vi. 16  rogandi (species), x. 31, 32  Roma, v. 33, 41, 45, 51, 56, 74, 101,   143, 144, 157, 164 ; vi. 15-17, 32 ;   vii. 10 ; viii. 18, 56, 83 ; ix. 34 ; x.  15, 16, 20; Roma non Romula,   viii. 80, ix. 50 ; Romae -am -a, x. 15  Romanula Porta, v. 164 ; vi. 24  Romanus, viii. 18, 83; x. 16;   Romanus ager, v. 33, 55, 123;  Romanus populus, vi 86 ; Romano  ritu, v. 130, vii. 88 ; Romani, vi.  25, vii. 3, viii. 56 (non Ro-  me uses), 83 ; Romanorum liberti,  viii. 83 ; Romana stirps, v. 144   Romilia tribus, v. 56   Romulus, v. 9, 33, 46, 54, 55, 144,  149 ; viii. 18, 45, SO ; ix. 34, 50 ;  x. 15 ; Romulo -i -am, ix. 34 ;  Romulus et Remus, v. 54 ; aedes  Romuli, v. 54   Romus, v. Romulus, v. 33   rorarii, vii. 5S   rosa, v. 103   Rostra, v. 155 ; vi. 91   rosus, v. rusus     rudentum sibilus, v. 7  nidet, vii 103  rufae (mnlieres), vii. S3  ruminalis ficus, v. 54  runcina, vi. 96  runcinare, vi. 96  ruo ruis, ix. 109   rura, v. 40 ; rure, (Zoc.) F. 19, (aM.)  F. 26   rustici, v. 177 ; vL 6S ; vii. 73, 84,  96 ; rustica instmmenta, v. 134 ;  v. pre tor, Vfamlia   rusus, v. pros us   ruta, v. 103   ruta caesa, ix. 104   rutilare, vii. S3   rutili rutilae, vii. S3   nit rum, v. 134   rutunda stagna, v. 26   S: R, vii. 26; S demptum, ix. 44 ;   S detritum, v. 136 ; S extritum,   vii. 97 ; v. C, G, L  Sabine, v. 159   Sabinus (ager), v. 123; Sabina  lingua, v. 66, cf. 74 ; origo Sabina,  vii. 2S ; Sabinum bellum, v. 149 ;  Sabinum vocabulum, v. 107 ;  Sabini cives, v. 159 ; Sabini, v.  32, 41, 6S, 73, 74, 97, 107, vi 5,  13, 28, vii. 29, 46, 77; Sabinae  virgines, vi. 20 ; fana Sabina, vi.  57 ; v. Curtins, dies   sacellum, v. 152 ; v. Argei, Iupiter,  Lares, Murtea, Strenia, Vela-  brum, Volupia; aliqnot sacra et  sacella, vii. 84   sacer, vii. 10 ; v. dies, sacra, vas   sacerdos, sacerdotes, v. S3 ; vL 16,  20, 21, 23 (nostri), 24 ; vii. 44 ; v.  Liber   sacerdotulae, v. 130   sacra nostra, vi 13 ; v. Argei,  Bacchus, carnem, Xonalia, sacel-  lum, tubae, tubicines   Sacra Via, v. 47, 152 ; r. caput   sacrae aedes, vii 10   sacramentum, v. ISO   sac ram, v. Argei, Ops Consiva   sacrificia, v. 9S, 124 ; v. Argei   sacrifico sacrificor, sacrificabo, sa-  crificaturus aut sacrificatus sum,  ix. 105 ; in sacrificando deis v.  122   665     INDEX     saepius, v. seniel  sagum (Gall.), v. 167  sal, v. mola  Salacia Neptuni, v. 72  Salii, v. 85 ; vi. 49  salinae, viii. 43  sallere, v. 110   salsnm salsius salsissimum, viii. 75  saltus, v. 36   Salus, v. 74 ; aedes Salutis, v. 52  Salutaris collis, v. 52 ; salutare, v.   quod bonum  salutator, viii. 57   saluto salutabam salutabo, viii. 20  Samnites, v. 142 ; vii. 29  Samnium, v. 29   Samothraces, v. 58 ; dii, v. 58 ;   Samothracum iuitia, v. 58  Samothracia, v. 58 ; Samothrece,   vii. 34   sanctum sancta, vii. 10, 11  Sancus, v. 66  saperda, vii. 47   sapiens sapientior sapientissimus   •ma, viii. 78  sapio sapivi et sapii, F. 35  sarculum, v. 134  sardare, vii. 108  sartum, vi. 64   satio, vi. 26 ; sationes, ix. 27   Saturnalia, v. 04 ; vi. 22   Saturnia (antiquum oppidum), v.  42 ; Saturnia Porta, v. 42 ; Satur-  nia terra, v. 42, 45   Saturnii muri, v. 42 ; Saturnii ver-  sus, vii. 36   Saturnius mons, v. 42   Saturnus, v. 57, 64, 74 ; vi. 22 ;  Saturni aedes, v. 42, 183 ; Saturni  fanum, v. 42 ; v. Lua   satus, v. 37   saxum, v. Tarpeius   scabellum, v. 168   scaena scena, vii. 96 ; x. 27 ; partes  scaenae, ix. 34 ; v. corollae   scaenici, vi. 76 ; scaenioi poetae, ix.  17   scaeptrum, v. sceptrum   scaeva, vii. 97 ; scaeva avi, vii. 97 ;   bonae scaevae causa, vii. 97  Scaevola, vif. 97   scalae, ix. 63, G8, 69 (non scala), x.  54 ; scalae -is -as, x. 54 ; scala  -am, x. 73   666     scalpere, vi. 96   scamnum, v. 168   scauripeda, vii. 65   Sceleratus Vicus, v. 159   scena, v. scaena   scenici, v. scaenici   sceptrum, vii. 96   sclioenicolae, vii. 64   scientia, v. 8 ; scientiam orationis,   ix. 112  Scipio, P., vii. 31 ; ix. 71  Scipionarii gladiatores a Scipione   (potius quam Scipionini), ix. 72  scirpeis, vii. 44  scobina, vii. 68  scopae, viii. 7, 8 ; x. 24  scortari, vii. 84  scorteuin scortea, vii. 84  scortum, vii. 84  scratiae, vii. 65  scribae, vi. 87   scribo, vi. 37 ; viii. 12, 25, 44 (scribo  scribens); ix. 102 ; x. 33 ; scribone  scribisne, x. 31   scriptito, x. 33   scriptor, viii. 57 ; scriptores, ix. Ill  scrupea, vii. 6, 65  scrupipedae, vii. 65  scutum, v. 115 ; viii. 45  se ( = dimidium), v. 171  secessio, v. Crustumerina  seclum, vi. 11 ; seculum, v. 5  seculae, v. 137  Secanda, ix. 00  secunda persona, ix. 10S  sedeo, vi. 37 ; sedetur, vi. 1  sedes, v. 128   sedile, v. 128; (non sediculum),  viii. 54   seditantes (non dicitur), viii. 60  sedulitas Mnci et Bruti, v. 5  seges, v. 37 ; vi. 16 ; ix. 28  segestria, v. 166  selibra, v. 171  sellae, v. 128   semel et saepius, vi. 75 ; x. 33  semen, v. 37   sementis, vi. 26 ; sementes, v. 37   sementivae feriae, vi. 26   seminaria, v. 37   semis, v. 171, 173, 174; x. 38   semis tertius, etc., v. 173   semita, v. 35   semodius, v. 171     INDEX     semuncia, v. 171   senaculum, v. 156   senatus, F. 5. 