GRICE E FLAVIANO

 The Motto and the Enigma:   Rhetoric and Knowledge in the Sixth Day of the Decameron  Facilis igitur est distinctio ingenui et inliberalis  ioci. Alter est, si tempore fit, ut si remisso  animo, <gravissimo> homine dignus, alter ne  libero quidem, si rerum turpitudo adhibetur aut  verborum obscenitas. (Cicero, De officiis  29.104)  T  he relationship between rhetoric and knowledge (a true knowledge)  is one of the oldest and most interesting problems. The modern ste reotype of rhetoric as “deceiving” speech or “empty” speech reflects  an essential division of rhetoric from knowledge that has had influential  adherents within the rhetorical tradition, most notably Plato.1 The nega tive side of rhetoric appears in a clearer light if we observe how closely it is  linked to philosophy and dialectics, ever since its origins. A philosophical  anecdote attributed to Aristotle’s lost dialogue On poets exemplifies the  negative and destructive side of dialectics.2 The anecdote was also known  1Plato, in his Gorgias, criticized the sophists because he believed that rhetoric was simply  too dangerous, being based on skill and common opinion (doxa). In the Phaedrus, Plato  set out instead to discover episteme, or ‘truth,’ through dialectical method. Since Plato’s  argument has shaped western philosophy, rhetoric has mainly been regarded as an evil  that has no epistemic status (Kennedy 58ff.). Aristotle, however, considers rhetoric as  the counterpart, the countermelody (antístrophos), of dialectic insofar as they both  have as their objects the same topoi, or commonplaces, to find arguments, and defines  rhetoric as the faculty of discovering all the available means of persuasion (Rhetoric  1.1.1354a) (cf. Kennedy 78). In ancient Rome, rhetoric follows the teaching of Isocrates  and is a part of political science; cf. Cicero, De inventione 1; Murphy 8. The Middle Ages  ultimately inherit the study and practice of the discipline while elaborating further de velopments. See: Murphy, part two: “Medieval Rhetorical Genres”; C. Vasoli; Prill.  2Aristotle, Liber de poetis, frag. 8 (= Ps.-Plutarch, Vita Homeri 3–4). The anecdote is  translated into English by Ross (The Works of Aristotle, vol. 12, p. 76–77) and into  Italian by Colli (Sapienza 346–49). For an idea of ancient dialectics and its destructive  potentialities see Colli, La nascita 61.  http://www.heliotropia.org/10/andrei.pdf  17  Heliotropia 10.1-2 (2013)   http://www.heliotropia.org  by Giovanni Boccaccio, who reports it in his commentary on Dante’s  Commedia.3 This is the famous enigma about the legendary death of  Homer that was transmitted throughout the Middle Ages without any sig nificant alteration. A Delphic pronouncement once warned the poet that  he would die on the island of Ios and urged him to beware of a riddle  posed by some young fishermen. As predicted, at an advanced age, Homer  finds himself on Ios by the sea, where he asks some fishermen what they  have caught. They pose him a riddle: “We have what we did not find; what  we did find we left behind.” The fishermen have been fishing without suc cess, and meanwhile spend some time searching themselves for lice before  meeting Homer. They leave behind the lice they found, but the undiscov ered vermin are still in their clothes. Unable to solve the riddle posed by  the fishermen, Homer slips in the mud and dies soon afterwards, vexed  that his famous mental powers have failed him.4 The anecdote passed into  3Boccaccio narrates the anecdote, indicating Callimachus as his source: “Della morte sua,  secondo che scrive Calimaco, fu uno strano accidente cagione: per ciò che, essendo egli  in Arcadia ed andando solo su per lo lito del mare, sentì pescatori, li quali sovra uno  scoglio si stavano, forse tendendo o raconciando loro reti; li quali esso domandò se  preso avessero, intendendo seco medesimo de’ pesci. Costoro risposero che quegli, che  presi aveano, avean perduti, e quegli, che presi non aveano, se ne portavano. Era stata  fortuna in mare e però, non avendo i pescatori potuto pescare, come loro usanza è,  s’erano stati al sole e i vestimenti loro aveano cerchi e purgati di que’ vermini che in essi  nascono: e quegli, che nel cercar trovati e presi aveano, gli aveano uccisi e quegli, che  presi non aveano, essendosi ne’ vestimenti rimasi, ne portavan seco. Omero, udita la ri sposta de’ pescatori ed essendogli oscura, mentre al doverla intendere andava sospeso,  per caso percosse in una pietra, per la qual cosa cadde e fieramente nel cader percosse e  di quella percossa il terzo dì appresso si morì. Alcuni voglion dire che, non potendo in tender la risposta fattagli da’ pescatori, entrò in tanta maninconia che una febbre il  prese, della quale in pochi dì si morì e poveramente in Arcadia fu sepellito; onde poi,  portando gli Ateniesi le sue ossa in Atene, in quella onorevolmente il sepellirono”  (4.litt.105–07). In a marginal note on f. 227r of the so-called Zibaldone Magliabechiano  (Biblioteca Nazionale di Firenze, BR 50), Boccaccio corrects the false attribution of the  anecdote to Diogenes made by a Venetian Chronographer (cf. Macrì-Leone, esp. 36). In  the manuscript containing Terence’s comedies (Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, 38.17,  f. 84v), Boccaccio briefly narrates two anecdotes on Homer, one about his birth and the  other about his death caused by the fishermen’s riddle. Cf. Hauvette; Hecker fig. XI;  Hortis 340; Di Benedetto 21.   4See also Valerius Maximus 9.12 ext. 3 (“Non uulgaris etiam Homeri mortis causa fertur,  qui in Io insula, quia quaestionem a piscatoribus positam soluere non potuisset, dolore  absumptus creditor”) and Ps.-Plutarch, Vita Homeri 14 (1062). The riddle, according to  a gloss on Johannes of Hauvilla’s Architrenius (6.488–95) runs as follows: “Quotquot  non cepimus, habemus et quos cepimus, non habemus.” John of Salisbury talks about  this story of Homer’s death in his Policraticus, 1.141 and 2.111, and gives as its source  http://www.heliotropia.org/10/andrei.pdf  18  Heliotropia 10.1-2 (2013)   http://www.heliotropia.org  medieval tradition, but according to the account of an otherwise unidenti fied Virius Nicomachus Flavianus (De vestigiis et dogmatibus philosopho rum), reported in John of Salisbury’s Policraticus, the name of Homer was  replaced by that of Plato, possibly with the intention of giving the anecdote  a stronger philosophical emphasis.5 John of Salisbury, who is considered  one of the authors of the so-called literary and philosophical renaissance  of the twelfth century, insisted on the necessity of unifying dialectics with  rhetoric within the well-established set of artes liberales and emphasized  the importance of linking them to philosophy as a means for the search for  knowledge.6   Because of its well-structured framework and the rhetorically elabo rated language of the tales and the cornice, Boccaccio’s Decameron has  been studied as a typical expression of the artes rhetoricae of the four teenth century and, more recently, as a literary work worthy of interpreta tion according to the modern methods of rhetorical analysis.7 Yet a  reading of the Decameron and, particularly, of the Sixth Day that  emphasizes the epistemological implications of the tales has never been  attempted. This could both give us the possibility of speculating on the  meaning and literary treatment of rhetoric in a specific medieval fictional  context and allow us to understand the manifold applications of rhetoric in  a constructive perspective — as opposed to the negative side of rhetoric.  The Sixth Day of the Decameron is commonly remembered as the day of  the motto, that is, the witty and rhetorically elaborated answer with which  the characters of the stories escape from potentially dangerous or  embarrassing situations. In reading the various motti of the Sixth Day, we  become fully aware of the active role of the subject who pronounces the  motto. Notice the character of playful judgment of the motto, the  combination of dissimilar elements, the contrast of representation and the  sense of absurd involved. These same characteristics are precisely some of  the features of the Witz studied by Freud from both the rhetorical and  psychoanalytical points of view, and are used as a critical framework to  Flavianus’ De vestigiis philosophorum. According to Webb, John’s original source was  Pseudo-Herodotus’ Vita Homeri, in Homeri Opera, ed. Thomas W. Allen (Oxford: Clar endon, 1912), 5.184. For Homer’s troubles, see the letter of pseudo-Cornelius Nepos to  Sallust appended to Dares Phrygius (in Stohlmann).  