Handel's RINALDO (1711): Libretto: G. Rossi (Mercato di Fieno, Londra)

Speranza

(K. Kaimaki)

The idea that music is graced with poetic content is as old as the mythical history of music itself.

Scott Burnham, “How Music Matters: Poetic Content Revisited”

In the above quote, Burnham makes a very interesting observation. Speech andmusic must have coexisted from the very beginnings of cultural development.

Part of that cultural development was storytelling; this pastime activity of early culture evolvedinto great forms of poetry: epic poetry, tragedy and opera, to name just a few. Beforeanyone can delve into comparing characters from these three genres – which at firstsight might appear as fundamentally different in form, content and presentation – onemust point out the similarities and differences that make such a comparison possible. Inthe remaining pages of this introduction, I will attempt to delineate some commonelements between ancient Greek tragedy, Italian epic poetry of the Renaissance and Italian opera seria.

Tragedy was meant to be acted out, both for the entertainment andeducation of the Athenian public. Epic poetry was recited at festivities, again as a formof entertainment. Opera combined word with music and theatre and created a unique artform. All three share the same origins, and these origins I will try to point out. I intendto show that the common denominator of all three genres is essentially the spokenword, through which characters are conjured up into temporary existence and that – even though the ends of each genre might differ from each other – the common goal of all three is the entertainment and education of the spectator.Let us turn our attention first to ancient Greek tragedy

1. As A.M. Nagler observes: “Greek tragedy had its roots in the choric dithyramb” (3), which makes two points in one already from the start: tragedy originated from some kind of poetry – the

Although from a historical point of view it would be more appropriate to start with epic poetry, Ideliberately start with tragedy, because I am not interested in the history of ancient Greek poetry ingeneral. Where it is necessary in the pages on Italian epic poetry, comparisons with ancient Greek epic poetry will be drawn.

dithyramb – and its roots are also musical, the dithyramb being a sung poem. Historiansseem to agree that the man who changed the dithyramb into tragedy was Thespis of Icaria, a “[p]laywright, actor, stage director, and producer” (3) who also seems to havegiven the first actual performance of a tragedy around 536 or 534 B.C. in the CityDionysia of Athens, after an invitation of Pisistratus. The way then was paved for thethree greatest Athenian playwrights: Aeschylus (525-4 B.C. – 456-5 B.C.), Sophocles(ca. 495 B.C. – 406 B.C.) and Euripides (ca. 480 B.C. – ca. 407 B.C.). Nagler quotes ananonymous biographer of Aeschylus, who explains what innovations he brought to thetheatre:Aeschylus was the first to advance tragedy by means of a more exalted passion. He introduced scenicdecorations – paintings, machinery, altars, tombs,trumpets, spirits, Furies – whose splendor delighted theeyes of the audience. He also supplied the actors withsleeved and full-length robes and heightened the buskinsto increase their stature. (5)It seems then from this report that Aeschylus was the first to realize thattragedy required an elaborate show of elements extraneous to the spoken word. Poetryalone was not enough to satisfy the demands of the Athenian spectators. These technicalinnovations would also prove extremely important in the future for the popularity of opera.When dealing with tragedy, it is impossible to overlook what Aristotle had tosay about it in his
Poetics.

As Stephen Halliwell points out: “Aristotle’s Poetics occupies a highly special, indeed unique, position in the long history of Westernattitudes to literature” (3). This treatise on “both poetry in general and the capacity of each of its genres” (1147a1) was composed two centuries after the first tragedies hadtheir premieres in Athens. During those two centuries hundreds of plays had been performed, but still the most important playwrights remained the original three.However, the genre had existed long enough for it to have some unspoken rules of composition and performance, rules that Aristotle attempted to analyze. As KennethMcLeish observes: “Aristotle’s conclusions were never meant to be prescriptive; theywere, rather, a summary of all evidence so far available, with conclusions drawn fromit” (6) or as A. O. Rorty notes: “[…] the Poetics
is a book of technical advice, as well asa functionally oriented anatomy” (3). Aristotle’s contribution to tragedy should be seenas a scientific observation on poetry and not only as the ultimate course book on poetic perfection.At this point, it would be reasonable to introduce that famous definition of tragedy, as it is given in the
Poetics
:Tragedy, then, is mimesis of an action which is elevated,complete, and of magnitude; in language embellished bydistinct forms in its sections; employing the mode of enactment, not narrative; and through pity and fear accomplishing the catharsis of such emotions. (1449b24-28)Although most interpreters of this definition are “most vexed” (17) by the term“catharsis”, which never truly gets resolved in any of Aristotle’s works, I will not gointo the analysis of this part here. Instead, I will focus briefly on the aspect of languagethat tragedy employs.As Jean-Pierre Vernant observes: “The Greek word muthos means formulatedspeech, whether it be a story, a dialogue, or the enunciation of a plan” (34). In tragedy, this formulated speech is “language with rhythm and melody, and […] some parts areconveyed through metrical speech alone, others again through song” (1149b29-30).Here again music interferes with language. Poetry is enriched by it. So, even thoughtragedy required what we today might call special effects, the action was achieved primarily through a metrical use of language and music. Poetry, then, is a medium torepresent and act out a special event. It is not at all strange that everyday language wasnot considered to be the appropriate way to portray an important action. Again Vernantnotes that “in contrast to epic and lyric, where the category of action is not representedsince man is never envisaged as an agent, tragedy presents individuals engaged inaction” (33).This last observation introduces us to the next poetic genre: the epic. Naturally, here again one has to refer to Aristotle’s treatise: “Now, epic and tragic poetry […] are all, taken as a whole, kinds of mimesis” (1447a13-16). Elsewhere hedraws a few comparisons between the two genres: epic and tragedy are “mimesis of elevated matters in metrical language” (1149b8-10); but the metre employed in epic poetry remains unchanged throughout, whereas tragedy uses different kinds of metres(1449b10-11); also different is their length, not just the length of the text itself, but theduration of the described story (1449b11-16). Further down in the treatise Aristotleexplains that:As regards narrative mimesis in verse, it is clear that plots, as in tragedy, should be constructed dramatically,that is, around a single, whole, and complete action, with beginning, middle, and end, so that epic, like a single (Aristotle observes of course that “the iambic trimeter, more than any other metre, has the rhythm of speech” (1449a23-24). This however does not mean that ancient Greeks spoke in poetic metres everyday, nor created the kinds of elevated language tragedy used in their everyday usage of language) whole animal, may produce the pleasure proper to it.(1459a16-20)Finally, a little further he states that: “epic, should encompass the same types as tragedy,namely simple, complex, character-based, rich in suffering; […] it requires reversals,recognitions, and scenes of suffering, as well as effective thought and diction” (1459b8-13). These extensive references, then, show that tragedy shares many similarities to epic poetry; essentially that the two genres are connected in many ways, such as the use of metrical language, dense plots, elevated episodes and characters that are larger than life.

However, these ideals were lost in obscurity for many centuries after Aristotle had put them together. As a result, in the history of Western literature, one can observe avery interesting evolution in the epic genre, especially in Renaissance Italy.

Naturally the poets closer to the original sources of Homer, like Virgil and Ovid produced poems of similar character.

But, the important thing to keep in mind is that from imitation,eventually new styles were created through experimentation.

The great Italian poets of the Trecento – Dante, Boccaccio and Petrarca – found their own personal voice and style, therefore moving poetry a step further.

When at last, during the Cinquecento Ludovico Ariosto (1474-1533) takes the reins from Matteo Maria Boiardo (1441-1494) to complete the latter’s unfinished poem "Orlando Innamorato"
(1483 and 1495), Italian epic poetry has almost nothing in common with the original ancient Greek works.

We are not talking about pure epic poetry now, but about “narrative poetry” (Marinelli 233) or “chivalric romance” (238).

Ariosto’s poetry is pervaded by a sense of decorum and he had an eye diplomatically alert for opportunities to bridge the gap between the world of his imagination and the world of daily reality, being employed at the Ferrarese court.

Ariosto is completely unaware of the Aristotelian demands on epic poetry.

Instead he is influenced by Neoplatonic theories as one can observe in the different kinds of love that are celebrated in his poem.

Two kinds of love, destructive and creative, the insania and amore umano
of the Neoplatonists, arequite deliberately poised against each other as balancing points of the large design”(235). What Ariosto’s poem is also lacking, is the absolutely serious style in which epic poetry needs to be composed. Ariosto is constantly making ironic comments about hisheroes, their actions, his own literary sources; and he is making fun of himself as anarrator too:The poem is therefore Virgilian, Carolingian andmodern, and its creator, utilizing the unlikely medium of a comic masterpiece ultimately springing from popular sources, aims to make it the most comprehensiveexemplar of the genre and to challenge the classical epicas well. Boiardan, Virgilian and Neoplatonic influences,all of them important in the culture of contemporaryFerrara, flow in upon the Furioso, which absorbs andreconciles them all. (Marinelli 239)Ariosto writes not in order to teach or educate his courtly audiences, but to entertain.Barbara Reynolds remarks on the subject: “The
Orlando Furioso is above all a poem to be enjoyed; the chief aim of its creator was to give delight” (11). At the same timehowever, he is leaving his distinctive mark on the genre of epic or narrative poetry.Additionally, as Marianne Shapiro notes: “His poem cannot be thought of simply as atransformation of myth into literature that gives a concrete example of a decline invalue” (326). Ariosto is fully aware of the society he writes for and about and presentsits vices and virtues in a masked way, as only very observant artists can do.

Ironically, Aristotle’s Poetics
were rediscovered around the same time.

Ariosto escapes criticism – and there would be much, since his poem is indeed very distant from Aristotle’s ideal epic – but Torquato Tasso (1544-1593) falls right into the debate, which had as a result his revision of his extremely successful epic "La Gerusalemme Liberata da Goffredo" (Ferrara, 1581), into the complete failure of the "Gerusalemme Conquistata" (1593).

Tasso himself had the aspiration to become even better than all of his predecessors inthe genre.

In "La Gerusalemme Liberata da Goffredo" therefore, he borrows from popular sources and uses the material in an entirely different manner than those before him.

Two of his poetic accomplishments stand out.

First, his characters – protagonists and minor characters – are very well constructed.

The Liberata is at its strongest in the creation of characters, disposed in recurring patterns and relationships.

His second accomplishment is in the theatricality of the descriptions.

The poet is fullyconscious of the dramatic aspect of his presentation.

He “conceives of the worldas a theatre with many stages. The concept of theatrum mundi
, of life as spectacle,occupies a central place in Tasso’s thought.

This worldview is wonderfullycaptured in his poetry.

Tasso can be equally succinct in lines whichencapsulate the dramatic intensity of a moment in the narrative” (xxi). It seems then thatTasso finds a way to unite epic poetry with its offspring, tragedy, in a unique manner.

Without knowing it too, Tasso made it possible for music to find its way into epic poetry in a fashion that would pave the way for the first opera some years later.

These qualities were recognized by contemporary readers and its Europe-wide influence, not just on poetry but on music and painting as well, was immense for atleast the next 250 years” (xix).

We are thinking of the "Combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda" (1624) by Claudio Monteverdi, that implements three different voices to represent Tancredi, Clorinda and the narrator.

Its compositiontakes place of course later than that of the first opera, but in it we find the “tradition of the virtuoso madrigal performance” (“sondern steht in der Tradition der virtuosen Madrigalistik”) (Schmierer 8),where music is implemented throughout the piece.

With this comment it is now high time to move on to the last genre in thisdiscussion: the
opera seria.

It is important to make two observations immediately. First, opera seria
is not to be confused with the first operas – namely those by Jacopo Peri, Claudio Monteverdi, Francesco Cavalli and their contemporaries – that were performed between ca. 1600 and 1700.

This first century of operatic compositions is markedlydifferent from anything that came after it; and of course, opera seria is not to beconfused with what followed after Mozart’s La clemenza di Tito
(1791). We canunderstand then that the
opera seria
– serious opera – flourishes between ca. 1700 and1759.

 Second, we will be dealing with a "sub-genre" in the opera seria, which is the so-called
"Zauber Oper" (opera magica), and which signifies essentially the subject matter of the works themselves.

This means that certain elements that apply to the opera seria, might be slightly different in the subgenre that is being focused on.

During the past few pages, we have strived to make plain that there is aconnection between tragedy and music and epic poetry and music. T

he reason for thiswill be explained very briefly here.

According to popular legend, the idea for this newform of entertainment originated from a quest to recreate the ancient Greek tragedy inits absolute correct way of performance. The “Florentine Camerata”, a group of aristocrats, intellectuals and artists at the court of Count Giovanni Bardi in Florenceoperated under the assumption that: “Greek tragedy, even in the dialogue andmonologue parts, and not just during the choruses, was performed in song” (Trödle-Weintritt 41). It could be a valid thought, since, as Pavlos Kaimakis claims: “If we had (Historically speaking, this opera is considered by many musicologists and historians as the last opera seria). 1759 is the year of G. F. Handel’s death. J. S. Bach died in 1750, and this date is considered the endof the baroque era and the beginning of the classical in the history of music (Michels 301).

(The term "opera magica" was used by the great scholar Winton Dean.

Unfortunately, the treatise in which the term isintroduced is out of print.

However, Beate Heinel refers to it in her book "Die Zauber Oper: Studien zuihrer Entwicklungsgeschichte anhand ausgewählter Beispiele von den Anfängen bis zum Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts. Frankfurt am Main: Europäischer Verlag der Wissenschaften, 1994. Print).

the chance to ask the ancient Greeks how they perceive their own civilization, theywould probably speak of a mostly musical civilization.

This idea of the reasonand the persons that were involved in the creation of opera, has been treated with a lotof skepticism in recent musicological researches. However, since that is not the subjectof this paper, we will not go into it. Regarding the subject matter of opera at the beginning, generally, during most of its first century, the themes were inspired byancient Greek myths and legends, actual historical events of Greece and Rome and – bythe middle of the 17th century – by such Italian epics as Orlando Innamorato,Orlando Furioso,Gerusalemme Liberata
and the poetry of Luigi Pulci and Boccaccio (Leopold108).

Librettists chose episodes that included a lot of love, sensuality and conflict.

Episodes that had a magical hero – witch or warlock – were preferred, because they gave the opportunity for showy musical pieces and plenty of refined and extravagant sets that dazzled the spectator.

To give just one example, Werner Wunderlich lists someoperas inspired by the Ruggiero-Alcina episode in Ariosto's Orlando Furioso (Ferrara).

1) Francesca Caccini’s "Liberazione di Ruggiero dall’ isola d’ Alcina"(1625)

2) Francesco Cavalli’s La Bradamante (1650)

3) Antonio Vivaldi’s "Orlando Furioso" (1727)

4) Riccardo Broschi’s "Bradamante nell’ isola d’ Alcina" (1729)

5) G. F. Handel’s "Alcina" (1735)

6) JosephHaydn’s "Orlando Paladino" (1782)

In the case of the
opera seria
, we are concerned primarily with its form – bothmusical and literary: the libretto, which is the text that is being set to music, consists of recitatives and arias. The recitatives can be either a poetic text written in metre or a

“In der Annahme, dass die griechische Tragödie auch über Choreinlagen hinaus gesungen wordensei” (41).

Αν είχαμε τη δυνατότητα να ρωτήσουμε τους αρχαίους Έλληνες πώς οι ίδιοι βλέπουν τον πολιτισμότους, θα μας μιλούσαν μάλλον για έναν πολιτισμό κυρίως μουσικό”

In short, there is not sufficient evidence to prove that the attribution of the theoretical aspect of the project and the reason for the new interpretation of an old genre are accurate. See Leopold, Silke.
DieOper im 17. Jahrhundert. Handbuch der musikalischen Gattungen.
Band 11. Germany: Laaber-Verlag,2004. Print.

linear sentence. They can also be in the form of a dialogue with two or more heroesinteracting, or a monologue, where one hero expresses certain ideas before plunging intoan aria. The aria is most usually in the form of a
da capo: musically this means that theexposition – or part A – of the piece, will be repeated with ornamentations after part Bhas been sung (Scharnagl et al 60). Poetically, the first part is usually a bit moreextensive than the second part, always in metre and sometimes even with rhymingcouplets, but the key characteristic is that certain words placed in the right position, will be repeated during the aria. These words are almost always nouns that express a certainkind of emotion (love, despair, hate, affection etc) or an invocation to the Gods.Following the new directions constructed by the Accademia dell’ Arcadia

the plot is – theoretically at least – directed again back to the Aristotelian ideals for tragedy: “Unityof place, time and plot, observation of the appropriateness of style, according to whichtragedy should concern itself with people of high ranks, comedy with low ranks […] andthe fact that these ranks must never intermingle” (Leopold 324)

.These directions,along with a few more that concerned themes, plots and endings were hardly ever kept by librettists and composers, who had to abide by the popular taste of their audiences.All in all, however,
opera seria

was in the end constructed like a tragedy, whether itwanted this or not.

The heroes were of high rank, they suffered losses and made tragic mistakes, they loved with passion and hated with ardour, fought with valiant spirit and were – most of the times – magnanimous.

But what they practically never did, was die.

This brings us back to that “vexed” term in Aristotle’s definition of tragedy:“catharsis”.

Catharsis is not understood as a happy ending in tragedy. It is simply the


(This group of artists, intellectuals and aristocrats was founded in the autumn of 1690 and played animportant role in improving the studies on Italian literature and discourse, as well as setting some rulesfor the operatic libretto (Leopold 322))

(“Die Beachtung der Einheit von Ort, Zeit und Handlung, die Einhaltung der Stilhöhenregel, nach der die Tragödie von hochgeborenen, die Komödie von niedriggeborenen […], sowie das Verbot, dieseEbenen zu vermischen.)

return to the natural order of things, where the hero is punished for his misdeeds or rewarded for his kindness.

It is also understood as an uplifting of the emotions of thespectator: “It is evident throughout the
Poetics
that pity and fear are regarded as apt andindeed necessary emotions to be felt towards the suffering characters of tragedy”(Halliwell 18); having suffered together with the heroes for a while, the spectator cannow be purified of this psychological pain: “in some sense [catharsis] completes[Aristotle’s] account of the genre by framing the experience of it as psychologicallyrewarding and ethically beneficial” (19). Ancient Greek tragedy, to that effect, alloweddeaths, murders and suicides during the performance. The
opera seria
on the other handshunned on-stage deaths. They disrupted the
lieto fine
– the happy ending. It is a wellknown fact among musicologists that this term – much like the term of catharsis – isextremely controversial and not as simple to comprehend as it may seem. F. W.Sternfeld observes that “[f]ew periodical or dictionary articles deal with the term or theconcept specifically; rather, its discussion is buried in monographs on such topics asopera, libretto, finale or ensemble”
(“lieto fine”). This is particularly striking, especiallyif we take into consideration that most operas during the first two centuries of thegenre’s existence, ended happily (Sternfeld). This
lieto fine
also takes various kinds of forms in its representation, which will not concern us here. What is important to keep inmind is that great composers and librettists often bent the rules, but did it in such amanner, that the
lieto fine
was nevertheless upheld

I would like to maintain that the
lieto fine
may not exactly serve the same function for
opera seria
, as did catharsis for ancient Greek tragedy. However, the happy ending signifies the return to the natural
12

For example, deaths of all kinds – murders, combats, suicides – happen quite often in Handel’sgreatest operas, as well as in operas of his contemporaries.

