Speranza
The genetic history of the British Isles is the subject of research within the
larger field of human population genetics.
It has developed in parallel with DNA
testing technologies capable of identifying genetic similarities and differences
between populations.
The conclusions of population genetics regarding England and the
British Isles, in turn draw upon and contribute to the larger field of
understanding the history of humanity in the British Isles generally,
complementing work in linguistics, archeology, history and
genealogy.
Research concerning the most important routes of migration into
the British Isles is the subject of debate.
Apart from the most obvious route
across the narrowest point of the English Channel into Kent, other routes may
have been important over the millennia, including a land bridge in the
Mesolithic period, and also maritime connections along the Atlantic coast.
In
addition, the periods of the most important migrations are also contested.
While
the Neolithic introduction of farming technologies from Europe is frequently
proposed as a period of major population change in the British Isles, such
technology could either have been learned by locals from a small number of
immigrants, or may have been put into effect by colonists who significantly
changed the population.
Other potentially important historical periods of
migration which have been subject to consideration in this field include:
-- the
introduction of Celtic languages and technologies (during the Bronze and Iron
Ages)
-- the Roman era
-- the period of Anglo-Saxon influx
-- the Viking era
-- the
Norman invasion of 1066 and
-- the era of European wars of religion.
There are also
similarly many potential eras of movement between different parts of the British
Isles.
An
international watershed in the publication and discussion of genetic evidence
for ancient movements of people was that of
LUIGI LUCA CAVALLI-SFORZA
who used
polymorphisms from proteins found within human blood (such as the ABO blood
groups, Rhesus blood antigens, HLA loci, immunoglobulins, G-6-P-D isoenzymes,
amongst others).
One of the lasting proposals of this study with regards to
Europe is that within most of the European continent, the majority of genetic diversity
may best be explained by immigration coming from the southeast towards the
northwest or in other words from the Middle East towards Britain and Ireland.
Cavalli-Sforza
proposed at the time that the invention of agriculture might be the best
explanation for this.
Later published studies used mitochondrial DNA to study
the female line of descent.
It became possible to use Y chromosome DNA to study MALE
descent.
As opposed to large scale sampling within the GENOME, Y DNA and
mitochondrial DNA represent specific types of genetic descent and can therefore
reflect only particular aspects of past human movement.
For England and Britain, major
research projects aimed at collecting more data include The Oxford Genetic Atlas
Project, also known as the OGAP, which was associated with Bryan SYKES of Oxford and
more recently the People of the British Isles, also associated with
Oxford.
Bryan Sykes produces an analysis
of 6000 samples from the OGAP project in his book Blood of the Isles.
Later,
Stephen Oppenheimer in his "The Origins of the British" used the data
from Weale et al. (2002), Capelli et al. (2003) and Rosser et al. (2000) for
Europe.
In opposition to Neolithic origin theories, which remain strong, Sykes
and Oppenheimer argue for significant immigration from the Iberian peninsula
into Britain and Ireland.
Much of this argument depended on Y DNA evidence.
However by 2010 several major Y DNA studies presented more complete data,
showing that the oldest-surviving MALE lineages had mostly migrated to Britain
from the Balkans, and ultimately from the Middle East, not from Iberia.
This, of course, confirms Oppenheimer's hypothesis, rather than contradicting it, because he
explicitly states that the genetic evidence indicates that the British original
populations came from Anatolia (middle east) along the north shore of the
Mediterranean Sea (including the Balkans) and through Iberia to the British
isles.
In a new twist, from a highly enlarged whole-genome mitochondrial
database published in 2012, the authors concluded that the most archaic mtDNA
lineages came from a Middle Eastern migration into Europe during the Late
Glacial period, ~19–12 thousand years ago and not as late as the Neolithic as
was previously proposed.
They argued that this population came from a
previously contracted European population refugium on the Anatolian Plateau
which spread to three further refugia:
-- Franco-Cantabria
-- ITALIA
--
the East European Plain.
From these three areas the lineages would then have
repopulated Europe.