5Policraticus 1.141, 1 ff.   6Curtius 62–63.   7See: Branca 29–70; Chiappelli; Sanguineti; Surdich; De Michelis; Badini Confalonieri;  Barilli; Coulter; Forni, “Retorica”; Forni, Adventures; Klesczewski; Muscetta, “Giovanni  Boccaccio”; Schiaffini, esp. pp. 187–97 and 193–203; Stäuble; Stewart.  http://www.heliotropia.org/10/andrei.pdf  19  Heliotropia 10.1-2 (2013)   http://www.heliotropia.org  study analogous jokes in the Novellino.8 Yet, rather than using  psychoanalytical categories, which are certainly applicable to the motto of  the Sixth Day as well as to its oppositional rhetorical elements, I would like  to establish a parallel with a rhetorical feature of ancient Greek  philosophy, the enigma, in order both to describe the formal and narrative  characteristics of the motto and to elicit the philosophical and  epistemological aspects of the Sixth Day.  Looking at the motto’s tales of the Decameron and at the philosophical  enigma tradition, certain symmetries begin to present themselves to our  attention. At the beginning of this essay, I mentioned the famous riddle  that provoked Homer’s death: “We have what we did not find; what we did  find we left behind.” After a day of fishing without success and spending  some time searching themselves for lice, the fishermen leave behind the  lice they had found. Is this just a riddle, an enigma which is meant to put  the reader to a test? Is nothing else involved? According to Eleanor Cook,  the enigma can be considered a form of speech, or a trope.9 The enigma  also takes the literary form of a short tale. According to Giorgio Colli,  moreover, the knowledge that comes from the Delphic oracles or the  prophecies of Dionysus in the form of enigmas is made by the combination  of opposites; namely, the combination of things that conflict with each  other and are not understandable; he clearly shows the connection of the  enigma with Mysteries in pre-Socratic philosophy. The combination of  contradictory elements is indeed the essence of the paradox, which is also  at the origin of the enigma and ancient knowledge.10 Thus, the enigma of  the Ancient World produces knowledge that must be deciphered. Going  back to the Decameron, it is precisely by virtue of a paradox that Madonna  Filippa, although guilty, testifies in her trial and is declared not guilty  (6.7)11; it is a paradox that makes the coals of Friar Cipolla become a  8Evidently, the contrast of representation, the opposition of dissimilar elements, is in  perfect accordance with the rhetoric de oppositis and the comic elements of the  Decameron (cf. Paolella; Freud). In his introduction to the Italian translation of Freud’s  Der Witz (Il motto di spirito, 19–20), Francesco Orlando emphasizes the rhetorical as pects of Freud’s interpretation of jokes and points out the implications of his thought  for a new general rhetoric of the discourse influenced by the unconscious.  9Cook, “The Figure of Enigma”; Cook, Enigmas 27–63.   10 Colli, Nascita 56–58.  11 “La donna, senza sbigottire punto, con voce assai piacevole rispose: ‘Messere, egli è vero  che Rinaldo è mio marito e che egli questa notte passata mi trovò nelle braccia di Lazza rino, nelle quali io sono, per buono e per perfetto amore che io gli porto, molte volte  stata, né questo negherei mai;’ […] ‘Adunque’ seguì prestamente la donna ‘domando io  voi, messer podestà, se egli ha sempre di me preso quello che gli è bisognato e piaciuto,  http://www.heliotropia.org/10/andrei.pdf  20  Heliotropia 10.1-2 (2013)   http://www.heliotropia.org  source of inspiration for the final motto (6.10); it is by virtue of a paradox  that Currado’s clapping should make the crane’s leg appear in the tale of  Chichibio (6.4).12   But paradox is just an aspect of the same rhetorical feature involved in  the motto. Alan Freedman has found an opposition/polarity played out in  the theme of eloquence between 6.1 and 6.10, and has brilliantly found the  source of the first tale of the Sixth Day in an enigma of the medieval tradi tion.13 The famous tale of Madonna Oretta (6.1) is not only a mise en  abyme of the composition of the entire collection, or a reflection on the art  of narrating, it is also the literary representation of an enigma. The motifs  of this enigma have been found in works of the oriental tradition such as  the Book of Delight by Yosef ibn Zabara,14 or in Latin and Occitan texts  such as the Lai du Trot and the De amore by Andreas Capellanus in which  the same subject is combined with the myth of the infernal hunt.15 In the  tale of Enan in the Book of Delight, the giant traveling with Zabara pro nounces a sort of challenge: “I will bring you or you will bring me.” Zabara  is then puzzled, because they are both on horseback. So Enan narrates a  story in order to explain the mysterious sentence. The solution to his  mysterious saying is finally revealed: “this means […] that […] a man nar io che doveva fare o debbo di quel che gli avanza? debbolo io gittare a’ cani? non è egli  molto meglio servirne un gentile uomo che più che sé m’ama, che lasciarlo perdere o  guastare’?” (6.7.13 and 17). For a discussion of the tale and its relation to the argumen tative structure of the discourse, see Giannetto and Morosini. According to Pennington  (905), Madonna Filippa’s motto echoes Matthew 7:6 and plays on the meaning of the  word “sanctum” in order to allude to the female body.  12 Cf. Cipolla’s words: “Vera cosa è che io porto la penna dell’agnol Gabriello, acciò che  non si guasti, in una cassetta e i carboni co’ quali fu arrostito san Lorenzo in un’altra; le  quali son sì simiglianti l’una all’altra, che spesse volte mi vien presa l’una per l’altra, e al  presente m’è avvenuto: per ciò che, credendomi io qui avere arrecata la cassetta dove  era la penna, io ho arrecata quella dove sono i carboni. Il quale io non reputo che stato  sia errore, anzi mi pare esser certo che volontà sia stata di Dio e che Egli stesso la cas setta de’ carboni ponesse nelle mie mani ricordandom’io pur testé che la festa di san Lo renzo sia di qui a due dì. […] voglio che voi sappiate che chiunque da questi carboni in  segno di croce è tocco, tutto quello anno può viver sicuro che fuoco nol cocerà che non si  senta.” (6.10.49–52); and Chichibio’s motto: “Messer sì, ma voi non gridaste ‘ho, ho!’ a  quella d’iersera; ché se così gridato aveste ella avrebbe così l’altra coscia e l’altro piè fuor  mandata, come hanno fatto queste” (6.4.18).  13 See Freedman.   14 See: Freedman; Picone, esp. pp. 103–04.  15 Cf. Neilson.  http://www.heliotropia.org/10/andrei.pdf  21  Heliotropia 10.1-2 (2013)   http://www.heliotropia.org  rates a tale to another while traveling.”16 In the tale of Madonna Oretta  (6.1), a knight, unable to narrate a story, is silenced by the lady he accom panies in his journey with an ironic and smart justification: “Messer,  questo vostro cavallo ha troppo duro trotto, per che io vi priego che vi  piaccia di pormi a piè” (6.1.11). The art of narrating and the literary form is  so important that the knight’s incompetence provokes a painful reaction in  the lady while listening to him: “Di che a madonna Oretta, udendolo,  spesse volte veniva un sudore e uno sfinimento di cuore, come se inferma  fosse stata per terminare; la qual cosa poi che più sofferir non poté, cono scendo che il cavaliere era entrato nel pecoreccio […]” (6.1.10). Boccaccio  collected in a single sentence (“Madonna Oretta, quando voi vogliate, io vi  porterò, gran parte della via che ad andare abbiamo, a cavallo, con una  delle belle novelle del mondo” [6.1.7]) the two enigmatic elements of his  source, namely the challenge of narrating a story (“io porterò te o tu porte rai me”) and the solution (“questo vuol dire […] che […] viaggiando un  viandante racconta una novella o simile all’altro”), and then forged a mys terious sentence (“Messer, questo vostro cavallo ha troppo duro trotto; per  che io vi priego che vi piaccia di pormi a piè” [6.1.11]),17 using the same  mechanism of condensation and substitution analyzed by Freud for the  joke.18   If Freedman recognized the source of the first tale, I would like to use  the characteristics of the enigma to explain the formal features and epis temological functions of the motto in the Sixth Day of the Decameron. Ac cording to Carlo Muscetta, the idea of the Sixth Day probably came to Boc caccio’s mind from Macrobius’ Saturnalia, which contained a book (the  second) entirely devoted to jokes.19 Luisa Cuomo thinks it came from a  group of tales in the Novellino.20 But its rhetorical features and the veiled  significance hidden in the motto are likely to be taken from a more ancient  16 The Latin version of the same enigma from the Compilatio singulorum exemplorum,  which reproduces the same narrative materials and could better suit Madonna Oretta’s  motto, is also worth mentioning. The knight says to the bride: “Abreviate nobis viam.”  