But they happen because otherwise the lieto fine
would not be fulfilled. This is unfortunately a very long and entirely different matter that cannot betackled here.

order of things, where the lovers can finally be joined and the conflicting powers beappeased.Before I turn my attention to the three heroines that are the subject matter of this analysis, I will give a brief summary of some of the characteristics of the
Zauberoper, as they are stated by Beate Heinel:On the other hand, Winton Dean in his work on Handel’s operas used the term "OPERA MAGICA" anddefined it as a subgenre or a variation of the opera seria.

However, in his analysis of the individual operas, heemphasizes the magic that is being conjured up throughscenic effects, instead of focusing on the musicalcharacterization of the magical action or the reactionsthat are produced as a result. (12)

Heinel may be somewhat negatively preoccupied by Dean’s definition that excludes themusical aspect of the magic scenes, but one has to keep in mind that the audience of aLondon theatre of the early 18
th
century would be most surprised and dazzled by trickyset changes and extravagant usages of the available machinery, rather than the musicalaspect ascribed to a particular scene – even if that music was by Handel himself! Shegoes on by listing some more elements of the
Zauberoper
: “[t]he magic figure”
14
(28)and naturally, the “magic object”
15
(28), “the magical action”
16
(34) which in turn is
13
“Zum anderen prägt Winton Dean in seiner Arbeit über die Opern Händels den Begriff der OPERA MAGICA und definiert diese als Untergattung bzw. Variante der Opera seria. […] Doch setzt auch er beider Analyse der einzelnen Opern den stärkeren Akzent auf die durch Zauber hervorgerufenenszenischen Effekte, als auf die musikalischen Ausprägung der magischen Aktionen bzw. die dadurchausgelösten Reaktionen.” (12)
14
“Die magische Gestalt” (28)
15
“Zauberrequisit” (28)
16
“Die magische Aktion” (34)

divided into the “conjuring of spirits”
17
(34), the “spell of horror and love”
18
(35) andother forms of magic spells. These elements of the
Zauberoper

are clearly poetical – asin the spell that a witch or warlock evokes to achieve something magical; musical – as inthe music that will dress the poetry into a magical and possibly frightening piece; andrepresentational – as in the wands and costumes, masks and other artefacts that denotethe magic in an iconic fashion. Now that the evolution of the genres has been explained, I need to address theissue of chapter order in this work.

There were obviously two ways of ordering the chapters concerning the witches: the first would be to put Medea at the beginning – since Euripides pre-dates Ariosto and Tasso – Alcina second, for the same reason, andArmida last.

In a sense we would discuss the texts as they appeared in history.

But Handel did not compose his operas in that order and so the dilemma arose: perhaps we should place the chapters in the order that Handel composed his operas?

Again a new problemcame up:

What of Rinaldo?

Handel re-worked "Rinaldo" (1711) at least five times and there is one version from 1731 that has significant changes in the end of the work.

Which version should one choose?

Thankfully the answer to that final question was delivered tome by all the opera houses that have ever performed a Rinaldo: it seems that only thefirst version of 1711 gets to be performed, clearly because it is a lot funnier than the1731 version.

To the observing eye, however, it is clear that there is an evolution of sorts within these four operas (including the 1731 version of Rinaldo); and because we are interested in the inner workings of their creation, I decided to place the chapters inthe order of the composition of the operas.

To put it all in a nutshell, the attempt to show that Tasso’s Armida, Euripides’Medea and Ariosto’s Alcina have any relation to their operatic counterparts in Handel’s

(“Die Beschwörung der Geister” (34) -- “Schreckens- und Liebeszauber” (35)

Rinaldo, Teseo, and, Ruggiero, respectively, is not invalid from a comparative point of view.It is my opinion that the three genres I have analysed, operate on common grounds and – most importantly – communicate through the centuries with each other. I will now turnmy attention to the comparison of the texts, and the evolution or backformation of thecharacters in their different realizations.
Armida: a fortunate failure and Handel’s lucky witch
Oh you, who takePart of me with you, and leave part behind,Take one or give the other back, or makeBoth die.

Gerusalemme Liberata
, XVI, 40

19
Ah! Crudel,Il pianto mio deh! Ti mova per pietà!O infedel al mio desio proveraiLa crudeltà!
20

Rinaldo
, Atto II, Scena VIIIAs I have explained in the introductory chapter, I will turn my attention first tothe literary text that historically seen, comes last.

The discussion then will begin withthe examination of Armida, Torquato Tasso’s powerful sorceress and Handel’s first attempt at the genre of magic opera.

Tasso’s Armida is clearly a major character in his Gerusalemme Liberata
(1581) and it is not at all strange that she inspired composers to important masterpieces

(21
. At the same time Armida has been analyzed as an interestingsymbol regarding the evolution of epic poetry in Tasso’s time; a point that will bediscussed briefly here as well. However, it is our intention to focus more on Armida’sfailures in Tasso’s epic and to analyze her unique position in all of Handel’s operas thatcontain a sorceress.

It was observed in the introduction that Tasso stood at a crossroads when he began composing his epic poem. In the aftermath of Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso it was

(The English translation that we use as a primary source is by Max Wicker

(“Ah! Cruel man, let my tears move you, have pity on me. Else, infidel, you will know the cruelty of my spurned desire” All translations of the Italian libretto are taken from the
Rinaldo
DVD as cited inthe Works Cited.

(For more information on composers inspired by Tasso’s Armida, see Silke Leopold and RobertMaschka as cited in the Works Cited).

difficult for any aspiring Italian poet to establish himself.

Not only that, but therediscovered Aristotelian doctrines regarding epic poetry forced Tasso to take a morerestricted stance in his composition, moving away from his predecessors.

It thus becomes clear that Tasso, as a neoclassicist, really sought toconform with principles of taste which he himself had helped to establish and wished toillustrate, striving to move away from licenses that he condemned, from the‘romanticism’ of Ariosto and Boiardo.

As a result, his
Gerusalemme Liberata
isvery different from the two epics by Boiardo and Ariosto; at the same time, however, itretains certain elements that depict clearly Tasso’s connection to his immediate literary past.

One of the things that are markedly different in Tasso is the subject.

His poemwas based on historical facts, conforming to a rule he himself made up – a rule drawnalso from Vergil’s Aeneid
– as Helen M. Briggs comments:Consequently both the
Aeneid
and the
Gerusalemme
conformto the rule laid down by Tasso that

the argument shall, in the noblest kind of epic, be drawn from history.

The poet must not, however, treat his material after the manner of the historian, otherwise his work will become nothing but aversified chronicle.

This new form of epic then would retell a historical fact, enriched with new elements, both realistic and unrealistic.

Also in keeping with Aristotelian rules, this new epicwould have a limited stage where the events unfold.

I am referring to the unity of place,which “is respected by Tasso much more than by Ariosto” (Roditi 239).

A veryinteresting fact we need to comment upon briefly, is that Tasso revised his
Gerusalemme Liberata
a few years later, and turned it into the
Gerusalemme Conquistata
(1593).

The new version, a result of severe mental illness and criticism the poet had suffered regarding his first version, was a complete failure.

The second version conformed absolutely to the rules of epic poetry that Tasso had helped to establish andTasso himself considered it better than the original.

However, in spite of the poet’s premature comparison of this latest offspring of hisgenius – the obstetrical metaphor is Tasso’s own – to the transfigured Beatrice […], the
Conquistata was still-born.

The text posterity has chosen to remember is that of the Liberata.

The new version was stripped of all elements that had raised the Liberata to the pantheon of classical writings.

The Gerusalemme Liberata may be an epic about the first crusade, but at thesame time it is also a fictitious adventure.

Part of this adventure for the Christian knightsis the confrontation with the sorceress Armida, who is the niece of Hydraoth, the king of Damasco (IV, 20, 23).

The introduction of Armida is one of those elements thatmake the epic something more than just a simple retelling of historical facts.

For the first reason [i.e. that it is based onhistorical facts] Tasso introduces into the Gerusalemme
the story of Armida, for whomthere is no historical warrant.

Armida is truly an intriguing character, to saythe least.

She dominates the beginning and the end of the poem.

Armida’s first appearance happens in the fourth canto.

The poet describes her in a lovely and at the same time dark fashion:

All the Orient/no beauty to outshine her beauty shows./Each darkest trick, each subtlest blandishment/a woman or a witch can ply she knows” (IV, 23).

Further down the description continues: “Like gold her hair onemoment gleams, lovely/through veils, then unveiled glitters from each tress” (IV, 29) or one stanza down: “A tint of roses in her fair face plays,/sprinkled on ivory, minglingwith the white;/but on her mouth, warm with love’s breath, there glows/alone in simple ruddiness the rose” (IV, 30). A very characteristic element of Armida is the game of veiling and unveiling she plays with the knights in order to seduce them.

The “secret places” (IV, 31) are partly hidden and partly exposed “so Mind will in her daring penetrate/the veiled, forbidden regions, and, these won,/roam through them freely, thereto contemplate/the truth of countless marvels, one by one” (IV, 32). Sergio Zattiobserves on this instance.

The figure of Armida marks the entrance of Eros as the art of seduction into Italian poetry.

Armida represents Eros in all of its aspects, with its unpredictable mutations and contradictions.Actually, Tasso has invented a figure quite different fromVirgil’s Dido or the various Medeas of classical antiquity.

Neither Dido nor Medea was a temptress, whereas Armida plays this role in the Liberata
from the beginning.

Her politicalstrategy is made up of a cunning verbal simulation (her falsewords form a mantle
and a veil
disguising her true intentions)that is not different from her erotic seduction, conceived as ateasing game of ostentation (nudity) and feigned reluctance(covering), and played as an illusionistic transparency behindher
mantles
and
veils
. (207)

He also continues by making an intriguing connection between Armida’s fluidity andthe general aspect of baroque ideology: “The protean nature of her being is that of the baroque universe itself, split between ‘being’ and ‘appearing’: Armida can assume anendless variety of identities, metamorphosing herself according to circumstances and the person she addresses” (208). This ability is displayed throughout her narration toGoffredo of Bouillon, the leader of the crusaders, of her misfortunes at the hands of her uncle and her plea to Goffredo to assist her (IV, 39-64). The actual purpose to thisinvented story Armida tells, is to seduce Goffredo and his knights and lead them away toother kinds of conquest, removing the threat the Christian army poses to the heathenwarriors, locked up behind the walls of Jerusalem.

Sergio Zatti confirms this, makingalso another point about Armida being a symbol of dissimulation:In the
Liberata
most of the negative uses of dissimulation areembodied in the figure of Armida, who manipulates her weapons of seduction and sorcery to achieve a single end – that of drawing the crusaders, and in particular their leader Goffredo, away from their holy mission and into the trap of Venus. (206)Here we have her first failure. Goffredo is not the least bit impressed by “Armida’s‘mortali dolcezze’ (lethal charms)” (Zatti 179), because he is protected by divine powersand is impervious to any form of seduction. The same thing happens with Tancredi; hetoo remains unaffected, but for an entirely different reason.

However, even thoughArmida does not succeed in her initial mission, she manages to take from Goffredo asignificant number of his best knights and removes them from the camp (V, 77-84).

She also brings discord to the camp, which has as a result the self-imposed banishment of RINALDO D'ESTE, the champion of the crusaders, in order to redeem himself after murdering one of the other knights (5.19-59).

Indeed Armida fails in her primary goal, but not everything is lost for her cause, since she manages to capture good warriors and remove them effectively from the battlefield.

Armida’s next failure happens in the seventh canto.

She has locked herself andher knights inside a magic castle.

There is however no evidence of her indulging inamorous games with her prisoners.

By all accounts she keeps the knights imprisoned,

(Tancredi’s extreme passion for Clorinda protects him from Armida’s charms).

without sexually using them.

When Tancredi arrives at her castle, she simply sends outher champion – one of the former crusaders – to stop him. Armida “perched on high,[…] sits at ease,/hid where, though unseen, she both hears and sees” (VII, 36) and protects her champion once he gets into serious trouble unable to defeat Tancredi.

As aresult, Tancredi is lured into the magic castle and remains a prisoner of the sorceress.

When at last Armida is ordered by Hydraoth to deliver her captives to him, the knights are saved by Rinaldo while on the way to Damasco (X, 70-72).

Armida then fails for a second time.

She is unable to keep the knights in her palace and then deliver them asslaves to her uncle.

Armida’s third failure is probably what makes this character so incredibly aliveand interesting.

She vows to avenge herself on Rinaldo, who has released the captiveknights and comes up with a magical plan: to lure him to a barren island AND KILL HIM.

The poet describes this accordingly:

Like a sly huntress now Armida lurks/for Rinaldo at the ford” (XIV, 57).

Once Rinaldo is lulled to sleep on the desolate island sheapproaches him, but cannot strike the blow because she falls in love with him.

But when she fixed those eyes on him to see his calm face as he drew breath, soft and light,his eyes that seemed to smile so charmingly, though closed (if they now opened, what delight!), she halts, transfixed, and next him presently sits down to gaze, feeling her rage and spitestilled as she hangs above him, marveling, thus (who would credit it?) the slumbering heathid in his eyes melted the ice that madeher heart harder than adamant, and lo!

(she has turned lover who was once his foe. (XIV, 66-67)

Armida's  passion for Rinaldo is so strong that she also decides to take Rinaldo away.

She transports him to the Fortunate Isles, where she creates a perfect illusionary garden and palace andhides with her lover (XIV, 69-70).

In the creation of the magic palace – and itssubsequent destruction again through Armida – the reader gets a taste of her truemagical potential, as Robert Durling points out:

The art of Armida’s palace is magic.

Writing in the tradition of Boiardo and Ariosto, Tasso consciously tried to outdo them inhis treatment of the enchantress theme.

Part of the novelty of his treatment lay in his Virgilian picture of the pleadingArmida, but he also tried to outdo them in his enchantress’magical virtuosity.

Armida, at first overcome by her incontinent passion for Rinaldo and later enraged by hisdeparture,
both builds and destroys her palace instantaneously by means of black magic.

RUGGIERO-RINALDO, ALCINA-ARMIDA

The palace and garden too are close references to Ariosto’s sorceress, Alcina.

Those gardens in turn are modeled on actual gardens the poet had himself seen; and EdouardRoditi explains that those gardens were inspired by a completely different source,retaining an invisible thread of subjects that span from Arthurian legends right intoArmida’s enchanted garden:

The Arthurian cycle remains, however, more evident: it isrecalled by such incidents, now thoroughly endemic to Italianheroic romance, as the supernatural other-world of Armida’sgarden, itself borrowed from Alcina’s garden in Ariosto,which, in turn was but an unconscious adaptation of a Celtic
theme and, to some extent, also a stylized description of gardens that the poet had actually seen, such as the pleasure-dome of the Este family, the Belvedere built on an island in thePo. (242)

Armida then is perceived once again as a symbol of continuity and novelty at the sametime within the literary tradition. Apart from the magnificent garden, the palace itself isa very well constructed place.

Tasso describes in detail the various defenses with whichArmida’s palace is equipped. It stands on a steep mountain; itsapproach is guarded by wild beasts; in the plain outside the palace itself is placed the ‘fonte del riso,’ the taste of whichinduces fatally uncontrollable laughter; two sirens arestationed in the lake formed by the fountain’s waters;Armida’s garden is in the center of a labyrinth of heavy walls.(336)

Everything attests to Armida’s powers and her exceptional strategic skills, fending off any intruder who might disturb her bliss with Rinaldo.

Armida’s third failure, as we described it above, is there simply as a test for Rinaldo and the two knights that go after him, Carlo and Ubaldo.

The idea behind this isquite simple.

 Rinaldo is an accomplished warrior in every way, even before he iscaptured by Armida.

Being youthful and very inexperienced in matters of emotions and honor – let us recall here that he had a very short temper, a result of which was his banishment from the crusaders army – he needs to be educated before he can liberateJerusalem.

He must learn temperance and self-control.

Armida, with her excesses andlasciviousness is the perfect teacher.

Before [Goffredo] can conquer the Moslem defenders of Jerusalem, he must restore unity in his own ranks, particularly with regard to the hero Rinaldo, whose defection and eventual return to the Christian army imitates the modelof Achilles and gives the poem its generally Iliadic shape.

The hero of the Liberata
, in order to reach the Christiantemple, must perforce pass through the ‘pagan’ garden of Armida.

The aim of the episode is to recover the lover thatmust be taken back to the battlegrounds.

Therefore Armida’s failure to killRinaldo is part of a well constructed plan to restore the champion of the Christian armyto his senses.

The fashion in which Carlo and Ubaldo find Rinaldo on Armida’s island isstrongly reminiscent of Ruggiero’s state while with Alcina; a fact that shows how muchTasso was under the influence of his poetic precursors.

The poet ascribes such power tothe lovers’ passions that nature itself is partaking in the whole act.

It seems all earthand waves and skies above/breathe the sweet scents and the sweet sighs of love” (XVI,16).

Inside this garden of wonders the couple is immersed in lustful games, completelyunaware of the two intruders:Lo! Between branch and branch meanwhile their sights pierce through the gloam and see, or seem to see,then clearly see the lover and his lass,he lying in her lap, she on the grass.Her veil parts at her bosom, and her hair,loosed to the warm breeze, lets its ringlets dance.She swoons in his caress, cheeks flushed and bare, while silver beads of sweat their charms enhance. (XVI, 17-18)Rinaldo is entirely stripped of his manhood; this transformation begins already in thefourteenth canto, when the hero, listening to the sirens’ lullaby, falls asleep and thus intoArmida’s trap.

The songs performed by Armida’sSiren in canto 14 not only lull Rinaldo to sleep, however. They also have ‘lulled his manhood,’ a point the narrator underlines by informing us that in Armida’s enchanted garden Rinaldo’s ‘sword, (not to speak of other things)’ has been ‘made effeminate athis side by too much luxury’”

Rinaldo is forced to realize the pitiful state inwhich he has fallen with the help of a shield that Ubaldo carries with him.

This isnecessary for the education of the hero.

BothRinaldo and Armida are overcome by passion, and the mission of Carlo and Ubaldorepresents the reinstatement of reason to control over the appetite, most probably bymeans of natural persuasion.

In his reflection on the shield Rinaldo sees “hissword, his very sword, ablaze/with womanish gauds, to luxury succumb./Adornmentmakes it seem a useless toy,/not the fierce tool a soldier might employ.

Once Rinaldo gets over his initial feelings of shame and remorse he decides to leave theisland immediately and return to the conquest.

In the remainder of the sixteenth canto, Tasso portrays masterfully the deeplove that Armida harbors for Rinaldo.

Once she realizes that he is escaping her, shefollows him and catches up with him and his liberators.

She confronts him in a highlyunusual and most unexpected way.

Instead of using her magic skills to imprison him andhis companions, or even of inflicting some kind of harm upon them, she tries toconvince him to take her with him.

She offers to become his willful slave and appear infront of everyone as another spoil of war:

 “When victors go, their captives do not
stay./Make whole your triumph, let your army see/one final trophy on your gloriousway” (XVI, 48).

This unexpected turn of events, even though it might appear assomewhat untrue and unrealistic, is a clear reference to Deuteronomy and a way for Tasso to preserve his sorceress in a comely fashion.

From the moment of Rinaldo’s attempted departure from thetemptress’ garden in canto 16, the poem portrays Armida asnot only a traditional enchantress but also a captive womanlike that of Deuteronomy, a figure taken up by writers such asJerome and Boccaccio in their defenses of pagan poetry.