9 ; senatus senatuis   senatui, F. 17  senecta, v. 5   senescendi homines, vi. 11   senex, viii. 25, 41 ; x. 4 ; F. 31 a,   F. 31 b ; senes nimium novum   verbnm vitabant, vi. 59  senior, x. 4, F. 31 a, F. 31 b  sentior nemo dicit, F. 5. 9  septem chordae citharae, x. 46  septem raontes, vi. 24  septem stellae triones, vii. 74 ; cf.   circulus  Septembres Kalendae, vi. 20  septemtrio, vii. 7 ; v. circulus  septimanae (Xonae), vi. 27  Septimatrus, vi. 14  Septimontium, v. 41 ; vi. 14  Septumius quaestor, v. 1 ; vii. 109  septumus dies morbi, x. 46  septunx, v. 171   sepulcrum, v. Acca, gleba, Tiber-  inus ; ad sepulcrum ferunt fron-  deni et flores, vii 24   sera, vii. 108   Sera pis, v. 57   sera re, vii. 108   Sergius, M'., M'. f. quaestor, vi. 90  series, ix. 97, 100 ; series casuum,   ix. 77 ; series perfecti, ix. 100 ;   series vocabuli, x. 82  senno, vi. 63 ; viii. 25, 37 ; ix. 1, 19,   107 ; sermones Latini, viii. 3, 30 ;   v. natura, pelagus  sero seris, x. 31 ; seriturne sere-   turne, x. 32  serpens, v. 68  serperastra, ix. 11  serpere, v. 68  serpyllum, v. 103  serta, vi. 64   servile nomen, viii. 10 ; v. deus   Servius, v. Tullius   servus, viii. 10 ; servus serve, x. 51 ;  servorum nomina, viii. 21, 83,  ix. 22, cf. x. 84 ; liberorum servi  nomina, ix. 22, 55, 59 ; v. fana,  novicius, publici, societas   sesquiseuex, vii. 23   sessio, viii. 54   sestertius, v. 173   sex, x. 49     Sexatrus, vi. 14   sextans, v. 171, 172 '   sexticeps, v. 50, 52, 54   sextula, v. 171   Sextns, ix. 60 ; v. Aelius   sextus casus, qui est proprius   Latinus, x. 62 ; cf. viii. 16  sexus, viii. 46  sibilus, v. rudentiun  Sicilia, \-fi. 86   Siculi, v. 101, 120, 173, 175, 179  sidera, vii. 14   significatio, ix. 40 ; cf. vii. 1   signum candens, \ii. 14 ; signa,  14, 50, 73 (in caelo), 74, ix. 24,  78, x 46 (morbi), 64 ; v. Ianus   silentium noctis, vi. 7   siliquastrum, v. 12S   silurus, vii. 47   simbella, v. 174 ; x. 38   simile similia, vvi. 34, etc. ; ix. 92,  etc. ; x. 1, etc. ; simile dissimile  neutruni, x. 5   simillimi, v. gemini   similitudo, viii. 25, 28, 29, 31, 37,  39, etc. ; ix. 1, 26, 46, 53, etc. ;  x. 1, 72, etc. ; similitudo perfecta,  x. 12 ; similitudo declinationis,  x. 76, 77 ; declinationum, viii. 24 ;  verbi, x. 76 ; vocis vtl sonitus,  vi. 45, 52, 67, 75, 84, etc. ; simili-  tudo confusa in verbis tempo rali-  bus, ix, 108 ; similitudo verborum,   ix. 1 ; similitudinum forma, viii.  24 ; genera, x. 9, 13, 69 ; origo, x.  11, 13 ; ratio, ix. 8, x. 11 ; species,   x. 13 ; v. adventicium, animan-  tium voces, nothum, vernaculum   similia, ix. 92, etc.   similixulae, v. 107   simplicia (verba), vi. 37 ; viii. 61 ;  ix. 97 ; simplices analogiae, x. 68 ;  res, x. 24   simpuium, v. 124   sine sponte sua, vi. 72   singularis -re -res -ria, vii 33 ; viii.  60, 66 ; ix. 50, 60, 63-65, 68, 69,  80-82, 86, 87; x. 28, 33, 36, 54,  56, 57-60, 62, 65, S3; singularis  natura, x. 83 ; res, x. 66 ; voca-  buli series, x, 82 ; singula res  figurae, x. 58 ; casus, x. 59, 60 ;  singularia solum, viii. 48, ix. 63 ;  singula re verbnm, ix. 53 ; singu-   667     INDEX     lare vocabulum, ix. 57, 69 ; v.  gracilis   singuli (homines), ix. 5, 6, 18, 114,  115; x. 74; singula, ix. 32   sinistra, v. auspicinm, propter   sinnm, v. 123 ; ix. 21   sirpando (=alligando), v. 137 ; sir-  pa tur, v. 139   sirpata dolia, v. 137   sirpea, v. 139   sirpices, v. 136   sirpiculae, v. 137   siser, viii. 48   sisto, F. 36   sisymbrium, v. 103   siti, F. 18   socer soceri, ix. 91 ; socer socerum,   x. 28 ; socer socrus soceros so-   crus, x. 82  societas verborum, v. 13 ; vi. 40 ;   societatmn servi, viii. 83  sodalis et sodalitas, x. 39 ; Sodales,   v. Titii   Sol, v. 68 ( = Apollo), 74 ; ix. 24, 25;   de sole, v. 59 ; solis motus, vi. 4,   8 ; v. novus, occasus  sola terrae, v. 22  solarium, vu 4  solea, ix. 113   soleo solitns sum solni, ix. 107  solium, v. 12S   solstitium, vi. 8 ; ix. 24, 25 ; cf. cir-   culus  solu solum, vi. 2  soluta, v. oratio   solvunt ( = luunt), v. 137; v. luo,   trutina  sonant (arma), vi. 67  sonitus, vi. 84 ; v. similitudo  sonus vocis, vi. S4  sorbeo, vi. 84   sors, v. 183 ; vi. 65 ; sortes, vi. 65,   vii. 48  sortilegi, vi. 65   species, vi. 36 ; viii. 57 ; x. 13, 18,  79 ; species animalinm, x. 4 ;  nominatus, x. 21 ; usuis, x. 73 ;  declinatnum (imperandi, optandi,  personarum, respondendi, ro-  gandi, temporalis), x. 31-33, cf.  ix. 32 ; v. declinatus   specillum, vi. 82   specio, vi. 82 ; x. 18, 21, 79 ; specere,  v. 129, vi. 82, v. avis   668     spectare, vi. 82   spectio, vi. 82   specula, vi. 82   speculator, vi. 82   speculor, vi. 82   speculum, v. 129 ; vi. 82   sperat, vi. 73 ; sperata, vi. 73   spes, vi. 73 ; cf. v. 37   spica, vi. 45 ; spicae, v. 37   spiceret, vii. 12   spondere, vi. 69-72   sponsa, vi. 69, 70   sponsalis, vi. 70   sponsio, vi. 70   sponsor, vi. 69, 74   sponsu, vi. 69, 70, 73; v. ago;   sponsu alligatus, vi. 71  sponsus, vl 70 ; vii. 107  sponte, vi. 69, 71-73 ; v. respondere,   sine sponte  spumae, v. 63  Spurinna, x, 27  stadium, v. 11  stagnum, v. 26  stamen, v. 113  status, y. 11  statuti dies, vi. 25  stercum stercus, vi. 32  sternere, vi. 96  stillicidium, v. 27  stipare, v. 182  stipatores, vii. 52  stipendium, v. 182 ; v. milites  stips, v. 182  stipulari, v. 182   stirps, v. Romanus ; stirpes non   stirpeis, F. 20  stiva, v. 135  sto, vi. 37   stola muliebris, viii. 28 ; x. 27 ; cf.   ix. 48  stragulum, v. 167  strangulare, vi. 96  Streniae sacellum, v. 47  strenuitas, viii. 15  strenuus, viii. 17; strenui, viii. 15  strettillare, vii. 65  stribula, vii. 67  strigile, F. 18  stringere, vi. 96  strittabillae, vii. 65  strittare, vii, 65   strues (non strus), struis -em -i,  viii. 74 ; ix. 79     INDEX     stultus stultior stultissimns, ix. 72   sub divo, v. divum   sublecti, vi. 66   sublicitis, v. pons   sub Xovis, v. novus   subselliuna, v. 12S   subsidium, v. 89   subsipere, v. 128   sub tecto, v. 66   subtemen, v. 113   subucula, v. 131 ; ix. 46   subulo, viL 35   Subura, v. 4S   Suburana regio, v. 45, 46 ; tribus,   v. 56  succanit, vL 75  succes.sit, vi. 33  succidia, v. 110  Succusa, v. 43  Succusanus pagus, v. 43  sucus, v. 102, 109 ; ix. 93  sudis, v. 77  sudor, v. 24  sueris, v. 110  suffibulum, vi. 21  suite, viii. 54  suilla, v. 109  sulcus, v. 39   sum fui ero, ix. 100 ; esum es est   eram eras erat ero eris erit, ix.   100; fueram fui fuero, ix. 100;   siet, vi. 86, vii. 66, ix. 77, cf.   adsiet ; v. cum muliere  Summanus, v. 74  summum (contentions), viii. 78  suo suis, x. 7 ; suit suit, x. 25  supellex, \iii. 30, 32 ; ix. 20, 21, 46,   47   supera loca, v. caelum  supercilia, v. 69  supparus, v. 131   suprema, vi. 5; supremum, vi. 5,  vii. 51   surdus, -a, ix. 58; surdum thea-   trum, ix. 58  surenae, v. 77  surge re, r. mane   surus -o -e, viii. 68 ; suras *i, x. 73  sus, v. 96 ; snis, x. 7 ; sue, viii. 54 ;   sues sed non suium, viii. 70  suspicio, vi. 82   susnm versus, ix. 65 ; susus versus,  v. 158   sutor, v. 93 ; sutor sutori, x. 69     sutorium, v. atnum  sutrina (ars), v. 93 ; (taberua), viii.  55   syllaba, viii. 72 ; ix. 51, 52, 71 ; x.   7, 19, 57, 81 (extrita); syllaba ex-   trema, ix. 44, 109, x. 32, 57; v.   adiectio, commutatio, correptio,   detrectio, productio  syncerastum, vii. 61  Syracusis, v. 151  Syri, ix. 34  Syria, v. 16 —  Syriacum nomen, v. 100   taberna, xm. 55  tabernola, v. 47, 50  tabulae, v. censorium  Tarenti, v. 31   Tarpeius mons, v. 41 ; Tarpeia  (virgo), v. 41 ; Tarpeium saxum,  v. 41   Tarquinius Superbus, v. 159  Tartarinus, vii. 37  Tartarus, vii. 37   Tatius rex, v. 46, 51, 55, 74, 149,  152 ; vi. 68 ; arae Tati regis voto  dedicatee, v. 74   Taurii ludi, v. 154   taurus, v. 96   tectum, v. deierai-e   tegete, F. 18   tegus, v. 110   Tellus, v. 62, 67   temo, vii. 73-75   tempestas, vii. 51 (suprema), 72   tempestiva, vi. 3   tempestutem, vii. 51   templura, vii. 6-10, 12, 13 ; templi   partes, vii. 7 ; r. Acherusia, Ceres,   Diana, effari, Xoctiluca, Volcania  templum tescumque, templa tea-   caque, \ii. 8  temporals (species), x. 31 ; v. ver-   bum   tempus, v. 11, 12; vi. 3; vii. 80;  viii. 12 ; ix. 73, 108 ; tempore, v.  184, vi. 1, 3, 36, 40, 51, 52, 65, 97,  vii. 5, 72, 110, viii. 11, 20, 44,  5S, ix. 31, 32, 34, 73, 89, 95, 96,  93, 101, 104, x. 7, 17, 31, 32, 34,  41, 47, 48 ; tempo rum vocabula,  v. 10, vi. 1, 35; v. futurum,  praesens, praeteritam   tener tenerior, tenerrimus, viii. 77   669     INDEX     tera, v. 21, 22 ; v. terra   Terentius Terentii (pi), ix. 38, 60 ;   Terentius Terentium, ix. 38 ;   Terentius Terentia, viii. 7, 14, ix.   55, 59 ; Terentium genus, ix. 59 ;   Terentii casus, ix. 54 ; Terentiei   Terentiae Terentieis, viii. 36  tergus, v. tegus  terimen, v. 21  tentorium, v. 21  termen, v. terimen  Terminal ia, vi. 13  Terminus, v. 74 ; termini, v. 21  terra, v. 16, 17, 21-25, 31, 34, 36, 39,   66 ; vii. 17 ; ix. 38 ; terra, x. 62 ;   Terra, v. 57-60, 64 ( = Ops), 65   ( = Iuno), 67, 69 ; terra mater, v.   64 ; terrae loca infera, v. 16 ;   terra mundi media, vii. 17 ; v.   