Then he says: “Portate me aliquantulum de via ista et ego tantundem portabo vos.”  Later, she asked him: “Nonne dixistis michi quod abreviarem vobis viam illam et quod  portarem vos et vos me portaretis?” Then the bride explains the enigma: “Quando duo  milites equitant et unus narrat aliquod pulchrum exemplum, dicitur socium portare  eum et viam abreviare.” The Latin tale’s text in Hilka.  17 Freedman 234.   18 Freud 44–58.  19 Muscetta, Ritratti 245.  20 See Cuomo.  http://www.heliotropia.org/10/andrei.pdf  22  Heliotropia 10.1-2 (2013)   http://www.heliotropia.org  atmosphere whose origins are probably to be identified in a primordial  epoch. The motto could be considered a particular form of the ancient  enigma — and not a variant of the riddle21 — that the Middle Ages pre served; thus, it could also be considered the unifying element of the Sixth  Day insofar as it involves knowledge.  Before analyzing the Sixth Day, however, it is worth considering how  Boccaccio could have known of the tradition of the enigma, both in literary  and rhetorical texts. Besides the anecdote on Homer’s death, Boccaccio  certainly knew some of the texts of medieval literary theory which mention  and describe the rhetorical features of the enigma. Specifically, Matthew of  Vendôme’s Ars versificatoria, the Rhetorica ad Herennium, Priscian’s  and Donatus’ grammars, Quintilian’s Institutio oratoria, and Geoffrey of  Vinsauf’s Poetria nova appear among the books possessed by Boccaccio.22  He may have also reflected on the nature of the enigma as it is described  by Cicero in his De divinatione (2.131–33), by the Historia Apollonii regis  Tyri, which reports ten of Symphosius’ enigmas (chaps. 42 and 43), by the  Gesta romanorum, a thirteenth-century collection of moral tales inspired  by Roman history and legends that contains another three of Symphosius’  riddles, as well as by the authors of medieval artes dictaminis. In fact, Ci cero, following Aristotle, connects the enigma with the metaphor, but  warns about its misuse (De oratore 3.42.167). Moreover, in the De divina tione (2.131–33), he talks about the obscurity of dreams and their utility in  divination, again mentioning the enigma as an example of incomprehensi ble language. Donatus mentions it among the seven types of allegory; ac cording to him, an enigma occurs when an obscure thought is concealed  21 Enigmatists maintain that there is a difference between enigma and riddle. They define  the ‘riddle’ as a short, humoristic and double-sense text of not more than 4–6 lines.  They define ‘enigma,’ instead, as a short poem (longer than the riddle, though) whose  context has a more important, even tragic, take. See Bartezzaghi, 50 and 294. In an other work, Bartezzaghi analyzes the intricacies of language, in the belief that language,  like enigmas or enigmatic games, is a tool for saying, but also for not saying; to explain,  but also to deceive. Most of our modern puzzles have a noble origin that stems from the  time when the wisdom of myths reigned, and although today they are largely devoid of  their arcane mysteries, they still contain an echo of those antique devices. See Bar tezzaghi, Incontri.  22 Branca discusses at length Boccaccio’s rhetorical readings (117ff.). For the Rhetorica ad  Herennium, see Mazza, esp. 22, 32, 33, 35 and 66. For Priscian and Donatus, see Mazza  31 and 36. For Quintilian’s Institutio oratoria, see Mazza 50. For Geoffrey of Vinsauf’s  Poetria nova, see Mazza 16 and 61.  http://www.heliotropia.org/10/andrei.pdf  23  Heliotropia 10.1-2 (2013)   http://www.heliotropia.org  within an expression because of certain resemblances.23 Matthew of Ven dôme mentions the figure of the enigma in his Ars versificatoria (3.18–44)  as one of the thirteen rhetorical tropes.24 According to Gervasius of  Melkley’s Ars poetica, the enigma is a kind of transsumptio orationis, a  trope that involves the transformation of a phrase from its conventional  meaning; in particular, the enigma is defined as “any obscure statement  which tries the cleverness of the one guessing.”25   Boccaccio’s prose often features the characteristics of the language typi cal of the enigmatists. Boccaccio’s ability to forge acrostics is shown in his  Amorosa visione (see the indication of the proemial sonnet). Boccaccio  could have been in contact with the riddle tradition in many ways, through  the classical and medieval tradition.26 However, besides the cryptic aspect  of the Sixth Day’s motti, each of which has its own transposed meaning, a  clear and conclusive instance of the discourse comparable to the riddle is  evident in Friar Cipolla’s speech that exemplary concludes the Day. His  imaginative vein enigmatizes superfluous or even elementary information:  “arrivai in quelle sante terre dove l’anno di state vi vale il pan freddo qua tro denari e il caldo v’è per niente” (6.10.43).27 What do the “sante terre”  stand for? Even the canzoni at the end of each Day of the Decameron can  be seen as poetic instances of the language of riddles. A clear example  could be found at the very beginning of the first ballad, in which the reader  is undoubtedly challenged to understand the real identity of the Io and the  nature of quel ben:  Io son sì vaga della mia bellezza,   che d’altro amor giammai  non curerò, né credo aver vaghezza.  Io veggio in quella, ogn’ora ch’io mi specchio,   quel ben che fa contento lo ’ntelletto,  né accidente nuovo o pensier vecchio   mi può privar di si caro diletto.  23 See Purcell 27 and 156.  24 See Purcell 65.  25 Gervasius of Melkley, Ars poetica, quoted by Purcell (110–11).  26 Vergil’s Third Eclogue (vv. 104–07) contains a famous pair of riddles, at least one of  which has never been satisfactorily solved (cf. La Penna I:152 ff. and 168 ff). Ovid has a  few riddles in Fasti 3.339–42, and 4.663–72. There is a brief discussion of the riddle in  Aulus Gellius’ Noctes atticae 12.6.1–3 and still other enigmas can be found in Petronius’  Cena Trimalchionis (56.7–9, and 58.7ff.). For an overview of the riddle tradition in  classical and medieval Latin literature, see Polara.  27 Rossi 228–29, emphasizes the enigmatic usage of Frate Cipolla’s language. Cf. also Pa lumbo, esp. 15.  http://www.heliotropia.org/10/andrei.pdf  24  Heliotropia 10.1-2 (2013)   http://www.heliotropia.org  Besides the correspondence of the mirror theme, the analogies with the po etic style of Symphosius’ enigmas are astounding, and not just for the typi cal first-person mode of speaking:  LXIX. SPECULUM  Nulla mihi certa est, nulla est peregrina figura.   Fulgor inest intus radianti luci coruscus,  qui nihil ostendit, nisi si quid viderit ante.  No fixed form is mine, yet none is stranger to me. My  brightness lies within sparkling with radiant light, which  shows nothing except what it has seen before.28  We do not know if Boccaccio knew Symphosius’ text, yet the similarities  with its enigmatic language, its ability to convey both an apparent and a  real meaning, as well as the wide diffusion of Symphosius’ riddles in the  European literary tradition could advocate, if not for a direct and specific  knowledge, at least for a certain acquaintance.29 Moreover, the literary  framework that introduces the enigmas in Symphosius’ collection not only  28 Trans. by Ohl.   29 The ability to convey both apparent and real meanings of Symphosius’ riddles is  emphasized by Bergamin, in her edition of Symphosius, Aenigmata, xxx–xxxi. Sympho sius was the founder of a genre destined to have a long life and extensive circulation in  Europe. He is a late antique writer about whom nothing is known, not even the century  in which he wrote: dates as early as the second century AD and as late as the 6th have  been proposed. Since the author’s identity is uncertain, Symphosius’ enigmas have been  also attributed to Lactantius (Boccaccio knew Lactantius’ Divinarum Institutionum  Libri VII; see Mazza 32). Symphosius’ riddles survive in the collection known as the  Latin Anthology. Each of the hundred riddles is a triplet of dactylic hexameters. Sym phosius claims he made them up from the riddles he heard at a drinking party during  the Saturnalia. He is also the founder of a genre destined to have great success in the  seventh and eighth century England. Aldhelm’s Aenigmata (one hundred verse riddles  in Latin) show the influence of Symphosius. His work reflects and foreshadows the  popularity of the riddle in Old English. Aldhelm’s style shows the ‘Hisperic’ tendency  towards rare — even bizarre — words. Hwaetberht was the author of a collection of sixty  riddles, known as the Enigmata Eusebii, written under the pen-name of Eusebius.  