By first transforming his sorceress into a pagan captive and then modifying the treatment this lovely captive should receive atthe hands of the conquerors, Tasso finds a way to avoid sacrificing Armida’s beauty and her poetic powers to the exigencies of Christian epic. (534)

What is meant by this is that, unlike Alcina who in the end is exposed as an ugly and very old woman, Armida may remain beautiful to the end.

The repercussions of such a choice, that moves Tasso away from his predecessors, are seen in the end.

Tasso’sstriking refusal to imitate his literary precursors by depicting his enchantress as ahideous hag appears to be a conscious aesthetic choice, one for which he compensates, if uneasily, by transforming Armida into a willing captive pagan woman who is thenliterally converted to the Christian cause.

Her evil power is not the fact that sheuses magic to make herself appear beautiful, but simply the fact that she stalls Rinaldo.

Armida, after all, does little more than keep Rinaldo from his duty” (Durling 338).

Her magic powers are so perfect that they “work[…] like art” (Zatti 210); somethingextremely important to Tasso, who seems to be identifying sometimes his sorceress with
©
the process of artistic creation.

There's a connection between Armida’s beauty and the process of literary composition.

Tasso insists onassociating Armida with pleasures and dangers both erotic and literary.

But equallyinsistently he refuses to unmask her beauty” (530).

In Armida’s soliloquy to Rinaldo inthis canto the reader understands also that the sorceress has truly fallen in love withRinaldo, and that – contrary to what might have been the impression up to that point –

she was A VIRGIN before she met Rinaldo.

To let one’s virgin flower be plucked, totame/a man to kneel at beauty’s tyrant feet” (XVI, 46) is Armida’s exclamation toRinaldo.

Galileo Galilei, quoted in John Black, observes this as well.

Armida is ayoung and beautiful virgin, who is truly enamoured of Rinaldo.

Full of sentiment, theyspend their hours in those repetitions of love, which are not repetitious to the heart; andtheir retirement, far from mankind, to the Fortunate Isles, has a certain romantic charmwhich it is impossible to describe”

There's a comparison between Spenser’s Acrasia, Ariosto’s Alcina, Homer’s Circe and Armida based on their uses of men:

Acrasia and Alcina are true Circes, while Armida remains virtuous UNTIL she falls in love with and makes love with Rinaldo.

Alcina’s lovers are transformed into plants, streams or beasts, and Acrasia’sinto beasts.

But Armida has no lover but Rinaldo, and the beasts outside her palace seem to have no connection with theknights she turns into fish in G. L., x, 65-66.

Acrasia is similar to Armida, however, in not owing her beauty to enchantment,as does Alcina. (335)

And we also get the impression that Rinaldo too harbors feelings for her in his response:“Armida, your distress/grieves me. Ah, that I might assuage your woe/and ease the
unwise ardour you confess!/I feel no hatred, do not scorn you, no!” (XVI, 53). Heknows, however, that he cannot take her with him, and thus abandons her on the island.Armida, before falling unconscious to the ground, curses him and claims she will followhim wherever he goes “a vengeful ghost” and “a blazing Fury” (XVI, 59).A truly heartbreaking scene follows, when Armida, returning to her senses,realizes she has been abandoned for good and tries to decide upon a course of action:‘Is he gone then,’ she said, ‘and could he goand thus forsake me with my life in doubt? […]And yet, do I still love him? Should I keepthis shore and, unavenged, sit down and weep?‘What more have tears to do with me? Have Ino other arts, no other weapons then?I will pursue him; no place, neither skynor the abyss, shall see him safe again. (XVI, 63-64)Eventually Armida decides to take immediate action and destroying everything sheherself created on the island, leaves and joins the Egyptian army that is preparing toassist the besieged Muslims of Jerusalem.

Which brings us to Armida’s last meetingwith Rinaldo and her final failure.The final canto of the Gerusalemme Liberata
is essentially the last and greatest battle of all.

On account of the number of the characters involved it clearly tops everyother conflict or combat that took place during the previous nineteen canti.

In the heatof the battle, Armida, who is fighting along the Egyptian army, attempts to kill Rinaldowith her bow and arrows. When she sees him for the first time again: “Wrath trembles in

(Although personally I consider the greatest combat of all, even greater than this final battle, thecombat of Tancredi and Clorinda in the twelfth canto. Some elements are clearly hastily done in theXX canto, because Tasso was under pressure to finish the epic and print it.)

For more information onthis last issue, see the Introduction of Mark Davie to
The Liberation of Jerusalem
.

her eyes, and mad desire” (XX, 61); she takes aim and – amid a lot of hesitation – shereleases the arrow: “The arrow flew, but with it flew her prayer/that it be spent in vainupon the air./She even wished the sharp dart would return/and pierce her own heart”(XX, 63-64).

Naturally and although the shot is very good, Rinaldo is unhurt andcontinues to fight against the Muslims.

Armida, enraged once again, releases a wholevolley of arrows, but again as she sends “dart after dart to wound his heart or head,/butas she shoots, Love wounds her heart instead” (XX, 65).

One by one the heathenwarriors are killed by the crusaders and Armida, who by now has ceased any attempt tokill Rinaldo, retreats alone to a place away from the battlefield: “She meanwhile reacheda dark and sheltered spot,/apt for the solitary death she sought” (XX, 122). However, the poet does not allow her to succeed, not even this time. Armida fails to commit suicide,not because she falters, but because Rinaldo has followed her and stops her before shecan pierce her heart with her arrow. Their reunion is described in a very dramatic way:averting her disdainful eyesfrom the dear face and fainted instantly.She fell, a flower snapped in half that lieswith limp neck bent; while, like a column, hewith one arm propped her side as she sank downand at her bosom loosened her rich gown,and bathed the wretched lady’s lovely faceand lovely breast with many a pitying tear. (XX, 128-129)

What follows is one of those puzzling moments that occur often in texts like that.

Rinaldo offers to become Armida’s champion once again and procure for her akingdom, under the condition that she be baptized; on the spur of the moment, apparently, since there exists no further preparation in the text, Armida accepts theterms.

This extraordinary resolution of the Armida plot is the result of Tasso’s break with tradition. Melinda Gough explains:Unwilling to unveil his sorceress and reject as false her loveliness, Tasso must devise some new way to temper theerotic and poetic dangers she embodies. The story of Armida’sconversion to Christianity constitutes such an innovation,substituting assimilation for the usual repudiation that wouldhave been Armida’s lot had she been exposed as an uglycrone. (533)At the same time, since Armida accepts the terms she is a novelty in the genre: “Takingup this position of submissive, captive woman and evoking the cutting of her own hair,Armida in effect becomes the first enchantress who offers to unveil herself” (539). Butthis conversion has also received some serious criticism, particularly on the basis of thelast words Armida utters in the epic: “‘Behold your handmaid,’ says she, ‘let your will/dispose of her and be her master still’” (XX, 136). The allusion is obvious: Armidauses the words the Virgin Mary addressed to Gabriel in Luke 1:38. Peter Marinellicriticizes: “At the end of the
Liberata, […] we must cope with the problem presented bythe final redemption of Armida, who uses the words of the Virgin to Gabriel: a solutionas astonishing as it seems distasteful” (247). It is indeed interesting that Tasso took sucha great risk with his sorceress. It is even more intriguing, if we consider the fact that thelove affair is left suspended in mid-air. There is no satisfying answer as to what happensto Rinaldo and Armida in the end. Rinaldo offers himself as her champion, but there isno discussion of marriage or any kind of romantic allusion.

One can of course claim, as
have some critics, that in doing this,
RINALDO IS ASKING ARMIDA TO MARRY HIM (and thus the Duca di Ferrara is the offspring of both Rinaldo AND Armida).

Theknight, however, soon declares his devotion to Armida in what many critics have takenas an offer of marriage.

But still “[t]he exact nature of Rinaldo’s promiseto Armida remains notoriously unclear”.

Rinaldo’s last words to Armida are thereto appease her, as Giovanni Da Pozzo explains.

Still, in canto XX Rinaldo’s finalspeech to Armida can be remembered, when he wishes her a definitive serenity and her sweetened response” (329).

It does not necessarily mean, however, that RINALDO is going to marry ARMIDA as Gough suggests

The fulfillment of Rinaldo’s chivalric oath should bemarriage.

It is left to the imagination of the reader and his/her own personalfeelings towards the sorceress to decide her fate.

Armida’s treatment by Tasso issurprisingly humane, but again, this does not explain her conversion to Christianity, nor make the reader entirely comfortable with the idea that she might end up marryingRinaldo, as Gough again observes: “the sorceress has been portrayed so sympatheticallythat her debased submission to Rinaldo, even if it does result in marriage, strikes anuntenably jarring note” (548). Perhaps it would have added to the character if she wereto suffer like her predecessors for a doomed love affair.Torquato Tasso’s epic is filled with intriguing episodes and characters. One of those characters is Armida, a beautiful young virgin, who falls desperately in love withher enemy and is torn between love and duty. It is also interesting that through her failedattempts to kill
Goffredo first and then Rinaldo, she evolves into a very sensitive anddeeply vulnerable being.

Although her final appearance may not be as magnificent asone might expect, she survives with dignity and honor – despite the attempted suicide.And it is no wonder that so many artists were inspired by her and treated her subject invarious other forms. One treatment of this plot will be discussed in the following pages,when we devote ourselves to Handel’s first magic opera.

HANDEL'S RINALDO

By 1711, Handel’s fame as an operatic composer had already reached arelatively high point in all the cultural centers of Europe.

He had been employed in theopera of Hamburg for two years and during his tour of Italy he was welcomedeverywhere as a great composer. The decision to leave his steady employment with theEarl of Hannover – the future King George of England – and move to London wascertainly a bold move.

But Handel was a man who clearly thrived in the face of adversity and enjoyed a good challenge. London certainly would prove to be his greatestchallenge ever.The genre of the Italian
opera seria was definitely a new one in England; onethat was embraced by the London audiences, but still lacked the popularity it enjoyed inother European countries.

The main reason for this weak presence was mostly theabsence of good composers who would give the audience something to feast onmusically; because where good composers went, good singers would follow – something that again was not the case with London.

Handel, who had an acute sense for business, realized very soon that he could devote himself to the composition of operasand make a lot of money, if he moved to the London stage. He did not let theopportunity pass.For the production of Rinaldo
Handel worked together with Aaron Hill and

GIACOMO ROSSI.

Hill, who was a theatre owner and an amateur writer himself, came upwith the general idea for the plot.

Rossi then took this idea and turned it into the libretto.

It is obvious that the story is based on the Gerusalemme Liberata
by Torquato Tasso.

However, Hill undertook some changes that affected the structure and the characters greatly.

The libretto by Giacomo Rossi multiplies the love interest by inventing the affair between Armida and ARGANTE and the entire NEW character of "Almirena".

As a  consequence, the libretto by Giacomo Rossi gravely weakens the relationship between Rinaldo and Armida, comparable in its stormy and devouring passions with that of Ruggiero and Alcina inAriosto’s "Orlando Furioso".

Also, due to the great pressure Hill was under, thelibretto was a hasty work, not well thought through, including a lot of strange scenes andsuperfluous characters – like Eustazio – that greatly weaken the characterization of the protagonists.

Despite the bad quality of the libretto, the opera was a huge success withthe London public, both on account of the music and the extravagant scenic effects thatwere utilized for the first time in such a manner.

The success was tremendous, and rightfully so, because in spite of the hastycomposition and the many borrowings, Rinaldo
is one of Handel’s great operas.

The opera was an immediate success with the public”(181) and “ Rinaldo
, thanks to its sensational qualities and the fact of primogeniture, had 53 performances in London during Handel’s life, more than any of his other operas”(183).

The libretto of  Rinaldo
is

"a frightful mixture of the worst clichés regarding Power, Love, Honour and so on",

but the function of the text in itself was of an inferior category”

In the case of the first Handelianoperas, the text was the last thing to be considered.

First came the music and then thescenic effects that could be employed, in order to dazzle and amaze the audience.

Even so, there are some elements that make this opera stand out in therepertoire and one of these elements is the character of Armida.

Silke Leopold explainswhy this particular sorceress has inspired so many composers:

The librettist, Giacomo Rossi, complained that Handel was to blame for the hasty poeticcomposition, because he composed his music with the speed of light.

What Rossi did not know wasthat Handel was mostly reusing tunes he had composed for previous works in Italy and Germany.

Das Rinaldo Libretto ist eine erschreckende Mischung der schlechtesten Klischees von Macht,Liebe, Ehre und so weiter, aber der Text war in seiner Funktion ja auch nur drittrangig”

In the ranks of all the sorceresses that play their demonicgames on the operatic stage – preferably from an elevated position – Armida has given wings to the imagination of composers.

This is probably the result of the fact that alreadyin the original literary source from which she comes, she isdepicted as more ‘human’ than all her sisters in sorcery like

Circe,
Alcina,
Melissa,
Arcabonne,
Urgande,
Logistilla or even
Medea.

It is clear, mostly from the music, that Handel too felt a certain sympathy for her andeven though his first sorceress is not as well characterized as is his Melissa or especiallyhis Alcina, she stands out over all the other characters in the opera and once againdemands the audiences’ attention.Armida’s first entrance in the fifth scene of the first act is impressive in everyway.

She appears on a chariot driven by two dragons, singing an
arioso
of magnificentfury and passion: “Furie terribili, circondatemi, seguitatemi con faci orribili!”
27
(26).

Shearrives at the plains in front of Jerusalem, where her lover Argante has just signed atruce of peace for a few days with Goffredo, the leader of the crusaders. Argante, a powerful man, is in desperate need of some good news, because his campaign againstthe Christian army is failing. Armida, his advisor and connection to magical creaturesand powers, informs him that she has consulted Hell’s powers to find a way to defeat theChristians: “Signor, se ben confuse son gli enigmi del fato, io con note tremende pur forzai quell’abisso a scior in chiaro suon distinti accenti, ed a mie brame ardenti rispose
26
“Unter all den Magierinnen, die auf der Opernbühne und bevorzugt vom Schnürboden herab ihr dämonisches Wesen treiben, hat Armida die Phantasie der Opernkomponisten am nachhaltigsten beflügelt. Das mag damit zusammenhängen, dass sie schon in der literarischen Quelle, der sieentstammt, “menschlicher” als alle ihre Schwestern im Zaubern wie etwa Kirke, Alcina, Melissa,Arcabonne, Urgande, Logistilla oder gar Medea dargestellt ist” (37).
27
“Formidable Furies, encircle me, escort me with flames of terror!”


in tuono amico: ‘Se dal campo nemico svelto fia di Rinaldo il gran sostegno, spera pur d’Asia il desolato regno’”
28
(28).

Armida also informs Argante that she will personallysee to the fulfillment of this prophecy, removing Rinaldo herself from his comrades. Shethen plunges into an impressive aria, where she expresses her certainty in the turn of events that will be in her favor: “Molto voglio, molto spero, nulla devo dubitar. Di miaforza all’alto impero saprò il mondo assoggetar”
29
(29-30).

Dean and Knapp make acomment on Armida’s first appearance on the stage, that could have been a lot more powerful and different had the libretto been better prepared.

Armida wastes her sensational first entry on her lover and then kidnaps Almirena instead of Rinaldo, whom she scarcely meets till the second act” (172-173).

Indeed Armida after her first ariadisappears for a couple of scenes, only to reappear in scene VII, where during a smalland unimpressive recitative she kidnaps Almirena in front of a stunned Rinaldo.

She exchanges only a couple of sentences with Rinaldo:

Al valor del mio brando cedi lanobil preda!”

and to Rinaldo’s refusal to do so she replies: “Tanto ardisci, arrogante!”
(38).

Then she disappears again and does not reappear for a long while.Armida’s next appearance is in scene VI of the second act.

A huge interval of other scenes have taken place, where the witch is only there as an idea, not an actual presence.

Her plan to kidnap Almirena, however, has succeeded in removing Rinaldofrom the Christian camp.

What she is not counting on is that both Almirena’s father,Goffredo, and her uncle, Eustazio, have gone with him
32
. Armida, despite being off
28

“My lord, the enigmas of fate are obscure. With imperious imprecations I commanded Hell to giveme an answer in clear words and to my burning desire, it gave a friendly answer: ‘If the enemy losesthe vital support of Rinaldo, then there is still hope for desolate Asia’”
29
“Great desires and hopes have I, so I have no doubts at all. With the power that is mine I shallsubdue the world”
30
“Surrender your noble prize to the courage of my sword!”
31
“Such audacity and arrogance!”
32

Here is yet another inconsistency in the plot.

If things were for real then the two heathen leaderswere handed the perfect opportunity to destroy the crusaders, since their leaders and their championhad abandoned them in search of Almirena.

But this is not an opera of war, rather an opera of love, sothis little strategic mistake on the part of the librettists may be excused).

stage, lures Rinaldo away from his two companions with the help of two sirens; at thesame time her lover is falling desperately in love with the captive Almirena, whom he issupposed to be guarding, because she makes the lovely mistake of singing “Lascia ch’io pianga,” which is one of those typical heartbreaking melodramatic pieces of music that belong in the evergreens of musical history.

Enough of that, however.

We return toArmida and Rinaldo, who has just arrived on her island.

It must be remembered that in the first act Armida exchanges very few words with Rinaldo.

It is implied that she does not get a good look at him while she speaks with him.

Otherwise it makes no sense that now, seeing him for the first time clearly, she falls immediately in love with him.

Her gasping exclamations in the dialogue – delivered aside – show her rising emotionsof love:

Splende sù quel bel volto un non sò che, ch’il cor mi rasserena.

Conincognito affetto mi serpe al cor un amorosa pena.

Ma d’un nemico atroce saratrofeo il mio core?

Son vinta sì; non lo credea si bello.

“(Something in his beauty softens my heart.) […] (A strange emotion, a pang of love, creeps into myheart.) […] (Will my heart be the trophy of a detested enemy?) […] (I am vanquished, yes… I did notexpect him to be so handsome)”

Without hesitationshe expresses her love to Rinaldo, who is not interested however and does not listen toher entreaties.

Their dialogue before their duet is rather amusing, considering thecircumstances.

Rinaldo demands the return of Almirena, expresses his detestation atArmida’s love and shows himself completely unaffected by Armida’s pitiful cries.

What follows is one of the most lively duets in Handel’s operas – and in my opinion oneof the funniest too:ARMIDA: Fermati!RINALDO: No, crudel!

The locations in this opera are also very obscure.

Armida’s palace is on an island, on which island isalso located the cave of the Christian sorcerer, who helps Goffredo and Eustazio in the third act.

Againit is highly improbable that something like this would ever happen in real life, but we are talking aboutan absurd opera, not a work of verismo.