Calydonius, pila, Saturnia,   Thraeca ; cf. tera  terrestris, v. animalia  terreus murus, v. 48  terruncius, v. 174  Tertia, ix. 60  terticeps, v. 50, 52  tesca, vii. 8, 10-12  testuacium, v. 106  testudo, v. 79, 117, 161  tetraehorda, x. 46  Teucer, vii. 3  texta fasciola, v. 130  theatra, vi. 83 ; v. surdus  Thebris (=Tiberis), v. 30  Thelis (=Thetis), vii. 87  Theona, viii. 41 ; ix. 42  thesaurus, vii. 17  Thespiades, vii. 20  Thraces, vii. 43  Thraeca terra, v. 14  thrion, v. 107  thynnus, v. 77 ; vii. 47  Tiberinus (deus), v. 29, 71 ; Tibe-  rinus rex Latinorum, v. 30 ; Tibe-   rini sepulcrum, v. 30 ; Tiberinus   portus, vi. 19  Tiberis, v. 28-30, 43, 54, 71, S3, 146 ;   vi. 17 ; vii. 44 ; v. Tliebris, eis   Tiberim, uls Tiberim  tibiae, viii. 61   tibicines, vi.\L7, 75 ; vii. 35 (Tusci) ;   viii. 61  Tibur, viii. 53 ; ix. 34  Tiburs, viii. 53 ; Tiburtes, ix. 34   670     tigris, v. 100   Tigris (flumen), v. 100   t»tmor, vi. 45   tinguere, vi. 96   Titanis, vii. 16   Titan, v. Coeus   Titienses, v. 55, 89, 91   Titii sodales, v. 85   Titium tribus, v. 81   toga, v. 114; viii. 28; ix. 48; toga   praetexta, vi. 18  toral, v. 167  torpedo (piscis), v. 77  torus torulus, v. 167  trabes trabs, vii. 33 ; x. 56, 57  tragoediae, vi. 55 ; x. 70 ; v. Tuscus  tragoedus, ix. 55 ; v. ago  tragula, v. 115, 139  traiectio litterarmn, v. 6  tralaticio nomine, vi. 55 ; cf. trans-   laticium   tralatum, vi. 77 ; vii. 23, 103 ; x. 71  trama, v. 113  trames, vii. 61   transitus de casu in casum, viii. 39 ;  x. 28,- 51-53, 77, cf. x. 29; trans-  itus declinationis, x. 77   translaticium nomen, v. 32 ; trans-  laticium verbum, vi. 64 ; trans-  laticia verba, vi. 78 ; cf. tralaticio   transversus, vii. SI ; v. ordo   trapetes, v. 138   tremo, vi. 45 ; tremuisti timnisti,  vi. 45   tres tria, ix. 64 ; x. 49, 67, 83  tressis, v. 169; ix. 81, S3, 84; hi   tresses, hoc tressis, ix. 81  triarii, v. 89  tribulum, v. 21   tribuni aerarii, v. 181 ; militum, v.   81, 91 ; plebei, v. 81, vi. 87 ;   plebis, vi. 91  tribus, v. 35, 55, 56, SI, 91 ; v. Col-   lina, curatores, Esquilina, Pala-   tina, Rom ilia, Suburana, Titium  tributum, v. 181  trice.ssis, v. 170   tricliniaris gradu.s, viii. 32; tri-   cliniares mappae, ix. 47  triclinium, ix. 9, 47; v. aestivum,   hibernutn  triens, v. 171  trigae, viii. 55  trigona, vii. 75     INDEX     trini, viii 55 ; trinae trina, ix. 64 ;   trinae, x. 67 ; tf. copulae  triones, vii 74, 75  tripertita, v. 10 ; tripartito, v. 35 ;   r. oratio  triplicia, viii. 46  triportenta, vii. 59  tritavus, vii. 3  triticum, v. 106 ; Lx. 27  trittiles, vii. 104  tritura, v. 21  triumpliare, vi 63  triumviri capitales, v. 81 ; indicium   triumvirum (non -viroram), ix. 85  Trivia, vii. 16  trivium, vii. 16  trivolum, v. tribulum  Trogus, r. Quinthis  Troia, vii. 38  Troianus equus, vii. 38  trua, v. 118  truleum, v. US  tnilla, v. 118   trutina (per trutinam sohi), v. 183  tryblia, v. 120   tubae tubi, v. 117 ; tubae sacrorum,  vL 14   tubicines, v. 91 ; vi. 75 ; ttxbicines   sacrorum, v. 117  Tubulustrium, vi. 14  tueri, tueri villam, vii. 12  Tullia Tarquini Superbi uxor, v.   159   Tullianum, v. 151   Tulkus rex, v. 49, 151 ; Servius   Tullius rex, vi. 17  Tullius et Antonius consules, viii.   10   tumulus, r. Pytbonos   tundo tundam tutudi, ix. 99 ; tun-  debam tundo tundam, tutuderam  tutudi tutudero, tutudi tundo  tundam, x. 48; tundo tutudi,  F. 5. 6   tunica, v. 114; viii. 2S; ix. 79;   tunica ferrea ex anulis, v. 116;   tunica virilis et muliebris, ix. 4S,   x. 27  turdarium, vi. 2  turdelix, vi. 2   turdus, v. 77 ; xi. 2 ; ix. 28, 55 (non   turda)  turma, v. 91   turres, v. 142 ; turre, F. 18     Tuscanicum, v. 161  Tusce, F. 5. S   Tusculanus ager, viL 18 ; Tuscn-  lani, yL 14 ; Tusculanae portae,  vt 16   Tuscns dux, v. 46; Tusci, v. 32,  161, vi 2S, 35, ix. 69; Tuscus  Tusce, F. 5. 