These were written as a supplement to forty riddles written earlier by Tatwine, arch bishop of Canterbury. According to Bede’s commentary, Tatwine was a man notable for  his prudence, devotion and learning, qualities that were displayed in the two surviving  manuscripts of his riddles and four of his Grammar. His riddles deal with such diverse  topics as philosophy and charity, the five senses and the alphabet, and a book and a pen.  The riddles are formed in acrostics. The text of Aldhelm comes from Ehwald’s ed. Ald helm’s enigmas have also recently been edited along with the other Old English enigmas  in Variae collectiones aenigmatum Merovingicae aetatis, CCSL 133 and 133A. See also  Polara.  http://www.heliotropia.org/10/andrei.pdf  25  Heliotropia 10.1-2 (2013)   http://www.heliotropia.org  refers to the Saturnalia tradition that Boccaccio certainly knew through  other texts such as Macrobius’ Saturnalia (the second book actually begins  with a collection of bons mots) and Martial’s Epigrams (which, inci dentally, were also characterized by their biting and often scathing sense of  wit30); both works, most strikingly, recall similar features in the  Decameron’s cornice. Like the storytellers of the Decameron, the imagined  characters of Symphosius pass their time telling enigmas each one in turn  after the banquet, and a witty spirit of one-upmanship is involved in trying  to solve them:  [Haec quoque Symphosius de carmine lusit inepto. Sic tu, Sexte, do ces; sic te deliro magistro.] Annua Saturni dum tempora festa redirent  perpetuo semper nobis sollemnia ludo, post epulas laetas, post dulcia  pocula mensae, deliras inter vetulas puerosque loquaces, cum strepe ret late madidae facundia linguae, tum verbosa cohors studio sermo nis inepti nescio quas passim magno de nomine nugas est mediata  diu; sed frivola multa locuta est. Nec mediocre fuit; magni certaminis  instar, ponere diverse vel solvere quaeque vicissim. Ast ego, ne solus  foede tacuisse viderer, qui nihil adtuleram mecum quod dicere pos sem, hos versus feci subito de carmine vocis. Insanos inter sanum non  esse necesse est. Da veniam, lector, quod non sapit ebria Musa.  [These bits, too, of trifling verse Symphosius has done in sport. So you,  Sextus, teach; so with you as an exemplar I proceed in my folly.] While  Saturn’s festive season was making its yearly return, always for me a  holiday on unbroken fun, after joyous banquets and the dinner’s dulcet  draughts, when amid doting old women and prattling children there  clamored far and wide the eloquence of intoxicated tongues, then the  wordy gathering in their fondness for verbal quip mulled over long at  random some trifles with grand titles; but foolish were the many jests  they made. No small matter was it, but like a great contest, to set or solve  in various ways each one in turn. But I, who had brought along with me  nothing that I could proffer, lest I seem to be the only one to have kept  silence in disgrace, made these verses from their off-hand conundrums.  One must not be wise amid the otherwise. Pardon, reader, the indiscre tions of a tipsy Muse.  The banquet is the privileged context in which the challenge, the philo sophical contest and the enigma join together. Furthermore, the Middle  Ages developed allegorical aspects of the language that were already oper 30 Martial, Epigrams, books 13 and 14. See Citroni, “Marziale” and Poesia e lettori 440.  On Boccaccio’s discovery of Martial, see Billanovich 263–64. Boccaccio held and  glossed a manuscript of Martial’s Epigrams: see Mazza 49 and Petoletti.  http://www.heliotropia.org/10/andrei.pdf  26  Heliotropia 10.1-2 (2013)   http://www.heliotropia.org  ating in Symphosius’ enigmas.31 The concept of art as integumentum veri,  fabulosa narratio veritatis, was certainly familiar to Boccaccio.32 If Cicero  developed the concept of allegory as the veiled language connected to the  enigma,33 and later on, as we have seen before, the enigma was classified  as one of the species of allegory, the patristic tradition played a great part  in developing an attitude toward the Bible not only as a sacred text, but  also as an obscure one, whose understanding requires particular  knowledge and wisdom.34 Augustine, especially, maintains that one cannot  understand the famous Epistle to the Corinthians (I Cor. 13.12: videmus  nunc per speculum in aenigmate) without also knowing the rhetorical  doctrine of the enigma.35 Thus, if the enigma can become the privileged  rhetorical figure through which to read the Bible, the idea of conveying  hidden meanings through the power of language could similarly have in fluenced the definition of the motto in the Decameron.  The motto is not simply a type of metaphor, as both Freedman and Bo setti assume,36 for the metaphor is a rhetorical figure based on a relation  of similarity. The metaphor is a rhetorical trope that describes something  as being or equal to something else in some way, whereas the motto, like  the enigma, is a combination of different and irreconcilable elements and,  most important, cannot exist outside a well-defined context that provides  an explanation.37 Reading Oretta’s motto (“Messer, questo vostro cavallo  ha troppo duro trotto; per che io vi priego che vi piaccia di pormi a piè”  [6.1.11]), one wonders how trotting can be related to narration. We defi nitely need an explanation that goes beyond common knowledge. Here, it  is useful to recall Aristotle’s definition of the contradictory nature of the  enigma and the impossibility of connecting it “directly” to the metaphor:  “For the essence of a riddle [i.e. enigma] is to express true facts under im 31 Like the Decameron’s one hundred tales, Symphosius’ Aenigmata include one hundred  riddles which, according to medieval numerological interpretation, could symbolize  eternity or perfection (Bergamin, Aenigmata xxxvii). Moreover, Relihan suggests add ing to the so-called Symposion-Literatur (Martin 1931) even the Cena Cypriani, a me dieval banquet full of allusions to the Bible.  32 See his poetic theory in Genealogie 13–14 and the Trattatello in laude di Dante.  33 De oratore 3.42.166–67, Letter to Atticus 2.20.3, Orator 27–94, mentioned by Cook,  Enigmas 34–35. Even Quintilian, Inst. 8.6.52, links the enigma to allegory.  34 Just to mention a few instances, cf. Augustine, De trinitate 15.9ff., Hugh of St. Victor,  Didascalicon 6.3ff., Aquinas, Summa theologiae 1.q.1a.9, and Quodlibetales (7.a.15 16), Dante, Convivio 2.1. See also Branca 344n.  35 Cf. Bergamin, Aenigmata, xxxi; Cook, Enigmas 352 and 362.  36 Bosetti esp. 148. Freedman 226–27, 234.  37 See also Cook, “The Figure of Enigma” passim.  http://www.heliotropia.org/10/andrei.pdf  27  Heliotropia 10.1-2 (2013)   http://www.heliotropia.org  possible combinations. Now this cannot be done by any arrangement of  ordinary words, but by the use of metaphor it can. Such is the riddle: ‘A  man I saw who on another man had glued the bronze by aid of fire,’ and  others of the same kind” (Poetics, 1458a.26–30).38 The elements involved  in the enigma can exist in a relation of similarity, but since this similarity  combines dissimilar elements and is not understood, it has to be ex plained; moreover, the supposed metaphor may well be confused with  metonymy, as there can be a transposition between an object and an idea,  as in the first tale of the Sixth Day where the object “horse” is primarily  aligned with the concept of “to ride,” and only secondarily with the concept  of “to recount.”   Rather than making a list of all the witticisms of the Sixth Day — which  are, incidentally, notorious — let us look at the contextual features that  they share with the enigma. First of all, the tales of the motto typically in volve a challenge between two wise men and display the same agonistic  features of the ancient philosophical contests.39 In this respect, it is  interesting to consider an anecdote about Calchas reported by Hesiod: the  soothsayer Calchas arrived in Claro where he found the wise Mopsus. After  having challenged Mopsus with an enigma, Calchas died for the shame of  his defeat:  “I am filled with wonder at the quantity of figs this wild fig-tree bears  though it is so small. Can you tell their number?” And Mopsus answered:  “Ten thousand is their number, and their measure is a bushel: one fig is  left over, which you would not be able to put into the measure.” So said  he; and they found the reckoning of the measure true. Then did the end  of death shroud Calchas.40  Likewise in the Decameron, Guido Cavalcanti’s tale (6.9) can be consid ered the best example of agonism in a philosophical contest.41 Sir Betto  Brunelleschi and his fellows challenge Guido Cavalcanti: (“Andiamo a dar gli briga;” and “quando tu avrai trovato che Idio non sia, che avrai fatto?”  