ARMIDA: Armida son fedel, io son fedel! Sì, sì, Armida sonfedel!RINALDO: Spietata, infida, no, no, crudel! Lasciami!ARMIDA: Pria morir!RINALDO: Non posso più soffrir!ARMIDA: Vuoi ch’io m’uccida?
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(65-66)Although the words themselves are rather hard, especially on the part of Rinaldo, themusic is diametrically different, perhaps heralding already the happy and absurd endingof the opera. Armida threatens to kill herself, but in this particular context, with this particular music, it is highly improbable that she will actually do so.The story continues with Armida playing some neat magic tricks on Rinaldo,appearing to him in the semblance of Almirena and accusing him of abandoning her for a more lascivious life. Rinaldo falls for the trap at first, but he soon realizes his mistakeand leaves in search of the real Almirena. Armida is left alone for the first time in theopera and she contemplates her position. She sings a heartbreaking
recitativoaccompagnato
and an aria immediately after that, which show Handel’s great musicalskill at depicting deep emotions and making his heroines more alive than they should be;the aria too is a precursor to Alcina’s great aria, which is Handel at his best. Dean andKnapp comment on this particular scene: “‘Ah! Crudel’ is scarcely less profound than‘Ah! Mio cor’ as a revelation of the anguish in the sorceress’s heart, torn betweeninvoluntary love and anger, and makes its point by similar means” (174).Armida’s accompagnato is essentially an internal monologue, in which thesorceress realizes she has been abandoned and tries to distinguish between her emotionsof hate and love and whether to perform some vindictive action or remain inactive:
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“A: Stop… R: No, cruel woman! A: Armida is true, yes, and faithful! R: No, she is cruel andfaithless! Let me go! A: I’d sooner die! R: I can bear no more! A: Do you want me to kill myself?”


Dunque i lacci d’un volto, tante gioje promesse, li spaventid’Inferno, forza n’havran per arrestar quel crudo? E tu il segui,o mio core! fatto trofeo d’un infelice amore! No! si svegli’lfurore, si raggiunga l’ingrato, cada, a’miei piè svenato!Ohime! Che fia! Uccider l’alma mia? Ah! Debole mio peto, aun traditor anco puoi dar ricetto? Sù, sù, furie, ritrovate novasorte di pena e di flagello! S’uccida sì,… Eh! No, ch’è troppo belo!
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(70-71)After she has concluded these thoughts, she begins her mournful aria, where again,utilizing the form of the da capo aria to emphasize Armida’s inner thoughts, we see asorceress as human as possible: “Ah! Crudel, il pianto mio deh! Ti mova per pietà! Oinfedel al mio desio proverai la crudeltà!”
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(72-75). With the closing of this aria, whereArmida is exposed as a scorned and abandoned woman – incidentally it is the third andlast most profoundly deep moment in this particular opera, the other two beingRinaldo’s “Cara sposa” and Almirena’s “Lascia ch’io pianga” – Armida immediatelydevises a new plan to lure her object of desire back to her. Once again she assumesAlmirena’s appearance and awaits Rinaldo’s return. Instead of Rinaldo, however, shegets her actual lover, who, believing her to be Almirena, exposes himself to her. Armidais furious and accuses Argante of treachery: “Traditor! Dimmi: è questa del mio amor lamercede? […] Io, ch’il mio cor ti spiego con affetto! […] Io, che l’inferno, oh altero,slego a tuo prò! […] Tradirmi! […] I fulmini vedrai del mio furore”
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(77). By contrast
36
“So neither the charms of a face which promises so much joy, nor the terrors of Hell are strongenough to capture that heartless man? Yet you go after him, my heart, you are the trophy of an unhappylove. No: let my anger arise! Find the ingrate! Make him fall lifeless at my feet! Alas! How can I dothis? Can I kill my very soul? Oh, my feeble heart! Can you shelter a traitor still? Arise, Furies! Inventnew forms of punishment, let him die, yes! Ah, no, he is too handsome!”
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“Ah! Cruel man, let my tears move you, have pity on me! Else, infidel, you will know the cruelty of my spurned desire!”
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“Traitor! Is this the reward for my love? […] I who gave my heart to you! […] I, arrogant man, whoset Hell loose for you? […] You betrayed me! […] You will see the thunderbolts of my fury.”


to Armida’s dialogue with Rinaldo, in this case the dialogue resembles more the quarrelof a couple with marital problems. And another side of Armida’s magic is shown aswell: the power that turns against the hopes and expectations of the one who uses it.Jürgen Schläder puts it very nicely and juxtaposes the heathen couple to the Christiancouple as well: “Armida’s infernal powers turn unexpectedly against the beautifulsorceress, because it is only this power that is under her control that reveals Argante’sunfaithfulness. Here again does magic operate as a catalyst of understanding, becauseArgante and Armida form the negative counterpart to the ideal couple, Rinaldo andAlmirena”
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(109). Armida closes the second act with a great
aria di vendetta
, turnedagainst everyone who has offended her: “Vo’ far guerra, e vincer voglio, collo sdegnochi m’offende vendicar’i torti miei. Per abbatter quel orgoglio, ch’il gran foco insenm’accende, saran meco i stessi Dei”
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(78-80). This is Armida’s last great showpiece. Inthe third act her character is given little attention, but has a surprising change of heart inthe end.The third act is dominated by the Christians who manage to save Almirena andRinaldo from Armida’s castle in the first part of the act. The actual rescue takes placeduring a rather odd and very awkward recitative scene, where pretty much everyone isinvolved, but nothing significantly important or spectacular happens. Armida simplygives up and leaves and the Christians are happily reunited and leave the enchanted place. The Muslim couple reunites too and in a typical fashion for
opera
seria
they bothadmit their mistakes to each other and decide to fight once again both for their love and
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“Armidas Höllenkunst kehrt sich unversehens gegen die schöne Zauberin selber, weil diese Kraftihrer eigenen Manipulationen erst Argantes Untreue entlarvt. Auch hier fungiert die Zauberei alsKatalysator der Erkenntnis, denn Argante und Armida bilden das negative Gegenstück zum idealenLiebespaar Rinaldo und Almirena” (109).
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“I wage war on you and victory will be mine. I wage war on my offender and avenge my wrongs. Tocrush the pride that enrages me, I will have the gods on my side.”


country. They consummate their reunion in a spectacular duet, that fails however toimprove the overall characterization of the two.Just as in Tasso’s epic, the showdown happens in the end. The opera followsthe literary version as well
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. Armida and Argante lose against the crusaders who captureJerusalem and in a greatly criticized scene they both decide to be baptized. Dean andKnapp observe two things regarding this peculiar – even for an
opera seria
– ending; thefirst is that: “Hill was responsible for the absurd conversion to Christianity, no doubt aconcession to English taste” (172), but also taken from Tasso’s text and the second:It is the abrupt abandonment of fantasy that makes theconversion of Argante and Armida not only dramaticallyabsurd but faintly distasteful. A further charge against thelibretto is its affected language and weak characterization.There is little life in these lay figures, with the exception of Armida, and she fades out after Act II. (173)Which brings us back to the character of Armida. Her conversion seems to be a politicaland strategic move. It is not at all convincing that she would simply turn Christian, because she lost one battle and her exclamation: “D’un Nume il più possente han lascorta costor. […] No, forse ch’al ciel piacque, ch’io spegna al fin pentita il mio focoinfernal colle sacre acque”
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(113) states a rather lame reason as well. This is certainly a peculiar twist in her character, because, as David Alden observes: “Armida possessesthe things that would make her the big winner: a powerful sorceress, capable of nearlyanything. Still, she is defeated”
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(14). Despite all the weaknesses of the libretto and theinconsistencies of her character “Armida alone lives up to the standard of
41
With the exception that Argante is not killed.
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“The most powerful of gods must be watching over them. […] Perhaps it was Heaven’s wish that Irepent and extinguish my infernal flame with holy waters”
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“Armida besitzt das Zeug, die große Siegerin zu sein: eine mächtige Zauberin, der fast alles möglichist. Und trotzdem wird sie besiegt” (14).

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characterization Handel set himself in
Agrippina
. The first of four great sorceresses inhis operas, she is a glittering rather than a seductive figure and lacks the subtlety of her successors, but despite limited opportunities she towers above the other characters of
Rinaldo
” (Dean & Knapp 174). One need only think of her first entrance on the stage tounderstand that she is clearly situated above everyone else in the plot.Again, it is true what has been said so often about the libretto: “
Rinaldo
[…] isneither a consistently articulated work of art nor a dramatic masterpiece. The design produces little cumulative tension” (174). And these deficiencies of the text result in therather weak characterization of Armida – especially when she is compared to the other three sorceresses of Handel. Beate Heinel observes: “If Armida’s character is not yetdepicted by Handel as differentiated as for example Alcina’s character, it is probablydue to the libretto that emphasizes the energy and passion of the sorceress, rather thanher more vulnerable side”
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(127). This observation is correct; Armida has only onemoment of introspection in her great lament, but other than that she strikes the audienceas very self-confident and in constant control of herself and her environment.Before closing this chapter, I need to make a short reference to a revisionHandel made to this opera in 1731.
Rinaldo
was one of the two operas that the composer revisited more than two times in his lifetime
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. The revision made was quite radical,improving some of the dramaturgical problems the first version had, including the end.In this 1731 version, Armida and Argante, defeated again by the Christians, mountArmida’s chariot and leave the stage. This change makes the character of the sorceress alot more realistic and diminishes the absurdity of the first version. It also shows thatHandel was in constant search of a more plausible story for this particular opera. Still,
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“Wenn Armidas Charakter von Händel noch nicht so differenziert erfaßt ist wie beispielsweisederjenige der Zauberin Alcina, mag dies auch mit dem Libretto zusammenhängen, das vorwiegend dieEnergie und Leidenschaft der Zauberin, und weniger die empfindsame Seite ihres Wesens betont.”
45
The other being
Il pastor fido
.

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the 1731 version is not the primary choice for production today, even though the musicis only slightly different. Clearly, the tastes of contemporary audiences are quite similar to those of the 1711 audiences in London: the absurdities and huge gaps of logic in the plot are overseen in favor of the magnificent and at times very ironic music employed by Handel.Torquato Tasso’s epic poem
Gerusalemme Liberata
was the first epic tointroduce rediscovered elements into epic poetry, moving away from the chivalricromances of Boiardo and Ariosto. It proved also to be a diachronic success, making surethat Tasso’s name would be listed among the great classics of European culture. Thestrength of his epic lies in the characters that are realistically drawn, but at the same timeconform to the ideal courtly rules of conduct of the Renaissance. The epic also gains agreat deal through Armida, the sorceress, who even today inspires controversial readingsof the text. Handel’s
Rinaldo
was his first opera for an English audience, introducingsuccessfully the genre to a very complex society. With the introduction of Armida, whois the composer’s first magical creature, Handel begins his study of the female soul; a process that would span at least two more decades and culminate in his
Alcina
. Armida,Handel’s only witch that survives in the popular version, is the inspiration that keptHandel going for so many years after; an inspiration that included everything: love, hate,desolation, happiness and antithesis, characteristics that would appear again and again inHandel’s future works.
Medea: a break with tragic tradition and an unusual opera

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I understand the horror of what I am goingto do; but anger,The spring of all life’s horror, masters myresolve.(
Medea
, 1074-1075)
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Cercherò nuove pene, formerò nuoviincanti contro i perfidi amanti, e s’ilcrudel’ non cede al’ mio dolore, vittimasarà l’empia, al’ mio furore.
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(
Teseo
, Atto II, Scena VI)One of the most popular ancient Greek tragedies nowadays is Euripides’s
Medea
(431 B.C.). The subject matter of the play is essentially Medea’s infanticide,which has been used in all kinds of contexts throughout literary tradition. This tragedyserves at the same time as evidence of the changing taste of audiences in the history of entertainment. As Aristide Tessitore observes: “Euripides’
Medea
demonstrates a clear irony of history; its original lack of popularity has been reversed in subsequentgenerations such that it is very likely the best known and most influential of Euripides’ plays” (587). Not only that, but the central character, Medea, has assumed a life of her own in fine arts, literature, films and of course opera. Among the many composers that produced an operatic version of this particular myth is G. F. Handel
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. Handel’s opera isessentially the sequel to Euripides’ play, a fact that makes this comparison verychallenging and at the same time extremely interesting. In the following analysis of Medea in both versions, I will attempt to examine why this particular character remainsso incredibly popular, despite her apparent lack of humanity and how much – if at all – she evolves in Handel’s rendition of the plot.Before Euripides gave the world his version of the Medea myth, many storiescirculated in the ancient world. The Medea plot is an old one, definitely as old as thestory of Jason and the Argonauts. For historicity’s sake I will give some “biographical”elements of Medea, as can be found in Emma Griffiths:
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The English translation that I use as a primary source is by Philip Vellacott.
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“I’ll invent new Tortures,/Contrive new Inchantments/For perfidious Lovers;/And if he cruellyneglects my Grief,/She shall be the Victim to my Rage.” All English translations of recitatives are by Nicolas Haym and can be found in the accompanying CD booklet of
Teseo
as listed in the Works Cited.
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For a more complete list of operatic works based on the myth of Medea, see McDonald, Marianne.
Η ελληνική μυθολογία στην κλασική όπερα
. Trans. Γιώτα Ποταμιανού. Athens: Περίπλους, 2005. Print.

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“Medea is a native of Kolchis […]. Medea is thegranddaughter of Helios, the sun god, and niece to Kirke,the sorceress […]. Medea falls in love with Jason and usesher magical powers to help him […]. She leaves Kolchiswith Jason, and kills her own brother in the process. […]Medea causes the death of Pelias […] The story moves toKorinth, where Medea, Jason and their children findsanctuary. […] Medea causes the death of the princess [of Korinth, who was supposed to marry Jason] and […] kill[s]her own children. […] Medea is offered refuge in Athens by King Aigeus, who marries her in some versions of thestory. When Aigeus’ illegitimate son, Theseus, arrives inAthens Medea attempts to poison him […]. Medea fleesfrom Athens. (7-8)This very condensed “curriculum-vitae” – that does not refer to any of Medea’sconnections with Herakles, who is a prominent character in some of her legends – wasgiven to show merely how much the myth had travelled, long before it became a play. Itis important to note here that the infanticide may well have been Euripides’ own idea,rather than having been taken from one of the popular stories. Herbert Musurilloemphasizes this aspect too: “It is perhaps true that Euripides was the first to add thisdetail to this story: other writers had not portrayed Medea as the murderess of her ownchildren” (64). What I am also trying to show in regard to Euripides is that he had ahuge amount of information to draw inspiration from, in order to create his protagonist.From these myths, the basic outlines of Medea’s character can be easily deduced: Medeais a barbarian woman – Kolchis was not inside Greek boundaries; she has divine origins
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and magical powers; she kills without hesitation, even members of her own family; fromthe moment she abandons her native land, she is unable to procure a new home for herself, moving from place to place constantly.Euripides places his tragedy in Korinth, where Jason has married Glaukê,daughter of King Creon, thus betraying his oath of fidelity to Medea. Two themes seemto be of importance to this play: “the tragedy of love grown cold, the mysteries of thatarea of human behavior which is ruled by the goddess Aphrodite” (Musurillo 54) and“the whole plot construction revolves around Medea’s children; additionally the child ingeneral and the relationship of man and woman towards the child is a pattern thatresonates very often, even in the parts of the chorus” (Schlesinger 39)
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. Other importantelements of this tragedy are the oaths taken before and during the play. It is a wellestablished fact that ancient Greeks valued oaths highly, having even established gods as protectors of those oaths. As Anne Burnett observes: “Oaths stood like the primeval pillar that supports the sky, a link that could at the same time hold off a possibly angryweight” (13). In short Euripides creates a tragedy about human affairs with cataclysmicresults.Medea is introduced to the audience through the Nurse’s monologue. In it thewhole story of how Medea came to be in Greece in the first place is quickly brought tomind and immediately condemned. Also in that speech the audience is acquainted withsome of the relationships that already exist: Medea is Jason’s obedient wife (12-14) andan exile (11), but she has been betrayed by her husband (16-17). Already here weunderstand that Medea has fallen victim to an illusion created by her passionateemotions towards Jason. As Carolyn Durham observes: “Medea acts not for herself butfor Jason, and Medea believes that Jason will honor her love and the actions she
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“die ganze Handlung sich um die Kinder der Medea dreht, und darüber hinaus ist das Kind imallgemeinen und das Verhältnis von Mann und Frau zum Kinde ein Motiv, das immer wieder, besonders auch in den Chorpartien, anklingt.” All translations from German are my own.

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performs in its name with the fidelity he has sworn” (55). This unconditional devotionshe displays before arriving in Korinth turns to extreme hatred during the play. The Nurse also gives the listener the impression that Medea is suffering like any betrayedwoman would suffer: “Scorned and shamed,/She raves, invoking every vow and solemn pledge/That Jason made her, and calls the gods as witnesses/What thanks she hasreceived for her fidelity” (19-22). The Nurse makes another important observation abouther mistress before going on to different matters: “A frightening woman; no one whomakes an enemy/Of her will carry off an easy victory” (37-38). This side note is notonly a very accurate characterization of Medea, but also a sort of prophecy in regard tothe outcome of the plot.Euripides delays Medea’s appearance on stage for quite a while. However the protagonist is ever present, through exclamations that she makes off stage which againreveal the distressed nature of Medea: “Death take you [children], with your father, and perish his whole house!” (113) she pleads and further down again: “Oh, how I hateliving! I want/To end my life, leave it behind, and die” (146-147). Euripides puts harshwords in Medea’s mouth while she is still off stage. These curses, combined withJason’s betrayal, make Medea a sympathetic character to the audience. In the ideal caseof a completely unaware audience, her off stage remarks should cause the audience tosupport Medea and not Jason. This also means that the expectations of the audienceregarding Medea’s first physical appearance on stage are entirely different from whatEuripides gives. The audience expects a weeping, fragile and weak woman, whose only power lies in cursing those who have wronged her. But when she at last appears on stagein line 214, she is “cool and self-possessed” (23). Aristide Tessitore observes onMedea’s portrayal: “Euripides’ initial presentation of Medea is striking in its restraint”(589). Thus, a completely new image of Medea is introduced. Finally, the audience can
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hear her address the female chorus. This great monologue is a testament to Athenianorators, as it is well structured and succeeds in its goal. Medea pleads her case bydescribing her own misfortunes, but she also makes a social comment on the status of women in Greece: “For women, divorce is not/Respectable; to repel the man, not possible” (237-238). In this monologue one finds also that much commented line: “I’drather stand three times in the front line than bear/One child” (249). Up to this pointMedea keeps pushing the limits of her own sex by making remarks totally unacceptable by the society where this play was originally performed. Her words are a violation of theexpectations men have of women.This gender reversal is pursued even more when Creon enters the stage. Headmits openly: “I fear you” (282) and also further down he says: “You’re a clever woman, skilled in many evil arts” (285). The audience can confirm his fear andMedea’s powers, for evidence of all those accusations have been given already by the Nurse. Usually it is not men that fear women, but the other way around. But Creon iscareful and realistic. Judith Fletcher makes a poignant observation in regard to Medea’scapability to appeal to both men and women through her speeches: “She can appeal to ashared bond of women’s oppression one moment and negotiate like a man with other men the next, although her negotiations are laced with the seductive magic of
peithodolia
or ‘tricky persuasion’” (33). This is precisely the case with Creon. She manages toappease him and trick him into allowing her to stay one day in Corinth, to prepareherself and her children for exile. She reverses all his fears of her: “So you, Creon,/Areafraid – of what? Some harm that I might do you?/Don’t let
me
alarm you, Creon. I’min no position -/A woman – to wrong a king. You have done me no wrong” (303-306)and appeals to his nature as a father to “make provision/For my two sons, since their
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own father is not concerned/To help them. Show some pity: you are a father too” (345-347). Creon makes the mistake of believing in her innocence and allows that extra day.Upon Creon’s leaving Medea gives us a glimpse of what she plans on doing for revenge. Her ironic comment “I have in mind so many paths of death for them,/I don’tknow which to choose” (417-418) brings back to memory the many murders she hascommitted so far. Anne Burnett reminds us that: “Far from being of testified innocence,this agent of revenge has already been guilty of the worst crimes known to humanity”(10). Indeed, her revenge is going to be ruthless, because, as Schlesinger observes:“Revenge is part of her own nature. That is why she necessarily desires it and she is wellaware of that fact. Revenge and consequently infanticide – since that is its core part – isa closed subject” (30)
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.Medea requires the Chorus’s consent for what she has in mindand of course receives it. At this point the playwright finally introduces Jason.Jason’s first appearance on stage assumes the form of a quarrel between amarried couple, where each part throws the blame on the other. The difference with allnormal married couples that go through the same situation is that the woman is as powerful as the man and seems to be having the gods’ assistance. Jason’s infidelity isessentially to an oath he took on foreign soil. So Medea’s claim that he has not only broken his oath to her, but most importantly to the gods is a valid one (492-494). Also,once again a gender reversal takes place: Medea reveals it was she and she alone thatmade it possible for Jason to take the Golden Fleece, essentially portraying Jason as aweakling and definitely not the hero everyone thought he was (476-483). Jason’s claimsin his monologue that all he does, he does for the sake of his family fall on deaf ears(547-567). When this scene between husband and wife is resolved – not in a peacefulmanner – the Chorus breaks out into a lamentation about the state of refugees in general
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“Die Rache ist ihr in gewissem Sinn auferlegt durch ihre eigene Natur. So muß sie sie notwendigwollen, und das weiß sie sehr wohl. Die Rache und damit der Kindermord, denn dieser ist ihr wesentlichster Teil, ist eine beschlossene Sache” (30)