Another
subject in the literature which has been widely discussed is whether genetics
can show signs of Germanic or Teutonic or Gothic or Anglo-Saxon invasions particularly in England.
In a widely cited
but not unanimously accepted article, Weale et al. (2002) went as far as arguing
that the Y DNA data show signs of a racial "apartheid" in Anglo-Saxon England.
Oppenheimer, however, disputed this conclusion, emphasising the native element
in British paternal inhertance.
That there are clear signs of
Germanic influx in parts of Britain is accepted and has been shown in other
studies such as Capelli et al. (2003).
However, the Capelli study makes two
important observations:
-- that there was a continuing indigenous element to
English paternal genetic make up
-- that North German/Frisian and Danish
genetic frequences were indistinguishable, thus precluding any ability to
distinguish between the genetic influence of the Anglo-Saxon source populations
and the later, and better documented, influx of Danish Vikings.
A study
into the Norwegian Viking ancestry of British people found that there is
evidence of particular concentrations in several areas; in Shetland and Orkney,
Western Scotland and the Western Isles including Skye in Scotland, Anglesey in
Wales, the Isle of Man, and the Wirral, Mid-Cheshire, West Lancashire and
Cumbria in England.
In Ireland,
population genetic studies have been undertaken by a team under Dan Bradley,
including surname studies.
Databases on Britain and Ireland, as well as on
various surnames are being built up from personal DNA tests, for example at
FamilyTreeDNA.
A widely reported article in this area was Moore et al. (2006),
which provided Y DNA evidence that in some cases Irish surname groups were
highly dominated by single MALE lines, presumed to be those of dynastic founders
such as Niall of the Nine Hostages.
Recently use has been made of
technologies which can test hundreds of thousands of possible mutation points
(SNPs) in the rest of the human genome (the autosomal DNA).
The results of these
large studies have shown that the main patterns of relatedness between European
populations are simply geographical, meaning that the British and Irish are
simply most genetically related to the people in neighbouring countries.
This has
not yet led to any new theories concerning migrations.
It has been
proposed that Y chromosome diversity tends to change more quickly than the
overall population, because at least sometimes, some MALE lines move more
quickly than the general population, meaning that the most common Y chromosomes
in areas will reflect relatively recent "waves" of human
movement.
Sykes breaks
mitochondrial results into twelve haplogroups for various regions of the Isles.
He has given maps and proposals concerning ancient migrations for Ireland,
Scotland, Wales and England.
Sykes and Oppenheimer have each given nicknames
to various haplogroups to allow easier recognition, including the principal ones
in the Isles.
Below the normal scientific names are given, followed by the
popularized "clan names" of Sykes, and in some cases also of
Oppenheimer:
mtDNA
Haplogroup H (mtDNA) Helena (Sykes), Helina
(Oppenheimer)
Haplogroup I (mtDNA) Isha
Haplogroup J (mtDNA)
Jasmine
Haplogroup T (mtDNA) Tara
Haplogroup V (mtDNA) Velda (Sykes), Vera
(Oppenheimer)
Haplogroup W (mtDNA) Wanda
Haplogroup X (mtDNA)
Xenia
Haplogroup U (mtDNA) Europa (Oppenheimer)
...and within
U...
Haplogroup U2 (mtDNA) Uta
Haplogroup U3 (mtDNA) Uma
Haplogroup U4
(mtDNA) Ulrika
Haplogroup U5 (mtDNA) Ursula
Sykes found that the maternal
clan (haplogroup) pattern was similar throughout England but with a definite
trend from east and north to the south and west.
The minor clans are mainly
found in the east of England.
Sykes found Haplogroup H to be dominant in Ireland
and Wales.
A few differences were found between north, mid and south Wales.
There was a closer link between north and mid Wales than either had with the
south.
Sykes found that 10% of the Irish population were in Haplogroup U5 he
called "Ursula".
Sykes calculates a date of 7300 BC for the entry of this lineage
into Ireland.