38 The solution is ‘the blood-sucker.’ Cf. Colli, Sapienza, fr. 7, A, 26 (357).  39 See Levine. Richard Martin (108–28) has recently defined as “agonistic” the nature of  wisdom which is characteristic of the Seven Sages of the archaic period.  40 The Melampodia 1.267. Cf. also Colli, Sapienza, 7, A, 1 (341).  41 As Burkhardt emphasized, the culture of Renaissance Florence was an agonistic one.  Similarly, by analyzing practical jokes in their historical and cultural context in early  modern Italy, Peter Burke (66) defines the beffa as an expression of a “culture of trick ery,” as an appropriate form of joking in a competitive society such as the Florentine.  http://www.heliotropia.org/10/andrei.pdf  28  Heliotropia 10.1-2 (2013)   http://www.heliotropia.org  (6.9.11).42 The wise Guido is also defined as a great philosopher: “egli fu un  de’ miglior loici che avesse il mondo e ottimo filosofo naturale” (6.9.8). In  the sixth tale, Michele Scalza provokes a discussion among his fellows and  accepts their challenge, whose prize is a dinner, of showing how the Ba ronci are the most gentle and noblest family of Florence: “Ora avvenne un  giorno che, essendo egli con alquanti a Montughi, si cominciò tra loro una  quistion così fatta: quali fossero li più gentili uomini di Firenze e i più an tichi” (6.6.5). Sir Forese da Rabatta, described as “di tanto sentimento  nelle leggi, che da molti valenti uomini uno armario di ragione civile fu re putato” (6.5.4), disputes with Giotto — himself described in equally lofty  terms as “una delle luci della fiorentina gloria” (6.5.6) — and “bites” him  with a motto in which he observes that Giotto’s haggard appearance was  not suited to his greatness as an artist. Chichibio, who got in trouble for  stealing a thigh from the crane he later cooked for his master, accepts the  paradoxical challenge of demonstrating to Currado Gianfigliazzi that all  cranes have one leg: “‘Come diavol non hanno che una coscia e una  gamba? Non vid’io mai più gru che questa?’ Chichibio seguitò: ‘Egli è,  messer, com’io vi dico; e quando vi piaccia, io il vi farò veder ne’ vivi’”  (6.4.11–12). The baker Cisti undertakes a courtesy contest with Messer  Geri Spina displaying his magnificent wine and then, with a quick re sponse, succeeding to gain the respect of the Florentine noble (“Messer  Geri ebbe il dono di Cisti carissimo e quelle grazie gli rendé che a ciò cre dette si convenissero, e sempre poi per da molto l’ebbe e per amico”  [6.2.30]). Monna Nonna de’ Pulci with a quick response gains the victory  over the bishop of Florence who had rudely provoked her (“Nonna, che ti  par di costui? Crederrestil vincere?” […] “Messere, e’ forse non vincerebbe  me; ma vorrei buona moneta” [6.3.9–10]).  By Boccaccio’s time, most of the ancient significance of the enigma  seems to have still been preserved, especially its mythical atmosphere and  the direct connection with philosophy. The link between the motto and the  enigma is solidified in the hints Boccaccio makes about his protagonists’  wisdom — that of Guido Cavalcanti in particular among the nobles, but  also that of Cisti and Forese among the humble. The connection with the  sphere of philosophy is confirmed by the relation of the Decameron with a  certain novelistic and exemplary tradition like that of the Latin Compilatio  singulorum exemplorum, a vast repertoire of materials for sermons that  42 The epistemological implications and the power of eloquence of this novella are well  exposed by Durling. He particularly calls attention to the meaning of “dare briga” whose  original sense was closer to quarrel or fight (273–304).  http://www.heliotropia.org/10/andrei.pdf  29  Heliotropia 10.1-2 (2013)   http://www.heliotropia.org  could have been one of the sources of Boccaccio’s 6.1, or the Judeo-Span ish tale of Zabara.43 The motto tales in the Decameron are not simply a  contest about knowledge as in the ancient enigma tradition; rather, they  here take on the literary form of a witty challenge to be performed in order  to obtain practical knowledge for ordinary life. On the level of literary  form, however, the link between the agonistic attitudes of the pre-Socratic  enigma and the witty contest of Florentine popular life still remained  strong, while the connection between agonism and dialectics ultimately  ends up in the realm of morality. It is worth recalling the words of Giorgio  Colli on the development of wisdom: “Dialectic is born on the ground of  agonism. When the religious background has faded and the cognitive im pulse no longer needs to be stimulated by a challenge of the god [Apollo],  when a contest for knowledge among men no longer requires that they be  diviners, here appears an agonism that is only human.”44 The main fea ture, or function, of Boccaccio’s characters in the Sixth Day — be they male  or female — is that of manifesting oneself through eloquence, and there fore through intelligence. The challenge of wise men ending with the  motto requires a certain intellectual equality of the two contenders, and it  therefore differs from the characteristics of the beffa, in which the mocked  person (the beffato) is humiliated for his/her stupidity.45   It is worth noting a similar agonistic attitude in tales other than those  of the Sixth Day. In Decameron 1.3, Saladin summons Melchisedech, wel comes him, and addresses him with these words: “Valente uomo, io ho da  più persone inteso che tu se’ savissimo e nelle cose di Dio senti molto  avanti; e per ciò io saprei volentieri da te quale delle tre leggi tu reputi la  verace, o la giudaica o la saracina o la cristiana” (1.3.8). Saladin’s words  hide a sort of riddle, or even a challenge that bears traces of the archaic  function of the riddle as a ritualized contest, whereby knowledge of the  origin of things and of the order of the world could be attained.46 Equally  43 Freedman 231–32.  44 “La dialettica nasce sul terreno dell’agonismo. Quando lo sfondo religioso si è allonta nato e l’impulso conoscitivo non ha più bisogno di essere stimolato da una sfida del dio,  quando una gara per la conoscenza fra uomini non richiede più che essi siano divina tori, ecco apparire un agonismo soltanto umano” (Colli, La nascita, 75).  45 Cf. Fontes-Baratto 35 and Van der Voort 212.  46 Cf. Huizinga 108–09, 113: “The riddle is a sacred thing full of secret power, hence a  dangerous thing. In its mythological or ritual context it is nearly always what German  philologists know as the Halsrätsel or “capital riddle,” which you either solve or forfeit  your head. The player’s life is at stake. A corollary of this is that it is accounted the high est wisdom to put a riddle nobody can answer. […] Gradual transitions lead from the  http://www.heliotropia.org/10/andrei.pdf  30  Heliotropia 10.1-2 (2013)   http://www.heliotropia.org  traditional is the suddenness with which the solution comes to Melchise dech’s mind: “aguzzato lo ’ngegno, gli venne prestamente avanti quello che  dir dovesse” (1.3.9).47 The solution to Saladin’s riddle is notorious, and  consists of telling the story of the three rings.  