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and in particular about people trying to escape love. This introduction serves the playwright to bring forth, exactly in the middle of the play, Aegeus, the King of Athens.Medea has planned her just – up to this point – revenge, but still there is some doubt asto what will happen to her next. She is well aware of that. She has not received anydivine signs that she may continue with her plans. Fletcher explains in regard to theissue of revenge and Aegeus’ arrival: “Zeus
Horkios
[…] is ultimately responsible for punishing Jason’s perjury, but his power is evidently congruent with Medea’s revenge,appropriately facilitated by the opportune arrival of Aegeus whose subsequent oath, precisely in the center of the play, guarantees Medea sanctuary in Athens” (32). So, it isclear that Aegeus is the divine sign that Medea has been waiting for, in order to set her plans in motion.This scene has caused a huge amount of commentary from scholars, mostimportantly because it breaks certain rules of tragedy, as described by Aristotle.However, Euripides is in full control of his play, and even though this scene might seemto break the dramatic cohesion of the play, in fact it strengthens it. The best explanationfor the use of Aegeus is given by Herbert Musurillo: “For Medea, we should recall, isstill operating as a mere woman, and cannot proceed further in her plans without theassurance of a haven and a refuge” (58). Indeed, so far Medea has appeared as larger than life in the eyes of the audience, but still remains a woman, condemned to exile. Asingle mother in exile would have extreme problems finding a place to stay and start anew life. Aegeus gives her the opportunity she needs. He promises to protect her inAthens, when she arrives there. Medea, true to her character, makes Aegeus swear thathe will grant her sanctuary (732-755). Aegeus’ oath will be kept, but – as is testified bymythological reports of events to come – that oath nearly destroys him as well; we arereminded by Tessitore that: “She who will be received into the hearth of Athens as a
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giver of life is in reality a harbinger of destruction” (601). Medea, who has assumed anentirely controversial gender role throughout the play, makes Aegeus swear, againraising herself above the female sex and into manliness. This break with tradition oncemore will result in future problems, because as Judith Fletcher explains: “Euripideanoaths tendered by women lead to a disruption of the status quo” (30). Also in the Aegeusscene Medea conceives the plan of infanticide. Aegeus is himself childless and was on amission to get a prophecy on how to conceive an heir (672-686). Medea realizes that theoffspring – and in particular the male offspring – is of extremely high value to the man.Schlesinger confirms this: “She realizes what the child means to the man” (42)
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andalso: “This same case makes her understand that she can hurt Jason the most, if shemurders his children. At this point she has the first thought of infanticide” (42)
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. Medeanot only decides finally to destroy her entire family, but she has acquired for herself asanctuary. The Aegeus scene is resolved very quickly, and Medea can conclude her actof vengeance.Although a great deal happens before the end, these scenes simply confirmMedea’s character as we already know her. Medea kills the young princess and her father through the use of poisoned clothes, so the first part of her revenge is over. AMessenger describes the horrible scenes to a very pleased Medea and the shockedChorus (1135-1231). We learn nothing new about the character of Medea in thesescenes; we are only reassured of her potent magic powers and extreme hate. And thismurder is only an affirmation of what Shirley Barlow so aptly discerns: “She has killed before and she will kill again
without a second thought
. There is drive and resolve in her determination to avenge and to preserve her won honour and avoid humiliation” (162).
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“Sie erkennt, was das Kind für den Mann bedeutet” (42)
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“Aber dieselbe Sache zeigt ihr auch, daß sie Jason am empfindlichsten treffen kann, wenn sie ihmseine Kinder tötet. Sie empfängt hier die erste Anregung zum Kindermord.” (42)

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There are only two more scenes that are of interest to our discourse now: the scene of the infanticide and Medea’s departure from Corinth.The actual infanticide takes place off stage. What is important is the final onstage meeting Medea has with her offspring. At first, one hopes that Medea will spareher children, since they may remain in Corinth, after the princess took pity on them. Butin her ensuing monologue Medea is torn between love and hatred. Her monologue proves that she is not entirely certain of the action itself. First she loses her strength andresolves not to kill her children: “Women, my courage is all gone. Their young, brightfaces -/I can’t do it. I’ll think no more of it” (1045-1046). Immediately however shechanges her mind again, and tries to talk herself into the act: “I must steel myself to it.What a coward I am,/Even tempting my own resolution with soft talk” (1052-1053). Nosooner have the children reached the door to the palace, when Medea again cries toherself: “Spare your children!” (1058), while one line further down she changes her mind again: “No! No! By all the fiends of hate in hell’s depths, no!” (1059). Theaudience has witnessed two murders, which she performed with steady resolution. It hasseen how she tricked men into trusting her, without ever showing a sign of weakness.But now she almost refrains from completing the task she herself has brought intomotion. Shirley Barlow explains: “For in relation to her children at least, if not to Jason,she is uncertain, fearful, emotional, aware of her own vulnerability and wrong” (164)and Aristide Tessitore adds: “When the moment for the final and most brutal act of revenge arrives, Medea is torn asunder by feelings of maternal love” (594). WhenMedea finally performs the infanticide, then Schlesinger very accurately points out that:“Medea, the human being, is dead; in her stead the triumphant Goddess of Revenge hasemerged” (51)
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. Furthermore she has become a strange and repulsive kind of being that
53
“Der Mensch Medea ist tot; an ihre Stelle ist die siegreiche Racheg
ӧ
ttin getreten.” (51)

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does not belong in human civilization. Aristide Tessitore observes: “As the terrifiedscreams of the children give way to deadly silence, the once sympathetic heroine has become a repulsive and alien being” (591). The murderess of her own children iscompletely rejected by society, represented in the play by the Chorus: “The Chorus findsthe infanticide alone unacceptable – in fact, absolutely condemnable” (Durham 56).After having rejected her own nature even, the audience expects that she will be punished. However, Euripides in yet another twist of dramatic genius, allows her toescape with divine assistance. Her third and final encounter with Jason is the ultimateculmination of the tragedy:MEDEA: What god will hear your imprecation,Oath-breaker, guest-deceiver, liar?JASON: Unclean, abhorrent child-destroyer!MEDEA: Go home: your wife waits to be buried.JASON: I go – a father once; now childless.MEDEA: You grieve too soon. Old age is coming.JASON: Children, how dear you were!MEDEA: To their mother; not to you.JASON: Dear – and you murdered them?MEDEA: Yes, Jason, to break your heart. (1388-1397)Here again, in this final scene, Medea triumphs, although her triumph is a shortone. The gender reversal takes place one more time, since “it is the man who is weak,the woman strong; the man begging for mercy, and the woman triumphantly superior”(Musurillo 73). At the same time however, Medea knows she too has lost somethingextremely important to her. Her revenge was towards Jason, but in a sense, she punishesherself as well. She escapes on her dragon chariot, but the psychological burden she
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carries with her is certainly more terrible than a life in prison. Barlow observesregarding this: “Medea may escape physically unpunished at the end, but there is irony because the mental and emotional punishment she has inflicted on herself more thancounterbalances this apparent freedom” (170) and Burnett adds quite significantly that:“The murder of the boys is an act of violence against herself with which Medea theerinys punishes the woman Medea” (22-23). This self-inflicted punishment then is theonly satisfaction the audience can hope as a punishment for the protagonist.Before continuing the comparison of Euripides’ and Handel’s Medeas, I must briefly turn my attention to the divine and magical element in Euripides’
Medea
.Throughout the play we are constantly being reminded that Medea is a potent sorceress.However no actual incantation takes place on stage and the murder of the princessthrough the poisoned clothes and diadem is something which a deep knowledge of herbsand poisons might easily pull off. Medea’s magical powers then in this play are mostlyassociated with her intelligence and not so much with actual magic scenes. Of course, allher intelligence and divine powers do not prevent her from throwing her life into theabyss. Carolyn Durham explains and I do agree with this opinion that: “Originally thesource of her superiority, magic becomes in Euripides’ ‘humanized’ view of Medea ametaphor for intelligence in a world in which female intelligence is little valued” (56).Medea’s only true show of force happens during her escape, where a chariot drawn bydragons makes its appearance. Even then it is not certain whether she herself summonedthis, or it was a divine intervention, considering that she is the granddaughter of Helios.Another question that remains partly unanswered is whether Medea is a goddess or asemi-goddess or a mere mortal. S. P. Mills gives us a little insight in this matter:One of these functions [assigned to deities] is theestablishment of cult. Thus Medea in the role of
deus
ordains
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the commemorative ritual for her children, with the result that by the murderess’ own dispensation her guilt and sorrow for her crime are transferred onto the city. Medea will firstestablish the children’s tomb in the
temenos
of Hera Acraea;then, in return for this impious murder, Corinth is to observefor the rest of time a solemn festival and ritual in the children’shonor.” (295)In this act then of “establishment of cult” Medea is presented as a divine entity. Thus itis explained through and through why Medea keeps escaping punishment for everycrime she has committed and for every crime she is going to commit in the future.Euripides, in his Medea, crafted a character so controversial and powerful thatit is impossible to do her justice in such little space. A lot has been left out and only asmall portion of what has been said about her can be found here. It is clear however thatMedea has layers upon layers of elements; all of which make her such an appealingcharacter. And although Aristide Tessitore is right in observing that: “Medea is hardly acharacter whom one could love” (587), she is definitely a character that can inspire.Such is also the case with Handel’s sequel.It is only natural that a character as rich and extreme as Medea should inspirecomposers to important operas. However, as we have pointed out already, Medea possesses a very complex personality, which in turn creates a lot of problems for anyone attempting to expand the storyline. Silke Leopold observes: “Within themagically endowed women in opera she – brought to shame without being guilty, the
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murderess of her own children – is the most problematic” (277)
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. This difficulty can beclearly observed in G. F. Handel’s version of
Teseo
(1713)
55
.Handel had suffered a failure with his opera
Il Pastor Fido
in 1712 and neededa quick success to rebound from that financial and artistic disaster. He changed hislibrettist, employing Nicola Haym. Lang comments on Haym’s contribution that: “likeda Ponte with Mozart, [Haym] studied his composer, carefully estimating his gifts andleanings. The libretto he prepared,
Teseo
, was a ‘heroick’ piece designed to bring outthe best in Handel. Haym’s sagacity was rewarded with a resounding success” (128).This “resounding success” however cannot be attributed to the libretto itself, but mostlyto Handel’s musical skills and the scenic representation. Nicola Haym did not write anentirely new libretto for this opera. Instead he adapted Quinault’s
Thésée
, which wasused by Jean-Baptiste Lully in 1675 (Dean & Knapp 236). There arise immediately afew important problems in this adaptation: first, the original is essentially a five actFrench grand opera; second, the original based a lot of its strength on ballet sequencesand choruses, that had to be dropped in the Italian version; third, Quinault, bound by theFrench style in operas, had no clear indications of scene changes, since arias in Frenchgrand operas do not necessarily mark the exit of the singer and the beginning of a newscene (236)
56
.Curiously enough, both Handel and Haym decided to retain the five actdivision and not condense the plot in three acts, which was the norm for the
opera seria
. Why then did Handel decide to use a plot that would definitely cause him problems in composition and dramaturgy and not demand a new libretto? Two reasons
54
“Unter den zauberkundigen Frauen in der Oper ist sie – die schuldlos gedemütigte Frau, dieMörderin ihrer Kinder – die problematischste” (277)
55
Handel finished the composition of the opera in December 1712, however the premiere took place inJanuary 1713 (Dean & Knapp 248).
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Continuing, the authors also observe that Haym essentially translated the recitatives from the Frenchversion and added arias where he thought fit. However: “In terms of
opera seria
convention this produces a kind of aesthetic coitus interruptus: the emotion generated is not discharged, and the tensionthreatens to lapse into anticlimax” (237)

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give the answer: First, as Dean and Knapp observe: “
Thésée
may have been chosen because it was very successful and seemed to offer opportunities for repeating thespectacular scenic effects that proved so popular in
Rinaldo
” (236) and second, Handelwas under pressure to establish himself in the operatic scene of London as the preeminent composer. Being a businessman even at this relatively young age, he waswise enough not to take any bold risks that would jeopardize his future in England.Whatever the textual problems, the composer managed to pull off a success. The operaran for thirteen performances, but it was never played again while Handel was still alive(249)
57
and there is not much to indicate that Handel himself considered it one of hisgreatest compositions.Essentially the plot of this particular opera is the sequel to the events thathappened in Corinth. Medea has reached Athens and is now betrothed to Egeo, theKing of Athens. Egeo has a ward, Agilea, who is in love with Teseo, who happens to beEgeo’s lost son. No one, except Medea and Teseo himself know that little detail, whichis of course instrumental to the final scene. Teseo too loves Agilea, but – as in all goodoperas – she is also the object of Egeo’s desire. Medea on the other hand is in love withTeseo and is perfectly contended when Egeo informs her that he has decided to marryAgilea instead, but plans on recompensing her by marrying her off to Teseo. Of coursethings do not go as planned for Medea and once again she is forced to flee Athenscursing everyone who has wronged her. Silke Leopold puts it very aptly: “a typicaloperatic foursome story” (278)
58
. As in all magical operas by Handel, it is the sorceress that sticks in the mind.Dean and Knapp introduce their analysis of Medea’s character like this: “Like allHandel’s sorceresses Medea haunts the memory” (240). Once again Handel proves that
57
It does not belong to Handel’s most popular operas even today.
58
“typisch opernhafte Vierecksgeschichte”

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he has a soft spot for scorned and abandoned women: “he dedicates a great deal of attention in Medea’s solo scenes to the conflict between Love and Hate, power over demons and powerlessness over passions” (Leopold 278)
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. The result is that prettymuch all other characters in this particular opera seem somewhat one dimensional.Due to the unusual layout of the libretto, Medea appears for the first time inthe second act, but once on stage, she dominates it completely, even when she is not present. Her aria is introduced with no recitative or any other instrumental overture,thus plunging the audience right into the emotional condition of Medea. Beate Heinelobserves on Medea’s arioso “Dolce riposo!”: “The audience is not introduced to araging heroine that is tormented by passion and jealousy, but to a Medea who isreflecting in her arioso about Happiness and Love” (137)
60
. Indeed her first words arerelaxed and very introverted:Dolce riposo, ed, innocente pace!Ben felice è quel sen, che vi possiede.Sempre fù a me tiranno,Il pargoletto Amore;Or’nuovi strali al’coreD’aventar si compiace,E non lo sana allor ch’il malo chiede. (30-31)
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At the same time, they inform the audience that Medea has killed her children and her brother, which places the opera clearly after the Corinthian events: “L’infelice Medea![…] Il germane ed i figli, vittima al mio furore, furon cosa d’amore” (32)
62
. It is clear
59
“widmet Händel dem Zwiespalt zwischen Liebe und Hass, zwischen Macht über die Dämonen undOhnmacht gegenüber den Leidenschaften in Medeas Soloszenen große Aufmerksamkeit” (278)
60
“Dem Publikum wird hier nicht eine vor Leidenschaft und Eifersucht rasende Heroine gezeigt,sondern Medea reflektiert in einem Arioso über das Glück und die Liebe.”
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“Sweet Repose and peaceful Innocence;/Happy that Breast that ye Possess;/To me he always has aTyrant been,/The Childish Cupid:/And now fresh Arrows at my Heart/Delights to throw,/And never Heals, tho’ the Disease requires it.”
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“Thou unhappy Medea/[…]My Brother and Children/Victims to my Rage,/Fell Love’s Sacrifice”

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from these words that Medea feels remorse for those past actions, but at the same timesanctions them, since she declares they were made as a sacrifice to Love.The new infatuation which Cupid has brought Medea is Teseo. But Medeamust first overcome the obstacle of her betrothed Egeo. The problem is solved by itself.Egeo breaks the engagement and suggests that Medea marry the new hero of Athens,Teseo. Egeo tries to conceal his newfound love for Agilea from Medea, but she realizesthe true reason very quickly: “Taci, Signor, t’intendo! Agilea più vezzosa agli occhituoi rasembra; se per lei m’abbandoni, io ti rassegno, e non altra di me che Teseo èdegno” (34)
63
. Once again then Medea is being abandoned for a younger bride.However, this time she has someone to look forward to and for the moment there are noensuing thoughts of revenge on Medea’s mind. The following duet between Egeo andMedea is a rather ironic one, considering that in the end both heroes fail to gain theobject of their desire. Only one line from this duet needs to be commented: In the Bsection Medea begins by saying: “Tu credesti col fuggirmi” (38)
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. Medea may havefound a new passion, and she may be (not so) graciously letting Egeo go, but at thesame time she exerts power over him; she warns him that he cannot treat her like a plaything and then throw her away at his leisure.The next time Medea appears, Teseo is with her, having returned victoriousfrom the battle. Medea offers to help him appease Egeo, who fears that Teseo will usurphis throne, since the Athenians are definitely supporting him. In this dialogue Medeafinds out for the first time that Teseo too is in love with Agilea: “Medea: E d’amor nulla parli? i sospetti d’Egeo placar per te saprò. Teseo: Agilea sola adoro. Medea: AmiDunque Agilea?” (43)
65
.Upon this revelation Medea is already devising a plan to win
63
“Hold Sir, I understand/
Agilea
seems more beauteous to your Eyes;/If then for her you do forsakeme,/I resign you too:/And
Theseus
alone is worthy of my Love.”
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“Thou didst believe in shunning me”
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“Medea: And say you nothing then of Love?/
Egeus
’ Jealousie/For thee I can abate. Teseo:
Agilea
only I adore;/Medea: Dost thou love Agilea?”