8 ; tragoediae Tuscae,  v. 55 ; vocabula Tusca, v. 55 ;  Vicus Tuscus, v. 46   tussi, F. IS   Tutilinae loca, vr>163   tutulati, viL 44   tutulus, vii. 44   U producere, ix. 104 ; U longum,  breve, ix. 104 ; U exitus, x. 62 ;  US : El, ix. SO; r. E   udor, v. 24   udus u\idus, v. 24   Ufenas (non Ufenius), viii. 84   uliginosus (ager), v. 24   ullaber, v. olla vera   uls Tiberim, v. S3   ulula, v. 75   ululantis (luporum vox), viL 104   umbilicus, vii 17   umbones, v. 115   umbra (piscis), v. 77   Umeri, vii. 50   uncia, v. 171, 172, 174   ungo ungor, x. 33   unguentaria taberna, viii 55   unguentum ta, Lx. 66, 67   unguis ungula, F. 10 ; ungues, v. 77   uni versa, x. 84   unocuU, vu. 71   unns -ius -i -um -e -o, viii. 63 ; unus  -a -um, ix. 64, x. 24 ; uni -ae -a,  ix. 64 ; una -ae, x. 24, 67 ; unum,  ix. 87, x. 30, 41, 43, 45, 49; uni  (pZ.), viii 55 ; unaeet binae, viiL 7   upupa, v. 75   uraeon, v. 76   urbanus, \iii. IS; urbanus exer-  citus, vi. 93; urbani, \i. 68; v.  auspicium, praetor   Urbinas, viii. 84   Urbinius, viii. S4   urbs, v. 28, 41, 43, 97, 151, 15S ; vi.  17, 18, 24, 28, 68, 93 ; vii 44 ; ix.  6S ; urbes non urbeis, F. 20 ;  antiqua urbs, v. 48, vi 24 ; urbis  loca, v. 45; urbis partes, v. 56;   671     INDEX     urbes, v. 143 ; urbes condere, v.   143 ; in Urbe Lucili, v. 138  urinare, v, 126  urinator, v. 1*26  urnae, v. 126   nrnarium (genus mensae), v. 126  nro uror, x. 33  ursi, v. 100 ; vii. 40  urvum, v. 127, 135  usura, v. 183   usus (communis), viii. 28, 30, 31 ;   ix. 7, 20, 37, 38, 56-60, 62, 63, 67-  71, 74; x. 72, 73, 83, 84; usus  loqnendi, ix. 6, x. 74 ; usus vetus,   x. 78 ; v. copulae, species  uter utrei, ix. 65   utilitas, viii. 26-20, 31 ; ix. 48  uvae, v. 104  uvidus, v. 24, 109  uvor, v. 104   V, v. 117   vagit (haedi vox), vii. 104   valentes glebarii, vii. 74   vallum ( = murus), v. 117; ( = van-   nus), v. 13S  valvata, viii. 29   varietas, ix. 46 ; (casuum), x. 62   vas vadis, vi. 74, F. 15   vas vasis, F. 15 ; vas aquarium, v.  119 ; vas argenteum, ix. 66 ; vas  vinarium, v. 123 ; vasa, viii. 31,  ix. 21 ; vasa aenea, v. 125 ; vasa  in mensa escaria, v. 120 ; vasa  sacra, v. 121   vasaria mensa, v. 125   vates, vii. 36   vatia, ix. 10   vaticinari, vi. 52   Vatinius Vatiniorum, viii. 71   vectes non vecteis, F. 20   Vediovis, v. 74   vehiculum, v. 140   Veientes, v. 30   Velabrum, v. 43, 44 ; vi. 24 ; minus  et maius, v. 156 ; Velabrum sacel-  lum, v. 43   velaturam facere, v. 44   Velia, Veliae, Veliense, v. 54   Velinia, v. 71   Velini lacufi, v. 71   vellere lanam, v. 54   velli ( = villi), v. 130   vellus, v. 130 ; vellera, v. 54   672     venabulum, viii. 53  venator, v. 94 ; viii. 53  Veneria, v. corolla  Venilia, v. 72   venor venans venaturus venatus,  viii. 59   venter, v. Faliscns ; ventres non  ventreis, F. 20   ventilabrum, v. 138   Venus caeligena, v. 62 ; Libentina,  Libitina, vi. 47 ; victrix, v. 62 ;  Veneris vis, v. 61, 63 ; dies Iovis  non Veneris, vi. 16 ; e spumis  Venus, v. 63 ; Aprilis a Venere,  vi. 33 ; Veneri dedicata aedes, vi.  20; lucus Veneris Lubentinae,  F. 4 ; v. Murteae   ver, v. 61 ; vi. 9   verberatus sum verberor verbera-   bor, x. 4S  verbex, v. 98   verbum, x. 77, etc. ; verba, viii. 11,   12, 53, 57, etc., ix. 56, 89, etc.,  F. 34 ; verbum temporale, viii.   13, 20, 53, ix. 95, 108, 109 ; verba  quae tempora adsignificant, vi.  40 ; verba aliena, v. 10 ; antiqua,   v. 9 ; concepta, vii. 8 ; declinata,   vi. 37, ix. 115 ; verba facere, vi.  78 ; verba ficta, v. 9 ; inclinanda,  x. 13 ; interpolata, v. 3 ; Latina,  v. 120, vi. 96, vii. 3 ; verba  nostra, v. 10, x. 71 ; verba ob-  livia, v. 10 ; primigenia, vi. 36,  37 ; verborum novorum et ve-  ternm discordia, v. 6 ; verborum  cognatio, v. 13, vi. 1 ; collatio,  viii. 78 ; copia, viii. 2 ; formulae,  x. 33 ; materia, x. 11 ; societas,  v. 13 ; v. discrimen, duplex,  figura, forma, genus, Graecus,  impositio, infecta, multitudo,  natura, mirneras, obscuritas,  origines, perfectum, personae,  poeta, poetica, principium, radix,  similitudo, simplicia, transla-  ticium, vernacula   Vergiliae, vi. 6 ; vii. 50   vernacula verba vel vocabula, v. 3,   77, 104 ; vi. 40 ; similitudinis   genus vernaculum, x. 69  versu, x. 62 ; versus obliqui, x. 43 ;   v. Saturnii, vieri  veru, v. 127 ; cf. v. 9S     INDEX     vesper, vi. 6 ; vii. 50 ; vesperi, ix.   73 ; vespere, ix. 73 ; v. novus  Vesperugo, vi 6, 7 ; vii. 50  Vesta, v. 74 ; vi 17 ; Vestae aedes,   vi. 32   Vestales virgines, vi. 17, 21 ; virgo   Vestalis Tarpeia, v. 41  Vestalia, vi. 17  vestibulum, vii 81  vestigator, v. 94   vestimentum -ta, ix. 20, 4S ; x. 72  vestis, v. 130 ; veste, F. 18  vestispica, vii. 12   vestitus, v. 105; viii. 28, 30; cf.  viii. 31, ix. 45   Veturi, v. Mamuri   Veturii Cicurini, vii. 91   vetus vetiLstius veterrimum, vi. 59 ;  vetus consuetudo, v. 2, ix. 13,  20, 21, x. 73 ; Forum Vetus, vii.  29 ; veteres leges abrogatae, ix.  20 ; veteres, v. 14, 52 (poetae), 98  (nostri), vii. 32 ; Vetera, x. 73 ;  vetera vocabula, ix. 20 ; v. Aescu-  lapii, Capitoliom, Curia, verbum   vetustas, v. 3, 5 ; vi. 2   vexillum, vi. 93   via, v. 8, 22, 35 ; vii. 15 ; v. nova,   sacra  viales, v. Lares  Vibenna, v. Caeles  vibices, vii. 63  vicessis, v. 170   Victoria, v. 62 ; caeligena, v. 62  victoriatus, ix. 85 ; x. 41  victrix Venus, v. 62  victus, v. 105   vicus, v. 8, 160 ; vici, v, 145 ; r.   