Danger and violence are also involved in this fight for knowledge. If the  ancient wise man of the pre-Socratic tradition risks dying if he is unable to  solve the enigma, likewise, the Sixth Day of the Decameron represents  dangerous situations that befall the protagonists of the tales. Chichibio, for  instance, runs a substantial risk in having taken a leg from his lord’s crane  (Currado tells him: “e io il voglio veder domattina e sarò contento; ma io ti  giuro in sul corpo di Cristo che, se altramenti sarà, che io ti farò conciare  in maniera che tu con tuo danno ti ricorderai, sempre che tu ci viverai, del  nome mio” [6.4.13]). With his own words, Chichibio puts himself into a  dangerously escalating situation, one from which he will eventually escape  only by uttering a witty remark.48 Madonna Filippa risks dying on the gal lows unless she manages to escape with a quick and clever remark that  arouses the mayor’s and the people’s generosity. Friar Cipolla could be  lynched by the mob of Certaldo if the people discovered the falsity of his  relic. The Florentine brigade that puts Guido to a test approaches him with  a playful assault: “e spronati i cavalli a guisa d’uno assalto sollazzevole gli  furono, quasi prima che egli se ne avvedesse, sopra” (6.9.11). In addition to  resulting from a dangerous situation, violence is contained in the nature of  the motto itself and in the way it operates against the person who is tar geted. The action of the motto is always compared to a bite: “i voglio ricor dare essere la natura de’ motti cotale, che essi come la pecora morde  deono così mordere l’uditore, e non come ’l cane; per ciò che, se come il  cane mordesse il motto, non sarebbe motto ma villania” (6.3.3, emphasis  mine). This violent reaction can even be perceived indirectly when it pro vokes a sort of psychosomatic reaction in a character, as with Oretta’s  reaction to the bad tale narrated by the knight: “Di che a madonna Oretta,  udendolo, spesse volte veniva un sudore e uno sfinimento di cuore, come  se inferma fosse stata per terminare” (6.1.10).  sacred riddle-contest concerning the origin of things to the catch-question contest, with  honor, possessions, or dear life at stake, and finally to the philosophical and theological  disputation”; see also Masciandaro 26–27.  47 Cf. Huizinga 110: “The answer to an enigmatic question is not found by reflection or  logical reasoning. It comes quite literally as a sudden solution — a loosening of the tie  by which the questioner holds you bound.”  48 Getto (149) compares the action of Chichibio’s tale with a gamble in which the charac ter eventually wins, albeit in the last game.  http://www.heliotropia.org/10/andrei.pdf  31  Heliotropia 10.1-2 (2013)   http://www.heliotropia.org  From his attentive reading of the introduction to the Sixth Day, Cok  Van der Voort infers a thematic bipartition that divides the Day’s narrative  model into two variants: the “provocation” and the “threat” (cf. “voglio che  domane, con l’aiuto di Dio, infra questi termini si ragioni, cioè di chi, con  alcuno leggiadro motto tentato, si riscosse, o con pronta risposta o avve dimento fuggì perdita, pericolo o scorno” [5.concl.3]).49 And in fact, the  use of the motto appears in two variants, either a provocation or a threat.  But a perfect parodic prologue to the Sixth Day (as well as to the first  enigma of the Day) is the quarrel between Tindaro and Licisca which  summarizes all the themes involved in the motto, such as knowledge and  the violence of sex. At the rising of the sun, just when the lieta brigata is  discussing the beauty of the narrated tales and is preparing to reconvene,  we suddenly hear “un gran romore”: here are Tindaro and Licisca quarrel ling over somewhat spicy matters. When asked about the reasons for the  dispute, Licisca answers: “Madonna, costui mi vuol far conoscere la moglie  di Sicofante; e né più né meno, come se io con lei usata non fossi, mi vuol  dare a vedere che la notte prima che Sicofante giacque con lei, messer  Mazza entrasse in Monte Nero per forza e con ispargimento di sangue; e  io dico che non è vero, anzi v’entrò paceficamente e con gran piacere di  quei d’entro” (6.intr.8, emphasis mine). A supposed sexual defloration ob viously hides behind the metaphorical and obscene language, but the way  in which places and characters are expressed in this context takes the for mal appearance of the impossible and paradoxical discourse that requires  a special context-bound acumen to be understood. The enigma sets itself  as a challenge, albeit low and vulgar, between the two contenders, and re sults in the merry brigade’s comprehension of the motto (“Mentre la Lici sca parlava, facevan le donne sì gran risa, che tutti i denti si sarebbero loro  potuti trarre” [6.intro.11]) and with Dioneo’s conferral of the victory to Li cisca (“Madonna, la sentenzia è data senza udirne altro; e dico che la Lici sca ha ragione, e credo che così sia com’ella dice; e Tindaro è una bestia”  [6.intro.13]), who in turn puts the shame of defeat on Tindaro (“Ben lo di ceva io; vatti con Dio; credi tu saper più di me tu, che non hai ancora ra sciutti gli occhi?” [6.intro.14, emphasis mine]). This brief introductory  narration, therefore, is not an alien or out-of-place element of the Day, as  some critics maintain, but is a perfect parodic mise en abîme of what the  motto will be in its literary form in the narration of the tales. Not surpris ingly, the significance the motto attaches to knowledge is already high 49 Van der Voort 213.  http://www.heliotropia.org/10/andrei.pdf  32  Heliotropia 10.1-2 (2013)   http://www.heliotropia.org  lighted by the words pronounced by Licisca that ambiguously refer to  “knowledge” and “sight” (conoscere, vedere).  Giorgio Colli reviews the terms that identify the enigma: the Greek  sources sometimes use the term próblema, which means “obstacle,” or  something that is projected forward.50 As a matter of fact, the enigma is an  obstacle, a test Dionysus sets up and the philosopher has to overcome. In deed, a test, or obstacle, is the subject of the Sixth Day, since all the char acters have to overcome a difficult situation using their wit. The charac teristic of the enigma as a hostile intrusion of the divine in the human  sphere — in other terms, the god’s challenge — is possibly reflected in the  role played by the Goddess Fortune in creating obstacles in the  Decameron. It is Fortune that plays a fundamental role in this Day, since it  is the force that sets a series of obstacles. It gives, for instance, an ugly ap pearance to exceptional figures such as Giotto, or attributes a low social  rank to gracious souls such as Cisti (“Belle donne, io non so da me mede sima vedere che più in questo si pecchi, o la natura apparecchiando a una  nobile anima un vil corpo, o la fortuna apparecchiando a un corpo dotato  d’anima nobile vil mestiero, sì come in Cisti nostro cittadino e in molti an cora abbiamo potuto vedere avvenire; il qual Cisti, d’altissimo animo for nito, la fortuna fece fornaio” [6.2.3]). Moreover, in the ancient and medie val Aristotelian traditions, the term próblema indicates the formulation of  a query, precisely the dialectic query that starts a discussion.51 Likewise, in  the tales of the motto, the first question a character asks to another may be  the opening question of a dialectic contest, a provocation or a challenge.  Luisa Cuomo has emphasized the elements of a typical dialectic contro versy in the tale about the nobility of the Baronci family (6.6); here, the  two opposite assertions the contenders bring forward have the same prob ability of being true, but a syllogism is finally needed to demonstrate the  thesis: namely, that the Baronci, insofar as they are the most ancient  among all the families, are also the noblest.52 But the entire discussion is  also charged with a parodic connotation consisting of the “gap between the  seriousness of the correct terminology of the scholastic deductive pro cesses and the comic of both the parody of the basic arguments and the  expressive language loaded with emotional connotations,” which leads to  50 Colli, La nascita 78.  51 The same term próblema is also used in the Vulgate and Septuagint versions of the Bi ble (Cook, “The Figure of Enigma” 366).  52 Cuomo 252 ff.  http://www.heliotropia.org/10/andrei.pdf  33  Heliotropia 10.1-2 (2013)   http://www.heliotropia.org  the direct consequence that the friends of Scalza will laugh at the motto,  thus recognizing its validity and parodic meaning.53  The formulation of the enigma is as contradictory as the formulation of  the dialectic question, which presents two alternative terms. The  knowledge produced by the understanding of the motto is as ambiguous,  indirect and oblique as the knowledge provided by Dionysus through his  enigmas or the nature of Apollo mediated by his singer Orpheus among  men.54 The message transmitted by the motto is not immediately under standable — who among us did not stop and reread the motto pronounced  by Forese and addressed to Giotto? “Giotto, a che ora venendo di qua allo  ’ncontro di noi un forestiere che mai veduto non t’avesse, credi tu che egli  credesse che tu fossi il miglior dipintor del mondo, come tu se’?” (6.5.14).  The motto is a device that hides knowledge by virtue of its rhetorical form  and needs to be explained by someone else in the narrative. The wisdom  that the wise Cavalcanti communicates with his motto needs to be ex plained by Betto to his companions.  