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Teseo for herself. At this point she is the only one aware of the King’s feelings towardsAgilea. She decides to play that card with Teseo. She reveals to him that: “E tuo rivaleil Rè” (44)
66
and she offers her assistance: “Lascia ch’adesso io parli, lascia ch’io parlial Rè, e scoprirai ben tosto l’interesse che prendo agli amor’ tuoi” (45)
67
. Medea offersonce more cunning words to her male interlocutors, just as she had been doing inEuripides. What she really feels becomes evident in her next recitativo accompagnato:Ira, sdegni, e furore,Desti nell’alma miaLa cruda gelosia!Ch’un amante sprezzataTrovar non sa riposo invendicata.Cercherò nuove pene,Formerò nuovi incantiContro i perfidi amanti,E s’il crudel non cede al mio dolore,Vittima sarà l’empia al mio furore. (47)
68
Medea threatens the couple in the exact same way she threatened her former husbandand his new bride. She resorts to the same methods she has always used; and she givesus a glimpse of what she is like when she is vexed in a very dramatic way. Her
aria divendetta
that closes the act is merely the confirmation of her previous words and Dean’sand Knapp’s comment that: “Medea is a fearsome creature in this mood” (241)
66
“The King’s your Rival”
67
“Let me talk to her;/Let me speak to the King,/And you shall soon discover/How much I interest
68
“Anger, Disdain, and Fury/Rise up within my Soul,/O cruel Jealousy!/That a contemned Lover /Cannot unrevenged find Repose:/I’ll invent new Tortures,/Contrive new Inchantments/For perfidiousLovers;/And if he cruelly neglects my Grief,/She shall be the Victim to my Rage.”

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emphasizes this. Medea vows to either be happy or kill Agilea: “O stringerò nel sen quel ben’ che adoro, o la rival cadrà, con l’ira mia” (48-49)
69
.It is in the final three acts that Medea’s magical powers unfold in all their splendor and horror. During the fifth scene of the third act Medea literally kidnapsAgilea with the help of a demon she has summoned and transports her to a magical place. Before doing this, she attempts to convince Agilea to marry Egeo and becomeQueen, rather than provoke Medea’s rage upon her:MEDEA: Romperò questo amore.AGILEA: Cruda sarai l’impresa.MEDEA: Bramo portarti al trono.AGILEA: N’abborrisco l’onore.MEDEA: Vuo che cangi pensier.AGILEA: Ciò non fia mai.MEDEA: Proverai l’ira mia. (61)
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Agilea naturally does not change her mind, thus forcing Medea to use magic. Medea plunges into an incantation scene that is “one of the grandest of Handel’s incantationscenes and strongly prophetic of
Alcina
” (Dean & Knapp 241)
71
.The act closes withMedea’s aria “Sibillando, ululando”, which is a “spectacular showpiece” (241) and onceagain points out Medea’s raging character. In the second part of the aria Medeaexclaims: “Nè à punirla vi stancate, ch’il tormento fà contento questo cor ch’ella tradi”(68)
72
. Disappearing with the stunned Agilea into the darkness, this extremely powerfulsorceress has stunned not only the other characters on stage, but the audience itself.
69
“Thus shall I win back the Heart that has deserted me, or my Rival shall go down with my Rage.”
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“M: I must confound this Passion. A: The undertaking will be cruel. M: I would set you on theThrone. A: I abhor the Honour. M: You must change your Mind. A: It is impossible. M: Will you provoke my Rage?
71
With the difference that Medea’s incantation succeeds in summoning the demons and Alcina’s fails,as we shall see in the next chapter.
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“Do anything to punish her, since my reviled Heart knows no other Bliss, than to magnify her Torment.”

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Three scenes remain to be discussed. The first is Medea’s second incantationscene in act four, scene four. The two rivals are in a magical place, where Medea bringsTeseo, who has fallen into a magically induced sleep. While Agilea attempts to wakehim up, Medea summons her demons who bring forth a knife and a torch. Her shortsummoning aria is an impressive piece of music: “Dal cupo baratro venite, oh furie,quelle mie ingiurie a vendicar” (76)
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. The plan is to blackmail Agilea into giving Teseoup by claiming that the demons will kill him. The plan works. Medea wakes Teseo fromhis sleep and disappears from the scene, to see whether Agilea will keep her word andreject Teseo’s amorous advances. Of course Agilea is unable to do so and the two loversare reunited and promise to die together, if Medea decides to destroy them. At this pointwe have one of those extremely unrealistic moments that often occur in opera seria andare the result of the
lieto fine
convention. For some unexplained reason, Medea, who hasoverheard everything, decides to let them be: “Non vi lagnate più, fidi amanti! Nonlungi il tutto intesi, finger non è più tempo. […] Teseo, t’amo, e lo vedrai frà poco.Stanca de’falli miei nodo si grato apprezzo; se vana è l’ira mia contro tanta virtù, ch’invoi risede, felice almen faro d’un altra il core, giacchè felice non mi vuole Amore” (83-84)
74
. To the 18
th
century audience this sudden change of heart would not have come as asurprise; but to a contemporary audience this seems entirely out of character for Medea.Fortunately (or unfortunately) the whole must be understood as a theatrical convention,nothing more. The two lovers must at the end of the opera be united and the biggestobstacle to their union cedes her place.
73
“Come, o Furies, from the dark Abyss to avenge my wrongs.”
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“Complain no more ye Faithful Lovers; Not far from hence, I’ve overheard you: ‘Tis time, no longer to dissemble. […]
Theseus
, You soon shall see my Love. Tir’d with my Contrivance, I approve thishappy Union. My Anger’s all in vain against thy shining Virtues. At least I’ll make another bless’d, thoLove denies his Happiness to me.”

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This little exhibition of benevolence on Medea’s part does not last long. Thesecond scene that concerns us is in the very beginning of the fifth and final act. Medea isalone once again – as she was in the beginning of the second act – and this time her thoughts are not of Love and Peace, but of Revenge and Death. In a long recitative shedecides finally to destroy Teseo and Agilea and – since she will have lost everything – finally die herself. The last sentence of the recitative is ominous: “Teseo mora, giacc’ilsuo amore oblio” (89)
75
. After this recitative follows Medea’s last aria in the opera:“Morirò, mà vendicata! E Vedrò pria di morire lacerate, trucidata la rival e l’infedele,che crudele m’oltragiò” (91-93)
76
. She decides to make Egeo kill Teseo. It must be madeclear here that Egeo is still unaware of Teseo’s true identity: the King does not know yetthat Teseo is his son. Medea easily convinces Egeo to poison Teseo, since both are stillin love with the same woman. But, luckily for both men, Egeo quickly recognizes hisson by his sword and throws the poisoned cup away. He also blesses the union betweenTeseo and Agilea, thus renouncing his claim on the girl. Medea loses.This brings us to the last scene that is of interest and stands in direct contrast toEuripides’ ending. Medea appears once more above the palace in a chariot driven bydragons – probably the one she used when she escaped from Corinth – and sends cursesall around: “Essenti del mio sdegno ancor non siete; preparate queste pompe non furo afavorire un abborrito amore. S’armi dunque l’inferno! S’armi pien doi rabbia e furore,strugga ciò che fù mio! Così partendo fò l’ultimo addio” (105)
77
. While her dragonscarry her of towards new adventures, the entire palace seems like it is on fire. But thistime the gods do not stand idly by. Minerva, the protector of Athens, sends her
75
“
Theseus
shall dye, since he has forgot his Love.”
76
“I go to my Death, but I will have Revenge first. Before I dye I will destroy, wound, annihilate thoseungrateful people that outraged me, my Rival and her Lover.”
77
“As yet you are not freed from my Rage; This Pomp was not prepar’d/To grace a hated Love./Hell isthen arm’d/Full of Rage and Fury,/Of my own Contrivance./Thus parting I bid ye the best Farewell.”

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Messenger, who declares to everyone that they are under her blessing and Medea’scharms immediately cease to have any power. Once more the
lieto fine
is upheld.At this point, one may pose the logical question: Why did not Medea marryEgeo – as was the original plan all along – and stay in Athens and thus the opera wouldhave an even happier ending? The answer is quite simple: the
lieto fine
allows for somestructural inconsistencies, but there is just so much that an
opera seria
can take. If Medea, after everything she had done to Teseo and Agilea, were to be rewarded withEgeo, then we would have a really serious breach of operatic decorum! To further thisargument however and return to Euripides: Medea in Euripides’ version escapesunpunished and that clearly is a violation of the rules of tragedy; why cannot the samething happen in Handel’s version as well? The answer to this question is clearlyconnected with Handel’s position in London in 1713 and the expectations his audiencehad of him.
Teseo
was only one more opera he composed for London at the beginning of his London career. He had not yet established himself so firmly as both to demand adifferent ending from his librettist and to go that extra step in breaking withconventions, as he was to do in 1733 with his
Orlando
78
.
There is perhaps another,deeper reason to this; a reason that is directly connected with Handel’s sense for dramaturgy and theatricality. Clearly Handel’s Medea is a sorceress that impresses theaudience. Essentially she is the true protagonist of this drama. As Beate Heinelobserves:Despite the horrible things the sorceress does, the audiencefinds itself more attracted to her than to any of the other leading characters, as is the case in so many other magic
78
Which was a financial disaster for Handel and almost ruined him!

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operas, where she is the essential protagonist, even though thework does not carry her name in the title. (137)
79
If Medea then is the true protagonist of this opera, then Handel has already breached theconventions; his protagonist remains unrewarded in the end, desolate and filled withhate. What more realistic situation then could emerge from such a plot, other than theone Haym and Handel prepared? Naturally someone has to be left out. It has to beMedea, because she is not integrated into the kind of society that the Atheniansrepresent in the opera. She is rejected because she is different, not because she is evil.Some last comments need be made now for both heroines. Euripides took a popular myth of his time and turned it into a grim vision of disorder. Pietro Pucciobserves in this respect: “Euripides’ Medea may be said, in sum, to be the incarnation of disorder. Social order, civic order both fall before her triumphant
anomía
” (109). At thesame time his Medea is a model of the contemporary human being: “Medea too is arampant individualist, ruthlessly declining to set aside one whit of self-interest tosubscribe to the familial and civic codes which are the fabric of social living” (110). Noone can deny that our society today is driven by individualism and that many of us arewilling to sacrifice familial and civic bonds, in order to succeed. Without knowing itEuripides depicted in his heroine a fairly realistic image of our contemporary society.This could be one reason why this particular play is so popular today. Handel on theother hand had to work with a libretto that is certainly weaker than Euripides’ play. Itserved a certain purpose – as we have already said – and it served it well. Albeit a sequelto Euripides’ version, this particular opera has some strong points as well and they areall located in Medea’s character. This Medea is the expected continuation of Euripides’heroine. She too is cunning, clever, powerful and desires vengeance. Her only
79
“Trotz der Grausamkeiten der Magierin fühlt sich der Zuschauer deshalb, wie in vielen anderenZauberopern, eher zu ihr hingezogen, die ja stets, wenn auch die Oper nicht nach ihr benannt ist, dieeigentliche Protagonistin ist, als zu den anderen Hauptpersonen.”

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differences with the original version are that, unlike Euripides’ Medea, Handel’s Medeais clearly only a woman; she never breaks any gender boundaries and limits and all her actions are typical of a scorned woman; and (again unlike the first Medea), she fails ineverything she sets out to do; even the gods, who in Euripides are almost co-conspirators, turn against her in the opera. I would even go one step further and claimthat – despite the obvious weaknesses of the libretto – Handel’s Medea is far morehuman than Euripides’ in every aspect. I am also certain that Handel’s versioncontributes a great deal to the character of the sorceress, allowing her to evolve intosomething more familiar to the audience that can relate to her passion, without feelingguilty for doing so.There exists a strangely parallel line between Euripides and Handel. In histime, Euripides was the rebel among tragic poets; he was the playwright who refused tofollow the paths that Aeschylus and Sophocles had set out in their works. His
Medea
was a failure when it premiered. Even in later generations he would always have tocompete with the other two tragic poets and he was severely criticized, most prominently by Friedrich Nietzsche (Pucci 13) for breaking tragic conventions. His plays however have managed somehow to reach deep into time; his heroes, with all their human flaws inspired other artists who developed them even further. In the end,Euripides managed to escape oblivion and precisely the fact that so many controversialthings have been said about him, is what matters most: he is important; his views matter.Handel on the other hand was extremely popular in his own time. After his deathhowever, he was all but lost – save for those anniversary performances of his
Messiah
and that incredible evergreen “Ombra mai fu” from
Serse
. When he was rediscoveredsometime in the 20
th
century he always stood in the shadow of J. S. Bach, his
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contemporary and fellow German
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. It took the musicologists a lot of time to realize thatthere was more to him than just the “Hallelujah”. He too however has returned to the place where he belongs: the stage. And just as in Euripides’ case, we are always eager tohear what he has to say.
Alcina: t he illusion of love and the reality of loss
Her loss lamenting, shedding bitter tears,And many times she longs with her ownhandTo all her suffering to put an end.(
Orlando Furioso
, X, 55)
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Ah! Mio cor! Schernito sei!Stelle! Dei! Nume d’amore!Traditore! T’amo tando; Puoi lasciarmisola in pianto, oh Dei!
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(
Alcina
, Atto II, Scena VIII)One of the most interesting episodes from Ludovico Ariosto’s
Orlando Furioso
(1516)
– albeit a rather small one, comprising only three and a half canti (VI,VII, VIII and a few stanzas in X) – is, without a doubt, the episode that takes place onthe island of the great witch Alcina. It is most peculiar that an incident that takes placeat the beginning of this great epic – a total of forty-six canti as the result of a twenty-five year labor (Reynolds 18) – and is scarcely remembered throughout the remainder of the epic
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, should capture the readers’ imagination and turn it into a story that canstand on its own. Handel too seems to have been captivated by this particular story,turning it into one of his last successes in London in 1735. Through the comparison of the literary figure of Alcina and her operatic counterpart, Handel’s probably most powerful female character, I intend to point out the elements that make Alcina stand outin both works, particularly as the symbol of material values, vanity, eternal youth andillusion.
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Incidentally, both composers where born in 1685, only a few kilometers apart, but Handel was by afew months older than Bach and he died nine years later.
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The English translation that I use as a primary source is by Barbara Reynolds.
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Oh, my heart, you are scorned! Oh, you stars! Oh ye gods! Deity of love! Betrayer! I love you so;How can you leave me alone, in tears, oh Gods! All English translations of the libretto are by PeggieCochrane and can be found inside the CD booklet accompanying Alan Curtis’ recording of the opera.
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In fact the last mention of Alcina’s name happens in the XII canto. Ariosto, Ludovico.
Orlando Furioso Part One
. Trans. Barbara Reynolds. London: Penguin Classics, 1973. 688.

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Ariosto places the action on a far-away island, “suggest[ing] from the outsetthat the Alcina episode will be a significant digression from the main plot of the poem”(MacCarthy 325). Alcina’s character is introduced through the direct narration of theknight Astolfo – who has been turned into a myrtle bush – to Ruggiero (VI, 32-53).This is particularly interesting for two reasons: first, Ariosto abandons the immediatefirst person narration that governs most of the poem, as Barbara Reynolds points out:“For all the major events of his poem he is himself the narrator” (9) and second itincreases the reader’s expectations about this very powerful witch. Astolfo’s experienceof Alcina is narrated from his point of view and not Ariosto’s, because it is a secondary plot. Again Reynolds explains in her second introduction: “[…] Ariosto always refrainsfrom intruding into a function from which he has temporarily withdrawn” (10). WhatAstolfo describes to the stunned Ruggiero is indeed marvelous: Alcina is the sister of the Fay Morgana, the wise and just Logistilla and last but not least, King Arthur himself (VI, 38, 45); she is also cunning, treacherous and “the fruit of incest” (VI, 38, 50, 43);and her powers are so great that even beasts of the sea obey her will: “The dolphins ather call come quickly leaping; / The tunneys flounder, gasping at her feet; / Spermwhales and seals are startled from their sleeping” (VI, 36). But her greatest power isthat of her female charms. Astolfo warns Ruggiero of the danger, reminding him of hisown fate: “On you Alcina will devolve her sway, / And bliss beyond all mortal joyaward; / But, be advised, the time must surely come / When rock or tree or fountain you become” (VI, 52). There is no need to point out that Ruggiero, despite all of Astolfo’swarnings, is duped by the witch.His fall from grace, as one could call it, is not entirely unexpected. It is alsoaccompanied by certain losses: manliness, virtue, constancy and most importantly his
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memory of his one true love, Bradamante, who is a contrasting female character toAlcina. Alcina’s spell is so powerful that:The image of the Maid whom he so lovedWas in his heart no longer to be found.The sorceress by magic has removedAll trace of any former amorous wound.By her alone the cavalier is moved,By her his heart engraved. (VII, 18)As a symbol, Bradamante always represents the virtuous and pious woman, who is at thesame time valorous, beautiful, just, pure and carries many manly qualities, as she isherself a very potent warrior, who often defeats male knights during her ownadventures
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. She also represents the Western ideal of a good wife that keeps her virginity for her destined husband. By contrast, Alcina represents lavishness, excessive beauty, sensuality, sexuality, injustice, impurity, trickery, eternal youth and baseemotions. However, for the duration of the Alcina episode – until at least Ruggiero isreturned to his senses with the help of Melissa – as William J. Kennedy observes“Bradamante becomes the sickness and Alcina the cure” (60). What Kennedy isimplying here is, that Bradamante stands for a reality that is violent, unpleasant, hardand inevitably leads to death, whereas Alcina is loving, pleasing, sweet and carries the promise of eternal youth and perhaps even immortality with her. The Western world thatBradamante represents is the reality from which Ruggiero is trying to escape, withoutrealizing it on his own. Kennedy on this issue suggests that: “[…] Alcina representsneither carnal delectation simply nor unrestrained sensuality totally, but rather analternative, and a wholly attractive one, to Ruggiero’s destiny” (61), which is an early
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See for example canti: IV, 16-26; XIII, 45; XXII, 71-75; 96-97; XXXII 72-77; XXXIII, 66-69;XXXV, 47-50; XXXV 67; 68; 69-72; 79-80; XXXVI, 16-20; 46-50.

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death as the readers of Ariosto’s poem would know
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. As Sergio Zatti suggests:“Ruggiero is the character who most completely embodies deferral with his irresolute,undecided, and often interrupted behavior, […] forever at the crossroads […] betweenLogistilla and Alcina” (32). This inability to choose is the result of magic that works allaround Ruggiero for the most part of his early journeys.Alcina’s magic spell is one of these things that keep Ruggiero from having hisown free will. That is also the reason why the narrator excuses Ruggiero’s inconstancywhile on the island: “Ruggiero must exonerated be / Of any blame for his inconstancy”(VII, 18). What precedes this small excuse is a lengthy description of Alcina’s charms:“the most beautiful by far” (VII, 10); or “[h]er person is as shapely and as fine/ As painters at their most inspired can show” (VII, 11); and she possesses “a face of perfectsymmetry” (VII, 11); her smile is “a paradise” (VII, 13); and “[h]er bosom, pure asmilk, is large and full” (VII, 14); generally her body is from head to toe perfect and“[n]o blemish or defect disfigures it” (VII, 15). Essentially the witch is a moving man-trap: “In every part of her there lurks a snare” (VII, 16). As a result Ruggiero is – naturally – smitten. He is captured by the perfect illusion that Alcina has created; anillusion that extends to the gardens and the palace itself
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. What follows is theconsummation of their love, where “Alcina’s attractions are veiled in the imagery of flowers seen through glass” (Reynolds 49). There is no doubt that Alcina is one of themost exquisite femme fatales of European literature; and like all such women, she hasan evil plan.
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In canto IV, 29, the warlock Atlante explains to Bradamante who has just defeated him that he istrying to protect Ruggiero, who will meet an untimely death soon after he has converted to Christianity:“That by a traitor’s hand he’ll meet his death / Ere long, converted to the Christian faith” (185).
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Ariosto was inspired for the descriptions of the realm and gardens of the island by the greatarchitectural achievements that were all around him in Ferrara (Reynolds 18).