Africus, Cyprius, Insteianus,   Sceleratus, Tuscus  video, vi. SO ; tu domi videbis, vii   12 ; vide, vii. 12  vieri ( = vinciri), v. 62; versibus   viendis, vii. 36  vigilant, vi. 80  vigilimn, vi. SO  viginti, x. 41, 43, 45  viilae, v, 35  villi, r. velli  Viminalis Collis, v. 51  Viminius lupiter, v. 51  Vinalia, v. 13 ; vi. 16 ; rustica,   vi. 20   vinaria mensa, v. 121 ; taberna,  VOL. II     viii 55 ; vasa, v. 123 ; vinarium   truleum, v. 118  vinciri, v. 62  vinclum, v. 62  vinctio, v. 61  vinctnra, v. 62  vindemia, v. 37 ; vi. 16  vindemiator, v. 94  vineae, v. 37, 117  vineta, v. 37   vinum, v. 13, 37- ; vi. 16 ; vinum  vina, ix. 66, 67 ; v. Chio, flamen,  Lesbo   viocurus, v, 7, 158   violavit virginem, vi. SO   violentia, v. 70   vir, viii. SO; ix. 85; x. 4; vireis,  viii. 36 ; v. centnmvirum, decem-  virum, quindecimviri, triumviri   virago, vii. 37   virgo virgines, r. Sabinus, Tarpeius,   Vestales, violavit  virgultum, v. 102  \iride, v. 102   virile virilia, \iii. 46, 51 ; ix. 41, 48,  SI, 110; x. 8, 21, 30; nomina  virilia, viii. 36, x. 65; nomen  virile, viii SI, ix. 40, x. 65 ;  v. tunica ; cf. genus   virtus, v. 73   vis, v. 37, 61, 63, 70, 102; vi. 80;  viii. 7 ; haec vis, hums vis, hae  vis, F. 16 ; v. Venus, vita   visenda, vi. 82   visere, v. inlicium   Visolus, v. Poetelins   visus, vi. SO   vita a vi, v. 63 ; vita et mors, v   11 ; v. decernunt  vitio mannmissus, creatus magis-   tratus, vi. 30  vitis, v. 37, 102  Vitula, vii. 107  vitularttes, vii. 107  vitulus, v. 96 ; vituli, ix. 28 ; vituli   vox, vii. 104  vi rices, r. vibices   vivo non vivor, x. 78 ; vivatur vive-  retur, x. 32   vix, viii. 9 ; x. 14, 79, SO   vocabulum vocabula, vi. 56; viii.  11, 12, 40, 45, 52, 53, 56-59, 61, 64,  71, 75, 78, 79, SO ; ix. 1, 9, 21, 34,  41, 50-52, 54, 55, 57, 58, 62, 63,   673     INDEX     66-68, 71, 74, 77, 78, 85, 88, 00 ; x.  6, 20, 23, 24, 35, 47, 51, 54, 81-83 ;  vocabulum Latinum, v. 29, 68 ;  priscum, vii. 26 ; vocabula a For-  tuna, v. 91 ; Aegyptiorum, viii.  65 ; aquatilium animalium, v. 77 ;  artificum, v. 93 ; barbara, viii.  64 ; dierum, vi. 12 (civilia), 33 ;  vocabula ex Graeco sumpta,  F. 14 a, F. 14 b; vocabula fera-  rum, v. 100; Gallica, v. 167;  Gallorum, viii. 65 ; vocabula im-  ponenda, vi. 3 ; lectulorum, v.  166 ; litterarum Latinarum, ix.  51 ; locorura, v. 10 ; magnitu-  dinis, viii. 79 ; mensium, vi. 33 ;  miliaria, ix. 85 ; multitudinis, ix.  64-66, 68, 09 ; vocabula nostra,  viii. 65 ; pecuniae, v. 169 ; pis-  cium, v. 77 ; Poenicum, viii. 65 ;  temporum, v. 10, vi. 1, 35 ; voca-  bula Tnsca, v. 55 ; vetera, ix. 22 ;  v. casus, figura, Graecus, homo,  impositio, peregrinus, poeta,  Sabinus, series, singularis, ver-  nacula  vocalis, v. oratio   vocandi casus, viii. 42, 6S ; ix. 43,   91 ; x. 31 ; cf. viii. 16  vocare, v. comitiatum, inlieium  Volaminia, v. Volumnia  Volcanalia, vi. 20  Yolcanalis flamen, v. 84     Volcania templa, vii. 11  Volcanus, v. 70, 74 ; vi. 20  volgus, v. 58   volo (vis et volas), vi. 47 ; ix. 103 ;   x. 81  volpes, v. 101   volsillis pugnare, non gladio, ix. 33  Volturnalia, vi. 21  Volturnalis flamen, vii. 45  Volturnum (oppidum), v. 29  Volturnus (amnis), v. 29 ; vi. 21 ;  vii. 45   volucres, v. 75; ix. 28; volucrum   vox, vii. 104  Volumnia, v. Lucia  voluntarius -a -um, v. declinatio,   declinatus, genus  voluntas hominum, ix. 34 ; x. 15,   51 ; cf. voluntarius  Volupiae sacellum, v. 104  voluptas, viii. 31  vomer, v. 135  Vortumnus, v. 46, 74  vox voces, viii. 40, etc. ; ix. 38, 40,   42, 52, 55, 70, 88 ; X. 7, 19, 29, 30,   36, 63, 66, 6S, 69, 72, 77, 82 ; v.   animantium, declinatus, tigura,   lupus, similitudo, sonus   X, cf. CS, GS  Xerxes, vii. 21   zanclas, v. 137     674     INDEX OF GREEK WORDS     References are to Book (Roman numeral) and Section (Arabic number),  and to Fragment (F.) and serial number (Arabic), with subdivisions.     