Traditionally, in order to be solved, the enigma needs a narrative to ac company it, or at least an explanation whose didactic function has typically  been present since antiquity. (From this point of view, although we may  laugh a lot, it seems that the Sixth is the most serious Day of the  Decameron.) The knowledge of the mocker is not the same as that of the  mocked person. The latter has to undergo a gnoseological transformation  in order to understand the wit and to reach the same level of knowledge.  (Sometimes, though, the mocked fails to increase his knowledge if he does  not understand the motto; then, an explanation is provided by adding a  parodic value to the narrative.) Furthermore, it is possible to interpret the  function of the motto as a peculiar literary form of recognition that leads  the characters of the tales to a shift from ignorance to knowledge. There fore, Boccaccio seems to portray an ideal situation in which the character,  as a man, gains new knowledge through a transformation (which some times ends with a laugh). In particular, let us focus on the figure of the  defeated, and see how both the comprehension of the motto and the decla ration of the defeat work in each tale of the Sixth Day (all emphasis  added):  The anonymous knight. “Il cavaliere, il qual per avventura era molto mi gliore intenditore che novellatore, inteso il motto, e quello in festa e in  53 Cuomo 255 (translation mine).  54 Colli, Sapienza 37.  http://www.heliotropia.org/10/andrei.pdf  34  Heliotropia 10.1-2 (2013)   http://www.heliotropia.org  gabbo preso, mise mano in altre novelle, e quella che cominciata avea e  mai seguita, senza finita lasciò stare” (6.1.12);  Geri Spina. “Il che rapportando il famigliare a messer Geri, subito gli oc chi gli s’apersero dello ’ntelletto” (6.2.26);  Antonio d’Orso and Dego della Ratta. “La qual parola udita il maliscalco e  ’l vescovo, sentendosi parimente trafitti, l’uno siccome facitore della di sonesta cosa nella nepote del fratel del vescovo, e l’altro sì come ricevi tore nella nepote del proprio fratello, senza guardar l’un l’altro, vergo gnosi e taciti se n’andarono, senza più quel giorno dirle alcuna cosa”  (6.3.11);  Forese da Rabatta. “Il che messer Forese udendo, il suo error riconobbe,  e videsi di tal moneta pagato, quali erano state le derrate vendute”  (6.5.16);  The citizens of Prato. “Eran quivi a così fatta essaminazione, e di tanta e  sì famosa donna, quasi tutti i pratesi concorsi, li quali, udendo così piace vol risposta, subitamente, dopo molte risa, quasi ad una voce tutti grida rono la donna aver ragione e dir bene” (6.7.18);  Betto Brunelleschi and his companions. “Allora ciascuno intese quello  che Guido aveva voluto dire e vergognossi nè mai più gli diedero briga, e  tennero per innanzi messer Betto sottile e intendente cavaliere” (6.9.15);  Giovanni del Bragoniera and Biagio Pizzini. “Li quali stati alla sua pre dica e avendo udito il nuovo riparo preso da lui e quanto da lungi fatto si  fosse e con che parole, avevan tanto riso che eran creduti smascellare. E  poi che partito si fu il vulgo, a lui andatisene, con la maggior festa del  mondo ciò che fatto avevan gli discoprirono, e appresso gli renderono la  sua penna; la quale l’anno seguente gli valse non meno che quel giorno  gli fosser valuti i carboni” (6.10.55).  The transformation can also be simply ideal, as when an obtuse person  is not able to understand the motto:   Cesca. “Ma ella, più che una canna vana e a cui di senno pareva pareggiar  Salamone, non altramenti che un montone avrebbe fatto, intese il vero  motto di Fresco; anzi disse che ella si voleva specchiar come l’altre. E così  nella sua grossezza si rimase e ancor vi si sta” (6.8.10).  Otherwise, the transformation can be parodic, as when the defeated un derstands the burlesque sense of the motto and laughs at it as in the tale of  Chichibio or Scalza:  Currado Gianfigliazzi. “Chichibio, tu hai ragione, ben lo dovea fare”  (6.4.19).  Michele Scalza’s companions. “Della qual cosa, e Piero che era il giudice,  e Neri che aveva messa la cena, e ciascun altro ricordandosi, e avendo il  piacevole argomento dello Scalza udito, tutti cominciarono a ridere e af http://www.heliotropia.org/10/andrei.pdf  35  Heliotropia 10.1-2 (2013)   http://www.heliotropia.org  fermare che lo Scalza aveva la ragione, e che egli aveva vinta la cena, e  che per certo i Baronci erano i più gentili uomini e i più antichi che fos sero, non che in Firenze, ma nel mondo o in maremma” (6.6.16).  Even at the level of discourse, a metamorphosis takes place. The tale of  Friar Cipolla can be considered as a key example. Cipolla is aware of a re ality which is not the same as that of the certaldesi: his speech is so clever,  his rhetoric so refined, that he can make everybody believe that he has  taken a trip to the Holy Land, while his fantastic account is merely about a  tour in the streets of Florence. The speech that he pronounces is made  with signifiers with a double signified, words that are able to change real ity55 and create a metamorphic discourse that is not only able to increase  the level of understanding but also to transform reality itself within the  tale. Friar Cipolla eventually manages to escape from the risk of a possible  lynching and retains his credibility in the eyes of the certaldesi by means  of the fantastic reality he succeeded in creating with his oratory.56  As argued above, the enigma is also a short tale, as the Greek etymol ogy indicates (from “ainos” = tale/story),57 and was considered as such in  the pre-Socratic era.58 The meaning of the motto is not always recogniza ble and valid in itself; rather, it depends on the function it performs within  a defined narrative situation.59 For instance, Nonna de’ Pulci’s motto is not  witty in itself but becomes witty in a particular narrative context; specifi cally, the urban context of fourteenth-century Florence. In addition, in or der to clarify better the contextual nature of the motto, we find that the  link between enigma and motto becomes apparent, both in antiquity and  in the Florence of the Decameron, within a historical context that is not  pure theatrical backdrop.60 Characters such as Giotto and Guido Caval canti are historical Florentine figures but are represented as legendary by  virtue of their instinctive cleverness. The anecdotes of the Sixth Day take  55 Cf. Bosetti 157.  56 The issue of a type of narration which leads to the transformation/metamorphosis of a  character appears from the very beginning of Boccaccio’s literary production: for exam ple, see the transformation of Ameto and his cathartic bath in the Commedia delle ninfe  fiorentine, which represents the evolution of humanity from a primordial condition  characterized by the power of senses, to a moral and intellectual consciousness medi ated by virtues and love. The topos of the brigata and the transformation of the charac ter is also present in the Filocolo.  57 Cook, “The Figure of Enigma” 355.  58 Colli, Sapienza 36.  59 Van der Voort 211.  60 Cf. De’ Negri.  http://www.heliotropia.org/10/andrei.pdf  36  Heliotropia 10.1-2 (2013)   http://www.heliotropia.org  the form of historical memorabilia. The city of Florence is represented in  the background as the proper context of a primordial society whose char acters are depicted with the same stylized actions of the philosophers of  Ancient Greece. Boccaccio’s characters are historical but they are still rep resented as ideal figures. (Boccaccio collects his stories from the repertory  of collective memory, just as Plato, Aristotle and the authors of the age of  philosophy collected the riddles and the Eleusinian oracles in their works.)  The “contextual” nature of the motto is evident not only from the simple  observation that some historical Florentine characters appear in short an ecdotes, but also for the motivations presented and repeated several times  by the author regarding narrative poetics. Getto rightly points out these  aspects of Boccaccio’s poetics: the tales are given birth from a “happy  memory impulse,” which the author then makes explicit, through the  words of Fiammetta, in the exhibition of his poetics, which is that of a dis course attentive to historical truth, or at least to verisimilitude.61 But above  all, what does matter is Boccaccio’s direct intervention in the First Day, in  which he says he is almost forced to write about the plague.62 Thus, here,  Florence appears as the mythical setting of witty people, historical char acters represented in an evanescent historicity that loads the verisimili tude of the story with a universal and idealized atmosphere that inevitably  emphasizes wisdom. Overall, the exaltation of intelligence in the motto is  the expression of the bourgeois mercantile society in which the value of wit  prevails and those who do not have it are doomed to exclusion.63  61 “[S]e io dalla verità del fatto mi fossi scostare voluta o volessi, avrei ben saputo e saprei  sotto altri nomi comporla e raccontarla [scil. la novella]; ma per ciò che il partirsi dalla  verità delle cose state nel novellare è gran diminuire di diletto negli ’ntendenti, in pro pia forma, dalla ragion di sopra detta aiutata, la vi dirò” (9.5.5).   