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Clearly, Ruggiero has found himself in a very difficult and compromisingsituation. Bradamante needs to seek help for him, before it is too late. This help comesin the form of the witch and prophetess Melissa, who tricks Ruggiero back into reality by giving him the magic ring of princess Angelica, that possesses the power to break any magic spell (VII, 64). The outcome of this is that both Ruggiero and the reader acknowledge for the first time the true countenance of Alcina and of her land:She was an agèd and a hideous crone; No uglier in all the world was known.In truth, Alcina was, without a quibble,Wrinkled and frail; her hair was sparse and white,Scarcely six palms did she attain in height.Older than Hecuba or Cumae’s Sibyl,She had outlived all other women quite. (VII, 72-73)The narrator, who first used the most beautiful language to describe the once perfect projection of female beauty, now is disgusted by the sight, much as Ruggiero and thereader are too. But this old and ugly witch is still a woman; and when she is abandoned by her lover, she suffers. Alcina tries unsuccessfully to win Ruggiero back, by sendingout her entire army to the realm of her half-sister Logistilla, to whose kingdom Ruggierohas fled (VIII, 10). The narrator observes that:Alcina, who has meanwhile heard the newsOf how Ruggiero forced the outer gate[…] reviews,Dismayed, the desperation of her state.She rends her clothes; in torrents of abuseShe blames her own stupidity, too late. (VIII, 12)
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The once powerful witch is now left completely on her own. The narrator is not inclinedto show her any kind of sympathy, at least at this point. It seems that the narrator believes she needs to be punished for the illusions she has created and the fact that shetook up lovers indiscriminately and then turned them into bushes, trees and animalswhen she had had enough of them – just like Astolfo.The last significant mention of Alcina in the epic happens right after Logistilla’s army has defeated Alcina’s invading force and her attempt to regainRuggiero has failed completely. Here at last we have a very subtle tone of compassionon the part of the narrator:She flees; and her ill-fated companyHave died by burning or are prisoners.Yet, of them all, the worst calamityIs that Ruggiero is no longer hers.By day, by night, she grieves most piteously,Her loss lamenting, shedding bitter tears,And many times she longs with her own handTo all her suffering to put an end.But sorceresses cannot ever die,Long as the sun revolves and planets treadIn age-long style their pattern through the sky. (X, 55-56)In regard to this change in tone, Ita MacCarthy observes rightly: “She suddenly becomesa human-like figure demanding more compassion and far more attention than sheusually gets from scholars” (343). Truly, an observable change happens in this lastmention of the witch: now, finally, she represents all the women in the world that havefallen deeply and truly in love, and are eventually abandoned by their lovers.
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Unfortunately for her, her suffering will be eternal, since she is an immortal in Ariosto’suniverse. In regard to all the other symbolic features of the heroine MacCarthy suggeststhat: “As Ruggiero returns to Europe, Alcina is left behind as an enduring symbol of those impulses and tendencies that man cannot and, more to the point, will not whollyreject” (344). We can conclude from this then, that the exotic, mystic and forbidden willalways appeal to mankind and mankind will always struggle against it, in an attempt to both assimilate and condemn it. As for Ruggiero, he hardly feels any sympathy for thesuffering Alcina; instead, he tries to escape her as quickly as possible and enter into akind of apprenticeship to Logistilla, who is supposed to teach him – what else – logic!Kennedy points out that, “[…] as it turns out in fact the separation will be relatively painless” (61). Ruggiero will have to struggle some more before he can finally unitewith his Bradamante, but at the same time the reader knows that once he does that, his bliss will be cut short, because the prophecy of his early demise still stands.Throughout the narration concerning Alcina and her realm, it is true that thereader can observe what is closest to the animalistic nature of human beings: “It is thecontemplation of things ‘base’ and terrestrial that has produced the greatest poetry andmusic in the Alcina episode” (MacCarthy 342). Essentially what happens in Alcina’sworld is that reason and rational thinking are abandoned and only the strongest instinctsfind expression; those instincts being eating, drinking and preserving mankind throughintercourse. I would like to add to this observation the fact that for a very brief momentthe reader is reminded of the ancient matriarchal communities that existed before malesdominated politics; of course Ariosto’s matriarchy is twisted and evil, because he livedin a male dominated world and the ideal woman in those times had to be more likeBradamante and less like Alcina. In the end, however, what Ariosto achieved – perhapswithout even desiring it – was a lasting impression of a scorned woman, whose life
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expanded greatly and managed to find her way into other works of art. To one of thoseexamples we now turn our attention.In the introduction we made a reference to the most famous operas that wereinspired by the Alcina episode before the classical period in music sets in. While thesubject was used as early as 1625, it only reached its musical culmination in 1735, in G.F. Handel’s opera of the same title. The history of the creation and performance of this particular work is almost legendary: Handel, forced to move his theatre business to thenewly opened Covent Garden Theatre run by John Rich, had acquired a very goodcastrato – Giovanni Carestini, who was no match for Farinelli
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, but still could satisfythe demands of the English audience – and a dance troupe under the infamous French ballerina Marie Sallé, who caused a lot of controversy during her stay in England. As for the libretto of
Alcina
itself, it is impossible to pinpoint who composed it and whenHandel first acquired it. The first question has still not received a satisfying answer
88
. Regarding the second question, nowadays most scholars seem to agree upon a year of acquisition: 1729. Riccardo Broschi’s opera
L’isola di Alcina
was first performed in1728 in Rome (Dean 315). Handel was in Italy early in 1729, in search of new singersfor his company (Lang 235). If those accounts are true, and they seem to be, thecomposer must have had the libretto and possibly Broschi’s music in his hands as earlyas 1729; yet, for six years, he never sat down to work on it. It seems that only after hisoperatic business was beginning to deteriorate, did he decide it was time to give a fewmagic operas again: the first was
Orlando
in 1733, that turned out to be a flop, and two
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Farinelli had been employed by the Opera of the Nobility, the competing company to Handel’s own,to which company most of Handel’s old singers had defected. John Rich’s new theatre at CoventGarden gave Handel the opportunity to regain for a while the upper hand in the operatic scene of London. See Vickers, David. “Handel’s
Alcina
”. Accompanying CD Booklet. Handel, George Frideric.
Alcina
. Perf. Joyce DiDonato, Maite Beaumont et. al. Cond. Alan Curtis. Rec. 9/2007. ArchivProduktion, 2007. CD and Dean, Winton.
Handel’s Operas 1726-1741.
Woodbridge: The BoydellPress, 2007. Print
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“Handel’s immediate source was a libretto by an unknown author,
L’ isola di
Alcina” (Dean 315).

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years later his last magic opera,
Alcina
. When at last he decided to develop a project outof it, the result proved that it was well worth the wait.Again it is very difficult to say exactly when he began composing the music for this new opera
89
. Winton Dean suggests on musicological evidence that composition began sometime before April 1735. Also during the last week before the premiere on the16
th
of April, Handel took the liberty of adding the character of Oberto, a crucial changein the original libretto he had in his hands (326). We have already mentioned that thelibretto was by an anonymous author and even though the changes between Broschi’sand Handel’s operas are not extreme, they give us a possible insight into Handel’s wayof thinking and are further proof of the genius the composer possessed
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.It is nowalmost certain that Handel himself made the changes to the libretto, that consist of moving arias from one hero to another, moving pieces from one act to another, reducing parts for some heroes and adding parts to others and performing one gender change,allowing for the use of a bass, instead of yet another high voice
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. Both Winton Deanand David Vickers agree that Handel improved the “dramatic content” of the originaltext without external collaboration (Dean 315; Vickers 15); again, Dean exclaims: “It isdifficult to find serious fault with this libretto as Handel set it” (317). The final result,and by final I mean the score that is today preferred by most conductors when performing this opera, is probably the closest to what Handel had given his audience in1735: a powerful story, with well designed characters and a strong, at times heart-wrenching music.The introduction of the witch in this opera happens in the most impressivestyle, immediately capturing both Alcina’s magical powers and the beauty of her realm.
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Let us not forget that he composed very quickly, as the incident from
Rinaldo
informs us.
90
See Dean, Winton, the discussion of
Alcina
.
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Handel’s Melisso was originally a Melissa in Broschi’s opera.

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We are informed by the score that the “desert Place [with] high craggy Mountains” thatopens the scene of Bradamante and Melisso’s arrival on the island, is transformed intothe “beautiful Palace of Alcina” where she sits “adorning herself”, surrounded byservants
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. At her side are pages, servants and both Ruggiero and Oberto. In her firstrecitative with the newcomers, Alcina presents herself as a benevolent and kind queen.It is important to remember here that, unlike Ariosto’s Ruggiero who is warned abouther, the audience of this opera knows very little about Alcina; especially nowadays,where it is not a common thing to have read the
Orlando Furioso
before going to theopera. Alcina’s language is calm and seductive. Also, without shame, she asks Ruggieroto show the newcomers every place where they have expressed their love for each other:“E tu odi, Ruggiero, anima mia, mostra lor la mia reggia, e caccie, e fonti. Veggan dovescoprimmo all’ombra amica d’un scambievole amor fiamma pudica” (21)
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. Immediately after, she plunges into a love aria, where she openly declares her love and passion for Ruggiero:Di’, cor mio, quanto t’ amai,Mostra il bosco, il fonte, il rio,Dove tacqui e sospirai,Pria di chiederti mercé.Dove fisso ne’ miei rai,Sospirando al sospir mio,Mi dicesti con un sguardo:
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The English translations for the scenic descriptions are taken from Winton Dean, who gives a veryanalytic argument of the story, based – in this case – on Chrysander’s edition. This edition is the onlyone in the series that Chrysander published containing both the Italian original and a Germantranslation of the libretto and stage directions.
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“And you, Ruggiero, my dearest, show them my palace, the chase, the springs. Let them see where,in the friendly shade, we shyly discovered the chaste flame of mutual love.”

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Peno, ed ardo al par di te. (22-25)
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These words clearly show a woman that enjoys the act of love making. There are onlyfew references to a deeper emotion. At this point Alcina only speaks of the carnal pleasure of love, not the psychological. In this respect Handel’s Alcina is still a lot likeAriosto’s. We are only beginning to realize the tragic outcome of this piece. The heroinethen disappears for four scenes.Upon her next entrance at the beginning of scene IX, the illusion which she hascreated for herself is already beginning to crumble. Her lover accuses her of infidelitywith Bradamante/Ricciardo. She attempts to appease him, but her words in the recitativeshow that she is slowly losing power over Ruggiero’s false love: “Mio tesoro, mio ben,anima mia! Chiami Alcina infedele? […] Tu geloso m’offendi, e piaci ancora” (42)
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. When a few seconds later Bradamante/Ricciardo enters and compliments her on her beauty in front of Ruggiero, she immediately clarifies: “Bello è sol per Ruggiero” (42)
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, but he still doubts her constancy. At this point, the heroine begins a sorrowful lament,attempting to change Ruggiero’s cruel accusations to love again:Sì, son quella, non più bella, Non più cara agli occhi tuoi;Ma se amar tu non mi vuoi,Infedel, deh! Non m’odiar.Chiedi al guardo, alla favella,Se son quella, dillo ingratoAl tuo core mentitore,
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Tell them, dear heart, how much I loved you,/show them the grove, the spring, the brook,/where Isighed in silence/before asking for your pity./Where, gazing into my eyes,/your sighs answeringmine,/you told me with a look:/I suffer, I burn like you.
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“My dear, my darling, my heart’s delight! You call Alcina false? […] Jealous man, you offend meand yet I am fond of you.”
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“Lovely only for Ruggiero”

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Che mi vuole rinfacciar. (43-45)
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Already we observe a change in Alcina. From the happy, lustful first aria, she now losesthe ground beneath her feet. The accusations are something she never expected, becauseshe was confident in the illusion of love she has created. But her magic has played anasty trick on her. Yes, Ruggiero was falsely in love with her, but she is actually truly inlove with him. Donna Leon makes a comparison between Alcina and theFeldmarschallin from Richard Strauss’
Der Rosenkavalier
(1911): “Just like theMarschallin, Alcina too is older than her lover – but how much older? 10 or 200 years?(She is, of course, a witch.) And just like the Marschallin, she too is only too well awareof this age difference” (53)
98
. In my opinion, this comparison is both valid andfarfetched. Alcina is definitely older than Ruggiero, but her problem is not the agedifference. It is the fact that she herself has created a spell that she lost control over. TheFeldmarschallin trumps Octavian in age, but she is perfectly aware of that, and knowsthat one day her lover will leave her for someone more suitable – as is the case.Handel’s Alcina on the contrary has never experienced true love; instead she would takeup lovers and then turn them into something else, ridding herself of the problemaltogether. What this shows is an inability to compromise, to take up responsibility, toadmit defeat. She still clings onto her magic powers. Therefore, this second aria givesthe audience a glimpse into the effect those true emotions have on her. Alcina then exitsthe stage, and returns only in scene IV of the second act.The second act is a very interesting one, from a dramatic point of view. Theaction now focuses on Ruggiero’s release from Alcina’s magic powers. Melisso hands
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Yes, I am still true, though no longer beautiful,/no longer dear in your sight./But if you can no longer love me,/faithless man, oh, do not hate me!/Ask my gaze, my words,/if I am true, tell it to your/lyingheart, ingrate,/that would reproach me.
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“Wie die Marschallin ist auch Alcina älter als ihr Geliebter – aber um wie viel? Um 10 oder um 200Jahre? (Sie ist ja schließlich eine Zauberin.) Und wie die Marschallin ist auch sie sich desAltersunterschiedes nur allzu sehr bewusst.”

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him the magic ring that has the power to destroy any magic spell. Ruggiero returns tohis original state of mind; but he must continue to pretend love to Alcina, in order toensure his escape from the island together with Melisso and Bradamante/Ricciardo.Alcina’s part, until the last scenes then, is reduced to simple recitatives and dialogues, but no big showpieces. In the fourth scene, where the witch reappears, she prepares toturn Bradamante/Ricciardo into a beast, to prove her constancy to Ruggiero. She never finishes the spell, because both Morgana, her sister, and Ruggiero stop her. When she isleft alone with Ruggiero, again in the recitative she exclaims her love, while allowinghim to go hunting: “Al tuo voler sempre s’unì mia mente. Vanne, ma sia per pocco: e pensa al mio martiro. Temo; partir ti lascio, e ne sospiro” (75)
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. For the first time in theopera, Alcina admits that she is afraid to lose Ruggiero. The thought that had beencrossing her mind, but was never openly expressed is finally out in the open. At this point we could even claim that her instincts warn her that something is going to happen.However, she lets Ruggiero go.After Ruggiero has left, we have one important scene between Alcina andOberto. As mentioned above, the part of Oberto was a last minute addition by Handelhimself. The young boy is Astolfo’s son – who in this opera is turned not into a myrtle bush, but a lion. Oberto is constantly in search of his father, while at the same timeenjoying the many enchantments of the island. In the second act he has one firstencounter with Alcina. One wonders why Alcina does not turn Oberto into a magicalcreature, but in their small scene here, the answer is obvious: she feels like a mother tohim. When Oberto admits that nothing can make him happy, unless he is reunited withhis father she exclaims: “Al mio materno amore così mal corrispondi?” (79)
100
.Feeling
99
“My mind was ever at one with your desires. Go; but do not be long away; think of my torment. I amafraid; I let you go, but sigh for it.”
100
“Do you repay my maternal affection so unbecomingly?”

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pity for the boy, she also promises him that he will see his father soon: “Ascolta: vedraiin breve il tuo padre, io tel prometto” (79)
101
. The insertion of Oberto by the composer was clearly a stroke of genius. Alcina assumes through this a more human aspect, amore female kind of character; something that Ariosto’s heroine lacks completely. Theillusion is reinforced through this; Alcina desires a family, but can only achieve itthrough magic, there is no viable reality in all of this. Only her emotions, which willvery soon overpower her and make her come to a tragic downfall.The news of Ruggiero’s betrayal reach Alcina at the beginning of scene VIII inthe second act. What follows is “one of the most beautiful arias in the history of opera”(Starobinski 191). Roughly for ten to fifteen minutes – depending on the speed theconductor chooses to perform it – this aria is a heart wrenching piece, with very simplewords, that target directly the soul:Ah! Mio cor, schernito sei!Stelle, Dei! Nume d’amore!Traditore, t’amo tanto;Puoi lasciarmi sola in pianto,Oh Dei, perché?Ma, che fa gemendo Alcina?Son regina, è tempo ancora:Resti, o mora, peni sempre,O torni a me. (82-87)
102
It is difficult to explain with words the emotions that this aria can produce in a receptivelistener. Yes, the heroine complains about losing her lover. She implores the gods and
101
“Harken: you will see your father soon, I promise you.”
102
Oh, my heart, you are scorned!/Oh, you stars! Oh ye gods! Deity of love!/Betrayer! I love youso;/how can you leave me alone, in tears?/Oh gods! Why?/But what is Alcina doing, complaining?/Iam a queen, and there is yet time./He shall stay or die,/suffer eternally, or return to me!

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the heavens to restore him to her. She is unable to understand why this happens. In thesecond section she reminds herself of her royal pedigree and tries to be cruel. But theritornello of the da capo – sung a capella – haunts her immediately and takes her back tothe abyss, a place she reaches for the first time. During the slow first part of the aria, thesinger repeats key words like “sola”, “oh Dei”, “traditore” and of course “perché”.Ultimately however, the heroine understands painfully that she is alone with her pain tokeep her company.The act closes with Alcina having composed herself a little and attempting touse her magic powers to bring Ruggiero back. The recitativo accompagnato in sceneXIII is a tribute to conjuring scenes in magic operas (Heinel 171); this time however, thespirits and furies do not obey their mistress. By the end of this recitative, Alcina admitsdefeat: “Vinta, delusa Alcina, e che t’avanza?” (100)
103
. The Italian word “delusa” is anexcellent choice at this point; Alcina feels deceived. She fails however to recognize thatthe instigator of this whole illusion was herself, not someone else. A tragic irony, nodoubt. The aria di vendetta that follows is directed towards the disobeying spirits andnot Ruggiero. Alcina’s powers are tremendous, but not even she can defeat or controlthe greatest power of all: that of Love. As a result, she loses command over her spirits.In the end, she breaks her “verga”, since it cannot provide any help any more
104
.The third act resolves pretty quickly for everyone involved. However, thechange that has begun for the witch, is completed here. She has the chance to display her jealousy to Ruggiero at the very beginning of the act, where she accuses him of abandoning her for the sake of another woman: “Fuggi da me, per darti ad altra amante”
103
“Defeated, deceived Alcina, what have you left?”
104
Donna Leon suggests a different reading of the word “verga”, since it has a double meaning inItalian: both magic wand and penis. However, the imagery of Alcina holding a phallic symbol and breaking it is not favored by the rest of the libretto, nor the music itself. The idea of castrating the lover for abandoning the woman is somewhat extreme, especially since the “verga” appears only this once inthe entire opera.