ayaBov, V.  dypof, v. 34  ayiov., vi. 12  act ov y vi. 11  ai8(a9ai, vi. 9  acura, vi. 11  aA«f uccucoe, vii. 82   aAjcvwv, v. 79 ; vii. SS   atia£av t vii. 74   a/x^Wef, V. 115   AfLckyeiv, VI. 90   ajju^t/ita, v. 78   avayapyapi^ecrdcu., vi. 96   ayaAoyta, X. 37, 39 ; apuAoytar,   x. 39 ; ayaAtryta?, viii. 23  ava Xoyov, viiL 32, 55 ; x. 2, 37  aFoAoyoi' x. 37, 3$, 39  av&pi fiax^rai, vii. 82  a*TopjeT»Kd»', ix. 24  avnKCifteva, F. 28. 13   &VTl)lOVj V. fLOtTOV   avrixOwv Ilvflayopa, vii, 17  av*ifLaAta.v t vii. 23 ; r. wept ay-  aStvuay F. 2S. 2, 4, 7, 8, 9, 12   ippafiiav, V. 175  amrapayof, v. 104   0ap£ap€py r * di'8pt  /ULeAuoj, V. 10G  /Accra, V. 118  /xipes, vi. 10  /xiJjtj, vi. 10   /XOlTOf aVTtjlOV, V, 179   fioptav, V. opxtv  fiv, vii. 101  fivpatva, v. 77   reap-, t7. errji'  pe'/xi), v. 3G   vajxifxa /SapjSapiKa, vii. 70  ia/M,\bv evTepov, V. Ill   5?, v. 9G   Xapn)?, F. 14 a, F. 14 b  ^dpT-ov, v. SS   e'peTe, vi. 90  ipeperpov, v. 1GG  (/>pe'ap, v. 25, 81  tpws ayafldi/, vi. 4     Printed in Great Britain by R. & R. 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Harmon. 8 Vols. Vols. I.-V. (Vols.   I. and II. 3rd Imp.)  LYCOPHRON. Of CALLIMACHUS.  LYRA GRAECA. J. M. Edmonds. 3 Vols. (Vol. I.   3rd Imp., Vol. II. 2nd Ed. revised and enlarged.)  LYSIAS. W. R. M. Lamb.   MARCUS AURELIUS. C.R.Haines. (3rd Imp. revised.)  MENANDER. F. G. Allinson. (2nd Imp. revised.)  MINOR ATTIC ORATORS (ANTIPHON, ANDOCIDES,   DEMADES, DEINARCHUS, HYPEREIDES). K. J.   Maidment. 2 Vols. Vol. I.  OPPIAN, COLLUTHUS, TRYPHIODORUS. A. W. Mair.  PAPYRI (SELECTIONS). A. S. Hunt and C. C. Edgar.   4 Vols. Vols. I. and II.  PARTHENIUS. Of. DAPHNIS and CHLOE.  PAUSANIAS : DESCRIPTION OF GREECE. W. H. S.   Jones. 5 Vols, and Companion Vol. (Vol. I. 2nd Imp.)  PHILO. * 10 Vols. Vols. I.-.V. F. H. Colson and Rev. G.   H. Whitaker; Vols. VI. and VII. F. H. Colson.  PHILOSTRATUS : THE LIFE OF APOLLONIUS OF   TYANA. F. C. Conybeare. 2 Vols. (Vol. I. 3rd Imp.,   Vol. II. 2nd Imp.)   6     THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY   PHILOSTRATUS : IMAGINES ; CALLISTRATUS :   DESCRIPTIONS. A. Fairbanks.  PHILOSTRATUS and EUNAPIUS: LIVES OF THE   SOPHISTS. Wilmer Cave Wright.  PINDAR. Sir J. E. Sandys. (6th Imp. revised.)  PLATO : CHARMIDES, ALCIBIADES, HIPPARCHUS,   THE LOVERS, THEAGES, MINOS axd EPINOMIS.   W. R. M. Lamb.  PLATO: CRATYLUS, PARMENIDES, GREATER   HIPPIAS, LESSER HIPPIAS. H. N. Fowler.  PLATO: EUTHYPHRO, APOLOGY, CRITO, PHAE   DO, PHAEDRUS. H. N. Fowler. (7th Imp.)  PLATO : LACHES, PROTAGORAS MENO, EUTHY-   DEMUS. W. R. M. Lamb. (2nd Imp. revised.)  PLATO : LAWS. Rev. R. G. Bury. 2 Vols.  PLATO : LYSIS, SYMPOSIUM, GORGIAS. W. R. M.   Lamb. (2nd Imp. revised.)  PLATO: REPUBLIC. PaulShorey. 2 Vols. (Vol.1.   2nd Imp. revised.)  PLATO: STATESMAN, PHILEBUS. H. N Fowler;   ION. W. R. M. Lamb.  PLATO : THEAETETUS and SOPHIST. H. N. Fowler.   (2nd Imp.)   PLATO : TIMAEUS, CRITIAS, CLITOPHO, MENEXE-   NUS, EPISTULAE. Rev. R. G. Bury.  PLUTARCH: MORALIA. 14, Vols. Vols. I.- V. F. C.   Babbitt; Vol. X. H. N. Fowler.  PLUTARCH: THE PARALLEL LIVES. B. Perrin.   11 Vols. (Vols. I., II., III. and VII. 2nd Imp.)  POLYBIUS. W. R. Paton. 6 Vols.  PROCOPIUS: HISTORY OF THE WARS. H. B.   Dewing. 7 Vols. Vols. I.-VI. (Vol. I. 2nd Imp.)  QUINTUS SMYRNAEUS. A. S. Way. Verse trans.  SEXTUS EMPIRICUS. Rev. R. G. Bury. 3 Vols.  SOPHOCLES. F. Storr. 2 Vols. (Vol. I. 6th Imp., Vol   II. 4th Imp.) Verse trans.  STRABO: GEOGRAPHY. Horace L. Jones. 8 Vols.   (Vols. I and VIII. 2nd Imp.)  THEOPHRASTUS : CHARACTERS. J. M. Edmonds ;   HERODES, etc A. D. Knox.  THEOPHRASTUS: ENQUIRY INTO PLANTS. Sir   Arthur Hort, Bart 2 Vols.  THUCYDIDES. C. F. Smith. 4 Vols. (Vol. I. 3rd Imp.,   Vols. II., III. and IV. 2nd Imp. revised.)  TRYPHIODORUS. Cf. OPPIAN.   7     THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY   XENOPHON : CYROPAEDIA. Walter Miller. 2 Vols.  (2nd Imp.)   XENOPHON : HELLENICA, ANABASIS, APOLOGY,  and SYMPOSIUM. C. L. Brownson and O. J. Todd.  3 Vols. (2nd Imp.)   XENOPHON : MEMORABILIA and OECONOMICUS.  E. C. Marchant. (2nd Imp.)   XENOPHON : SCRIPTA MINORA. E. C. Marchanb.     VOLUMES IN PREPARATION     GREEK AUTHORS     ARISTOTLE: DE CAELO. W. K. C. Guthrie.  ARISTOTLE: HISTORY AND GENERATION OF   ANIMALS. A. L. Peck.  ARISTOTLE: METEOROLOGICA. H. P. Lee.  MANETHO. W. G. Waddell.  NONNUS. W. H. D. Rouse.   PAPYRI: LITERARY PAPYRI. Selected and trans-  lated by C. H. Roberts.  PTOLEMY: TETRAB1BLUS. F. E. Robbins.   LATIN AUTHORS     S. AUGUSTINE : CITY OF GOD. J. H. Baxter.  CICERO : AD HERENNIUM. H. Caplan.  CICERO : DE ORATORE. Charles Stuttaford and W. E.  Sutton.   CICERO : BRUTUS, ORATOR. G. L. Hendrickson and   H. M. Hubbell.  