62 “E nel vero, se io potuto avessi onestamente per altra parte menarvi a quello che io  desidero che per così aspro sentiero come fia questo, io l’avrei volentier fatto: ma ciò  che, qual fosse la cagione per che le cose che appresso si leggeranno avvenissero, non si  poteva senza questa ramemorazion dimostrare, quasi da necessità constretto a scriverle  mi conduco” (1.intr.7).  63 Thus Getto concludes his introductory remarks: “È sempre quel principio genetico  dell’obbedienza ad un invito del fatto storico, ad un richiamo dell’accadimento reale, as sai caro (e rivelatore) per il gusto del nostro artista, che qui agisce. Il Boccaccio si tro verà costantemente a legare le sue novelle ad eventi e cose di una verità consacrata dalla  storia ufficiale o dalla sua storia personale, a scoprire addentellati con nomi, luoghi, vi cende concrete, storicamente determinabili” (Getto 10). The opening of Getto’s first  chapter is meaningful for the perspective he employs, insofar as it makes us understand  his attention for Boccaccio’s discourse and usage of connotation: “Al critico del Boccac cio che con occhio attento sappia scrutare in trasparenza la pagina, non mancherà certo  http://www.heliotropia.org/10/andrei.pdf  37  Heliotropia 10.1-2 (2013)   http://www.heliotropia.org  The motto, as the enigma, is a formal device for the search for wisdom  and knowledge. Once again, we must recall Getto’s observations on the  Decameron’s Introduction, for his remarks are in perfect harmony, at the  level of discourse, with the search for knowledge. Getto found in the words  of the Introduction a “layering” of “three expressive moments” that pro duce the narrative and the form of the work: from the pleasure of memory  as the engine of narrative, to the pleasure of communication in the context  of the refined conversation of the merry and idle brigade, and finally to the  “lyrical emotion” of the “life wisdom joyfully reached by the young bri gade.”64 This last moment links the reasons of the entire collection to the  author’s desire to provide through his tales an ideal model of life, a stand ard of perfect living. This model is constructed by getting through the “sin  of Fortune,”65 after a “passionate contemplation of the limitations and  obstacles that life (nature and fortune) places before men, and the men  who face those same limits and obstacles.” Moreover, this model of life is  achieved in accordance with a perfectly secular ideal of the world and  within the scope of a very precise social reality.66  Alan Freedman does not emphasize at all these important ideal as pects; he believes that “Boccaccio instead feels the need to eliminate the  enigmatic element prior to using his narrative materials in a book that, de spite the wide variety of sources, character and tone of any single tale, re veals a consistently strong structural unit insofar as a coherent and con di rendersi sensibile la presenza, fin dal Proemio del Decameron, di un tipico nucleo  espressivo in cui la parola acquista un tale valore allusivo da costituire come una rivela zione emblematica, quasi una filigrana pallida e pur evidente, del ritmo fantastico che  governa l’intera partitura dell’opera”. It is worth noticing that Getto was writing in the  1950s, a period in which critics and semioticians put a lot of emphasis on the connota tive aspects of literary production. See, for instance, Barthes’ Le degré zéro, which is  almost contemporary to Getto’s Vita di forme e forme di vita. Before Getto, Vittore  Branca writes on the importance of historical and contextual references for Boccaccio in  order to create “un linguaggio storicamente allusivo” whose repetitive “motivi costitu zionali” make them “costanti, o meglio condizioni del suo narrare” (Branca 226).  64 Getto 12.  65 Cf. Proemio.13: “Adunque, acciò che in parte per me s’ammendi il peccato della for tuna, la quale dove meno era di forza, sì come noi nelle dilicate donne veggiamo, quivi  più avara fu di sostegno, in soccorso e rifugio di quelle che amano, per ciò che all’altre è  assai l’ago e ‘l fuso e l’arcolaio, intendo di raccontare cento novelle, o favole o parabole o  istorie che dire le vogliamo, raccontate in diece giorni da una onesta brigata di sette  donne e di tre giovani nel pistelenzioso, tempo della passata mortalità fatta, e alcune  canzonette dalle predette donne cantate al lor diletto.”   66 Getto 11–12.  http://www.heliotropia.org/10/andrei.pdf  38  Heliotropia 10.1-2 (2013)   http://www.heliotropia.org  sistent fiction.” Moreover, Freedman states that Boccaccio wants “to reject  any obviously didactic-problematic suggestion” and that in the Decameron  in general, as well as for instance in 10.5, “the center of the work’s interest  is moved from the intellectual paradox to the narrative and its charac ters.”67 In essence, Freedman maintains that Boccaccio has transformed  the enigma in 6.1 into a new metaphorical coinage. Guido Cavalcanti is  eminently wise and is described so in the Florentine context (“un de’ mi gliori loici che avesse il mondo e ottimo filosofo naturale” [6.9.8]). What  Getto calls “the art of living” is nothing but a search for wisdom expressed  in the literary form of the challenge, of the enigma, of the motto set within  Florentine civilization. Although knowledge may result in a violent and  competitive act, it also involves a productive moment: knowledge is the  virtue of intelligent minds (but just a few have it) and can also be trans mitted and taught, as long as we are willing to learn. Cisti gives to Messer  Geri a lesson on courtesy and on how to live one’s own life, and Messer  Geri is gracious and humble enough to accept the lesson: “Il che rappor tando il famigliare a messer Geri, subito gli occhi gli s’apersero dello ’ntel letto e disse al famigliare: – Lasciami vedere che fiasco tu vi porti; – e ve dutol disse: – Cisti dice vero; – e dettagli villania gli fece torre un fiasco  convenevole” (6.2.26, emphasis added). Not surprisingly, the comprehen sion of the motto is here associated with sight, as sight was linked to the  ancient knowledge of Dionysus and Apollo; moreover, the vision of the  future was the primitive feature of the knowledge of the truth.68  The central theme of the Sixth Day is not merely represented by a ver bal challenge, and intelligently varied in its own parodic aspects, but is  also manifested in a peculiar form of narrative; namely, the form of dis course that Boccaccio calls motto. The characteristics and formal features  of the motto show how this metaphorical device can be considered not  only a structuring feature of Boccaccio’s discourse, but also a “veil,” a po etic strategy that is able both to conceal and to reveal philosophical  knowledge. If we consider the first tale of the Sixth Day (Madonna Oretta’s  tale) as a one whose primary purpose is to guide the reader to an under standing of the whole day by means of an enigma, it is then possible to  read the entire Sixth Day of the Decameron as a series of literary enigmas  in the form of the motto. Furthermore, it is possible to interpret the func tion of the motto as a peculiar literary form of recognition that leads the  characters to a shift from ignorance to knowledge. The motto, indeed, has  67 Freedman 234.  68 Colli, Sapienza 20.  http://www.heliotropia.org/10/andrei.pdf  39  Heliotropia 10.1-2 (2013)   http://www.heliotropia.org  the same formal features and contextual characteristics of the ancient  enigma with which pre-Socratic philosophers exercised their own search  for knowledge. At the time the Decameron, the oppositional elements  characterizing the ancient problémata were still practiced in dialectic  controversies and still preserved all their primordial vividness while  providing Boccaccio with a completely renewed narrative form as opposed  to that of the Novellino. Even the archetypical and tragic atmosphere that  surrounded the accounts of ancient enigmas — particularly the mortal  danger of defeat in the dialectical challenge between two wise men —  stands in the characters’ historical background. 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