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(115)
105
and warns him in her aria that he will receive only cruelty from her, when hereturns to her, after spending some time in the real world: “attendi pur da me / rigore ecrudeltà” (116-118)
106
. In her last aria she is stripped of everything she once had.Ruggiero in addition to abandoning her, has also defeated her troops. Not only does shelose her lover, she loses her kingdom as well. The only thing she has left, are her tears:Mi restano le lagrime,Direi: dell’alma i voti,Ma i dei resi ho implacabili,E non m’ascolta il ciel.Potessi in onda limpidaSottrarmi al sole, al dì!Potessi in sasso volgermi,Che finirei cosìLa pena mia crudel. (129-132)
107
Here, finally, the witch longs only for a hiding place. She possesses nothing and feelsthat even this small thing, to be able to disappear from the face of the earth, is beingdenied her. She wishes to resort to magic, only to do to herself what she had been doingto her lovers. But she has broken her magic wand and her spirits do not obey her anymore. Completely desolate, she wishes to end her suffering, but, just like Ariosto’sAlcina, she cannot do that.Another tribute to Handel’s genius is the fact that he delivers the final blow tohis heroine not through Ruggiero, but through Oberto. Immediately before resolving the
105
“You are deserting me for another lover.”
106
“look only for harshness / and cruelty from me.”
107
Only tears remain to me,/tears that I would call my heart’s desires,/but I have made the godsimplacable/and heaven is deaf to me./If only I might hide myself/in limpid water from the light of day;/if only I could change myself into stone,/thus ending/my cruel suffering.

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opera, Oberto appears once more, in search of his father. Alcina is not in any mood toaccommodate the boy. Instead she summons the lion that is Astolfo and orders Oberto tokill it. The boy recognizes his father and turns instead to face Alcina. The witch is nowready to face her executioner, but Oberto spares her, only to prolong her suffering.The final showdown takes place in front of the magic urn that contains Alcina’s powers. There she makes one last attempt to gain Ruggiero’s trust again. She tries toconvince him to stay on the island, because his life is destined to be short, once heleaves. Her warnings fall on deaf ears: both Bradamante and Ruggiero ignore her anddegrade her. At this point, Alcina is no longer a threat, nor is she trying to win Ruggiero back for herself. She knows she has lost him, but she also has seen his future and knowsthat he will meet an early death
108
: “Che inganni? Anzi ho pieta; piango il suo fato”
109
;she tells him of his early death: “A morir tu ten vai”
110
and further down to Bradamanteshe says: “Tu, vedova dolente, lo piangerai”
111
(139). In the beautiful terzetto thatfollows this confrontation, where the ménage a trois is resolved she explains: “Non èamor, né gelosia…/è pieta […] [è] desio che lieta godi. […] [n]on t’offendo […] [n]ont’inganno!” (140-143)
112
. Finally, Ruggiero strikes down the magic urn and essentiallydestroys Alcina’s island, releasing all her doomed lovers from their enchanted forms.What happens to the witch remains a mystery; Handel simply makes her and Morganaabandon the stage. The audience remains with the question: does Alcina die? Or is shelike Ariosto’s heroine, forever mourning her fate, cursed never to die?
108
Again Donna Leon suggests that Alcina is trying to win Ruggiero back through cunning words andfalse promises. But Alcina’s words both in the recitative and the terzetto are true warnings, not cunningwords and false promises.
109
“What lies? Indeed, I am filled with pity and bemoan his fate.”
110
“You are going to your death.”
111
A grieving widow, you will weep for him.”
112
“This is not love nor jealousy, but compassion…[…] and concern for your happiness. […] I meanyou no harm […] I am not deceiving you!”

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As Winton Dean observes: “Alcina is the most fully developed of Handel’ssorceresses and one of opera’s great tragic heroines” (318). There is no doubt thisstatement is true. Handel took a very popular literary figure and created an entirely newand very realistic work, where the protagonist suffers for real. Ariosto’s Alcina is twodimensional. She has some moments of humanness, but she never really reaches out tothe reader. She is memorable mostly because of her physical transformation: the beautiful woman who is in reality an ancient hag. Handel’s Alcina on the other hand isvery different. Perhaps she is older than Ruggiero, perhaps she is not. Nothing in thelibretto or the original stage directions even suggest that Handel had the age differencein mind. For Handel she is yet another scorned woman, one that does not deserve thethings that happen to her. It is not only the good libretto that Handel possessed, but primarily his music that makes the audience feel for Alcina. As Silke Leopold observes:Handel portrays the development of Alcina from a self-assuredmistress, all the way to complete hopelessness musically, inways that nearly break the borders of the opera seria genrewith an almost explosive emotional intensity and reaching far out into the future with a capacity to enter into the psychological elements [of the character]. (18)
113
To this statement I feel that Starobinski’s observation on the heroines’ music makes a perfect addition: “Alcina’s voice controls, in the area of emotions, the immense register that goes from superiority to despair and from tenderness to fury” (192)
114
. Taking the“voice” of Alcina as the final starting point in this comparison, there is yet another
113
Mit einer die Grenzen der Gattung Opera seria nahezu sprengenden emotionalen Intensität undeinem weit in die Zukunft weisenden psychologischen Einfühlungsvermögen zeichnet Händel dieEntwicklung Alcinas von einer selbstegewissen Gebieterin bis hin in die totale Hoffnungslosigkeitmusikalisch nach.
114
“Im Bereich des Gefühls beherrscht Alcinas Stimme das gewaltige Register, das von der Souveränität bis zur Verzweiflung reicht und von der Zärtlichkeit bis zur Raserei.”

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contrast between the literary and the operatic figure. Ariosto’s Alcina never speaksdirectly. The reader never hears her voice; save for one moment, during the originalnarration of Astolfo, where he retells some things she said to him, in order to seduce him(VI, 39-40). Nowhere else does she come to any kind of speech, which is veryinteresting, especially when she is seducing Ruggiero. On the other hand, an operaticheroine cannot be mute – unless she is Dvořák’s Rusalka, who spends an entire act insilence. Handel’s Alcina speaks directly to the audience. We hear her voice and her music. We allow ourselves to be seduced by it; and we suffer alongside her for her fate.This is not to diminish Ariosto’s incredible literary skills. On the contrary, if his ownimagination were not complete enough, then his epic poem would have failed to inspireso many people.Critics have recognized the immense power the character of Alcina has, both inher literary form and her operatic counterpart. While Ariosto’s heroine is the protagonistof a side story, she does not fail to convey many symbols and meanings to the reader:vanity, superficiality, external beauty, illusion are all things that have excited our imaginations for millennia. But attributing the wrong amount of importance to them, we become entrapped in a self-made illusion. Alcina is the warning sign of what can happenif we immerse ourselves too much in this, and forget reality. I would like to concludethis chapter with the – probably – most quoted letter in the history of criticism of Handel’s
Alcina
– one might even substitute Handel’s name and put Ariosto’s in its place. Mrs. Pendarves, a close friend of the composer, was privileged enough to attend adress rehearsal of the opera, before its premiere. Afterwards, she wrote:I think it the best [opera] he ever made, but I
have thought so
of
so many
, that I will not say positively ‘
tis the finest
, but tis
so fine
I have not words to describe it. Strada
115
has a whole
115
Anna Strada del Pò was the first singer who portrayed Handel’s Alcina.

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scene of charming recitative – there are a thousand beauties.Whilst Mr. Handel was playing his part, I could not helpthinking him a necromancer in the midst of his ownenchantments. (Dean 327)
Lieto fine?
“Händel konnte den ganzen Kosmos menschlicher Gefühle in Musik umsetzen. Er brannte für die Oper. Das faszinierende ist, dass er wie Mozart den stärkstendramatischen Effekt erzielte, wenn er seinen Helden für die Momente des Schmerzesund der Trauer langsame, ruhige und damit umso intensivere Musik schrieb.”
116
Vesselina Kasarova, “Arias for Carestini” (7)It was pointed out in the introduction that one of the most important elementsof the
opera seria
genre is the
lieto fine
. As a result, most of the plots are very loose,highly improbable and almost never psychologically valid. The emotional changes acharacter can go through during the opera are so many and happen so quickly, that amodern day audience can only laugh at them; one might call these serious operas farcesinstead. The
lieto fine
, however, was not just a rule every composer had to abide by; itwas an ideology that sprang from the stylized life aristocrats and upper class familieshad cultivated for themselves. While the poets who composed the libretti for the operaswere under their patronage, the plot had to portray an ideal that was embraced by the patrons: the aristocratic heroes of operas would brave any kind of difficulty and comethrough triumphant in the end. It is not a coincidence that many dramaturgic rules of the
opera seria
genre were – covertly, most of the times – broken by Handel, who isconsidered as the first composer-businessman, working as a freelance entrepreneur andoften taking high financial risks. He did not have to please an aristocratic audience thatcould fire him, if the plot was not standard. In this use of the absurdities of the genre lies
116
“Handel’s music expresses a whole world of human emotions. He was consumed by a real passionfor opera. What is so fascinating is that like Mozart he achieved his most powerful dramatic effectwhen he wrote slow, calm and correspondingly intense arias for his heroes at times of anguish andgrief” Translation is by Stewart Spencer.

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Handel’s great gift to mankind, as Sir Peter Jonas observed: “The great skill of Handel,however, is that this element of farce is always juxtaposed with moments when timestands still, because the characters suddenly change into being people who portray theagony of a love in such a moving way that the audience is breathless.” Handel’s witchescertainly manage to take our breaths away…This break with tradition is obvious in his magic operas. One might wonder why only there he chose to tread on different paths and did not do this in all his operas.The answer to that is, in my opinion, a simple one: a magical creature does not abide bythe rules of society; therefore it is not subject to the rules of poetry and opera. At thesame time the magical creature can potentially be made more human than the actualhuman being, because there the emotions are being experienced in a more innocent, amore direct kind of way that has all the elements of uniqueness and novelty. Strangelyenough it is through magic that people often realize the importance of being human.So, what does Handel do with his witches? His first witch, Armida, is the onlyone that gets out of the twisted and unrealistic plot almost unscathed. But only in the1711 version of
Rinaldo
. In 1731 she leaves the stage, together with Argante, cursingthe Christians who have defeated their heathen forces. A much more realistic ending,that took Handel two decades to realize. It is curious that Handel did not demand fromhis literary collaborators this kind of ending as early as the first version
117
. Perhaps hefelt that the audience would respond better to a complete and total victory of theChristians against the heathen or perhaps he simply was so busy planning his firstLondon appearance that he dismissed the issue as quickly as he composed the music.
117
Two reasons stand out: first, Handel never drastically altered plots of his operas when he re-workedthem; he only changed music and arias. Second, even though there might be some truth in the claimmade by Dean and Knapp that he was too young to be able to demand things of his librettists, I believethat a man of his convictions would not be afraid to state his mind; especially since his sense for dramaturgy and theatre was so well developed already.

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Yet one year later this position changes dramatically: his Medea – the true protagonist of
Teseo
– fails to obtain her goals. She is the first significant break with thetradition of the
lieto fine
; however, since the opera was not named after her, theaudience is not entirely disappointed. Not only that, but Medea, even though she isundoubtedly the strongest character in the opera, is portrayed in a darker light; true, theaudience has some moments when it feels sympathy for her, but both the prehistory of the character and all the awful things she attempts during the opera bias the audiencemore negatively than positively towards her. At the same time, however, Medea is notentirely a suffering woman: she is far too powerful and a distance is developed betweenher and the audience. The balance was not perfect yet for the libretto and the music towork wonders.This balance is somewhat fine-tuned with the next magic opera that Handelcomposed which was not part of our discussion, but will concern us briefly here. In1715 the opera
Amadigi
premiered in London with some success
118
. The plot focusesaround Amadigi and his destined love Oriana and the plans that are construed byDardano, a knight and main rival to Amadigi for Oriana’s love and the sorceressMelissa, who keeps Oriana locked up in a magical tower and falls in love herself withAmadigi. By the end of the opera Dardano is killed by Amadigi and Melissa commitssuicide in front of the couple, in one of the most beautiful and tragic moments in theentire history of opera. Again the libretto has several weaknesses, but this time the plotis slightly more consistent than in the two previous cases. Melissa is once again thehighlighted character: “She has a good deal in common with Armida and Medea, but isa more subtle creation than either because she is so much more human” (Dean & Knapp278). While again the plot is filled with inconsistencies and improbable resolutions,
118
It was performed for at least two more years, but was dropped from the repertoire in 1717 (Dean &Knapp 287-289).

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Melissa manages to capture the audiences’ imagination. I find it impossible for anyoneto remain neutral to her suffering, especially in her death agonies, while she still singsher “Addio, crudo Amadigi” and “Io gia sento”
119
.Melissa demands the composers’attention and the treatment she receives is worthy of her character. That happens because, as Sir Peter Jonas has said,I’ve always thought that Bach is music for the Gods andHandel is music for mankind, for
Menschen
, for people. I’m a person and I can relate much more directly to Handel, becausehe is music for human beings. […] Certainly for the theatre itis indisputable that Handel was one of the greatest theatriccomposers that ever lived and I say that without any apologyto Mozart, Wagner, Strauss (R) or Verdi.With
Amadigi
, and more particularly with Melissa’s character, Handel came one stepcloser to the perfect analysis of the female soul. He almost succeeded in unraveling themystery that emotions hide and once again composed music that touched deeply thehuman – not divine – soul.But then, something strange happened: Handel stopped composing magicoperas altogether! This is extremely peculiar, since his magic operas were importantsuccesses that made a lot of money for him. For some reason, after 1715 he onlyrevisited magic operas he had already composed, never attempting to write a new one.What is also interesting is that from 1715 to 1732 when at last he brings
Orlando
to thestage he has no scenes of magic; there are no invocations, no summoning of furies, notalking busts or even ghosts! Nothing remotely magical happens during that time. This
119
Unlike other heroines that sing and sing and never die, delaying their departure from this “world”,Melissa dies gracefully, without any grandeur or pompousness. Indeed her suicide is one of the mostrealistic moments in the history of operatic deaths, making this situation truly dramatic, without anyhint of irony or farce.

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does not mean, of course, that the operas he composed during those years are notimportant or even magnificent; certainly not, since the ‘20s were his most productive period with operas such as
Giulio Cesare
(1724),
Tamerlano
(1724) and
Rodelinda
(1725). But it is interesting, considering that he was composing for a public that wasextremely well acquainted with magic on stage, both from Shakespeare’s plays and fromHenry Purcell’s masques and one semi-opera
120
. It is also improbable that he was not provided with at least a few libretti featuring magic, because the magical element wasextremely popular in every sense. If he was given the opportunity by his librettists tocompose a magic opera in the ‘20s and he did not, I have to assign the fault with thetexts, not the lack of inspiration. Unfortunately, this huge gap cannot be explainedadequately and one can only guess. Thankfully he would compose two new magicoperas in the ‘30s, both of them exceptional pieces
121
. With both these last magic operasHandel returns to what Winton Dean says: “Handel had shown long before in his firstLondon days a particular susceptibility to magic subjects, which released anexceptionally fertile, even a romantic strain in his imagination and at the same timehelped him to bring out the intense humanity of his characters” (241). Also in these twolast magic operas – both of them great hits in our modern times – we find NicholasHytner confirmed: “I think what contemporary audiences have discovered, particularlyin Handel, is his simultaneously ironic and deeply sympathetic way with the humanheart, particularly with the female heart. He is not a teary-eyed romantic.” Handel’sgreatness as a reader of the “female heart” is exemplified in his
Alcina
.I have already pointed out in my discussion of
Alcina
that Handel had thelibretto in his hands as early as 1729 and that, by all accounts, he made the changes that
120
I am referring to
King Arthur
,
The Fairy Queen
and of course
Dido and Aeneas
.
121
His
Orlando
, based again on Ariosto, is a work with a great deal of musical innovations that werenot appreciated by his contemporaries, but nowadays it is considered one of the “most original of Handel’s operas in design. It is also one of the richest in musical invention” (Dean 242).

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resulted in this magnificent piece himself. Without a doubt this particular heroine is theculmination of Handel’s achievements in characterization. She comes at the end of a lineof strong and passionate women and tops them all. Alcina’s suffering is deeper than anyof the other heroines of Handel – both magical and non magical; and this intensity of her suffering is the result of the composer’s own magic touch upon the text. It seems to methat everything that preceded
Alcina
in Handel’s operatic work was merely the preparation period that would eventually result in this dramatic masterpiece. Inevitably,I have to talk about the ending of this opera. We have no clue whatsoever as to Alcina’sfate after Ruggiero destroys her magic urn. She disappears from the stage, leaving aterrible void. The remaining characters rejoice in happiness, but their first choral piece ismore dramatic than happy, whereas the final Coro is clearly an ironic comment by thecomposer. These people are not happy; they might be for a short while, but in the endthey will all suffer losses and die an unhappy death: the sorceress has predicted theoutcome.Where, then can the
lieto fine
be found? An uneasy reality emerges in thesefour characters: one may be happy for a while, caught in an illusion that is Love. Butthat illusion can easily be destroyed, when reason and realism catch up. At the sametime, through these magic operas, Handel makes yet another ironic comment towardsevery other work – both his and those of his contemporaries – that conforms to the
lieto fine
. True, his Caesar marries Cleopatra, but history tells us that the romance wasdoomed from the start; his Arianna is united with Teseo by the end of
Arianna in Creta
(1733), but mythology informs us that she was later abandoned by her lover on adesolate island; his
Agrippina
(1709) succeeds in her political schemes against her husband, placing her son Nero on the throne of Rome, but she too suffered a terribledeath at the hands of him who was so favored by her.
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Georg Friedrich Händel did break the rules of
opera seria
more often than mostmusicologists give him credit for. The problem is that he did it in such a great manner that one can hardly perceive the “unlawfulness” of his actions; and he also decided to doso more openly in his magic operas than in his more down to earth ones. By followingthe literary origins of his witches and keeping true to their respective endings – Medeafleeing Athens, Armida converting to Christianity and Alcina abandoned
122
– Handelfound the perfect means to express his concerns about the genre and leave everyonewondering about his true intentions.This wondering about him is still around, even after so many centuries of Handel’s music. Although we seem to know a lot of things about Handel,simultaneously we are unable to answer some key questions about him and his work;something that is not the case with Johann Sebastian Bach, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart,Ludwig van Beethoven, Giuseppe Verdi, Richard Wagner or Richard Strauss. Only thetime machine would be able to satisfy our curiosity about the “caro Sassone”, the “dear Saxon” as his Italian worshipers called him. Handel was the first true citizen of a unifiedEurope; unified in arts, not politics, in a time when art and music were still regarded as avital part of human culture and education. As Dieter Schickling observes: “His time wasthe early 18
th
century. […] his time has not yet arrived again”
123
(267). Perhaps, whenwe finally decide to listen carefully to the witches’ laments, we might discover the truemagic contained in life and music.Works CitedPrimary Sources:
122
Melissa is a unique operatic creation. She is an amalgam of certain magical characters that appear in the original texts by Montalvo and Ariosto’s benevolent witch of the same name (Dean & Knapp275-276).
123
“Seine Zeit war das frühe 18. Jahrhundert. […] seine Zeit ist noch nicht wieder da.”


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