CICERO: PRO SESTIO, IN VATINIUM, PRO   CAELIO, DE PROVINCIIS CONSULARIBUS, PRO   BALBO. J. H. Freese.  COLUMELLA : DE RE RUSTICA. II. B. Ash.  PRUDENTIUS. J. H. Baxter.   QUINTUS CURTIUS: HISTORY OF ALEXANDER.  J. C. Rolfe.   DESCRIPTIVE PROSPECTUS ON APPLICATION     Cambridge, Mass. . HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS  London . . WILLIAM HE1NEMANN LTD  8 Marco Terenzio Varrone. Varrone. Keywords: centro di studi varroniani, idioma, idiom, lingua latina, lingua anglica, Lazio, Lazini, la lingua del Lazio, Varrone, Prisciano, Donato, Girolamo, Giulio Cesare – Refs.: The H. P. Grice Papers, Bancroft, MS – Luigi Speranza, “Grice e Varrone: semiotica filosofica” – The Swimming-Pool Library, Villa Speranza, Liguria. Varrone.

 

Grice e Varzi: la ragione conversazionale e l’implicatura conversazionale delle parole, degl’oggetti, e degl’eventi – la scuola di Galliate – filosofia piemontese -- filosofia italiana – Luigi Speranza, pel Gruppo di Gioco di H. P. Grice, The Swimming-Pool Library (Galliate). Filosofo piemontese. Filosofo italiano. Galliate, Novara, Piemonte. Essential Italian philosopher. Some Italians do not consider Varzi an “Italian” philosopher in that his maximal degree was earned elsewhere! If philosophy is a branch of the belles lettres, part of Varzi’s essays belong in English literature. He has written on ‘universal semantics.’ All'Trento. Grice: “Varzi rather freely uses ‘universal’ as in ‘universal semantics’ – while my own pragmatic rules have been challenged universal status, by, of all people, Elinor Ochs!” Grice: “Some Italians consider Varzi a specimen of ‘brain drain’ in more than one way: his maximal degree was obtained without Italy, not within Italy, and not in Italian – plus the fact that he is at Colombo’s Columbia!” Esponente della filosofia analitica, è noto principalmente per le sue ricerche di logica e per il suo contributo alla rinascita degli studi in ambito di metafisica e ontologia. Laureatosi a Trento con una tesi, “La logica libera” stato insignito della Targa Piazzi per la ricerca scientifica e del Premio Bozzi per l'Ontologia. Dopo un periodo dedicato soprattutto allo studio dell'immagine del mondo propria del senso comune, si è indirizzato progressivamente verso posizioni di stampo nominalista e convenzionalista, nella convinzione che buona parte della struttura che siamo soliti attribuire alla realtà esterna risieda a ben vedere nella nostra testa, nelle nostre pratiche organizzatrici, nel complesso sistema di concetti e categorie che sottendono alla nostra rappresentazione dell'esperienza e al nostro bisogno di rappresentarla in quel modo. Noto anche per la sua attività divulgativa, spesso in collaborazione con Casati, ispirata al principio secondo cui la filosofia è una sfida in cui il pensiero parte dalla semplicità delle cose quotidiane e ne mostra la meravigliosa complessità. Saggi: “Semplicemente diaboliche” (Laterza); “L’amicizia” (Orthotes); “I colori del bene, Orthotes,. L'incertezza elettorale (Aracne). Le tribolazioni del filosofare. Comedia Metaphysica ne la quale si tratta de li errori & de le pene de l’Infero (Laterza); Il mondo messo a fuoco, Laterza, Il pianeta dove scomparivano le cose. Esercizi di immaginazione filosofica, Einaudi, Ontologia, Laterza, Semplicità insormontabili storie filosofiche, Laterza, Parole, oggetti, eventi e altri argomenti di metafisica, Carocci. “Logica” McGraw-Hill Italia,  Buchi e altre superficialità, Garzanti. Studi: Casetta e Giardino, Mettere a fuoco il mondo. Conversazioni sulla filosofia di V., Isonomia Epistemologica,  Calemi, V.. Logica, semantica, metafisica (Albo Versorio, Milano); Il mondo messo a fuoco, Laterza. Dal risvolto di copertina di Semplicità insormontabili, Laterza. Da questo libro è stato tratto lo spettacolo teatrale Insurmountable Simplicities, per la regia di Glick, presentato dall'All Gone Theatre Company all'edizione  del New York International Fringe Festival. Biografia "negativa" di V., su columbia. Intervista ad V. di Caffo, Rivista italiana di filosofia analitica. Achille Varzi. Varzi. Keywords: ‘universal’. Refs.:  Luigi Speranza, "Grice e Varzi: semantica filosofica," per il Club Anglo-Italiano, The Swimming-Pool Library, Villa Grice, Liguria, Italia.

 

Grice e Vasa: all’isola -- la ragione conversazionale e l’implicatura conversazionale della RAGIONE E LA LIBERTÀ – filosofia sarda -- filosofia italiana – Luigi Speranza, pel Gruppo di Gioco di H. P. Grice, The Swimming-Pool Library (Aggius). Flosofo sardo. Aggius, Sassari, Sardegna. Essential Italian philosopher. Filosofo