Similar dates were proposed for the other mitochondrial
haplogroups, implying that mitochondrial lines in Ireland are far OLDER there
than the arrival of Iron Age Celts.
Little difference was found between the
maternal clans in the four provinces.
In 2007, Bryan Sykes produced an analysis
of 6000 samples from the OGAP project in his book Blood of the Isles,
designating five main Y-DNA haplogroups for various regions of the Isles.
As
with mitochondrial haplogroups not only Sykes but also Stephen Oppenheimer chose
to popularize the concept by giving them "clan names".
The following gives their
normal scientific names.
Haplogroup R1b (Y-DNA). Oisin (Sykes), Ruisko
(Oppenheimer).
Oppenheimer attempted to divide this in 16
clusters.[17]
Haplogroup I (Y-DNA). Wodan (Sykes), Ivan (Oppenheimer).
Oppenheimer was able to divide this into 3 clear clusters. The two most
important were
I1 (Ian)
I2 (Ingert), now known as I2b[18]
Haplogroup
R1a (Y-DNA). Sigurd (Sykes), Rostov (Oppenheimer)
Haplogroup E1b1b (Y-DNA).
Eshu (Sykes)
Haplogroup J (Y-DNA). Re (Sykes)
The larger Haplogroup R1b
(Y-DNA) is dominant in Western Europe, not only Britain and Ireland.
While it
was once seen as a lineage connecting the British Isles to Iberia (where it is
also common) opinions concerning its origins have changed, with estimates of age
tending to go down from Palaeolithic to Neolithic or even younger and analysis
of the branching within this line now being seen to support the view that at
least concerning the majority of R1b in Europe, it has its roots in the Middle
East and has spread northwestward from there.
The R1b types found in Britain and
Ireland are dominated by R-P312, which on the continent is found mainly west of
the Rhine but at least in England there is also a significant presence of
R-U106, which is found east of the Rhine and also in North Sea areas such as
Denmark and the Netherlands.
There are various smaller and
geographically well defined Y-DNA Haplogroups under R1b in Western
Europe.
Haplogroup I is a grouping of several quite distantly related
lineages.
These may be the only pre-Neolithic Y lineages left in Europe.[19]
Looking at the three main clusters, according to Rootsi et al.,[19] with
up-dated nomenclature according ISOGG:[18]-
I1a in Rootsi et al., now known
as I1, is mainly associated with Scandinavia in modern populations and is common
in several parts of England.
I1b in Rootsi et al., now known as I2a is
associated with the Balkans and are not common in Britain and Ireland.
I1c in
Rootsi et al., now known as I2b is less clearly associated with any particular
part of Europe.
Haplogroup R1a, a distant cousin of R1b, is most common from
Eastern Europe to India. In Britain it is associated with probable Scandinavian
immigration during periods of Viking settlement.[20]
Haplogroups E1b1b and J
in Europe are regarded as markers of movements from southeastern Europe to
northwestern and therefore as a potential markers of introduced technology such
as farming.[21]
**********************************
Geneticists have found that
seven men with a rare Yorkshire surname (suppressed due to privacy concerns)
carry a genetic signature previously found only in people of African origin.
All
the men had haplogroup A1, a Y chromosome genetic marker which is west African
specific.
Haplogroup A1 is rare and has only ever been found 25 times, again
only in people of African origin.
Haplogroup A1 is a subclade of Haplogroup A
which geneticists believe originated in Eastern or Southern Africa.
The
individuals had no knowledge of any African heritage in their family.
The
researchers wondered if the presence of this haplogroup in Yorkshire could stem
from the recruitment of Africans for the construction of Hadrian's Wall by the
Romans or result from intermarriage with an African slave, some of whom rose
quite high in society.
According to Sykes, some English people's
genetics suggest that they are
"descended from north African, Middle Eastern and
Roman clans", and that
"although the Romans ruled from AD 43 until 410, they
left a tiny genetic footprint."
In the North Wales town of Abergele there
is a very high percentage of haplogroup E1b1b1 (33%), which is thought to have
dispersed around Europe mainly from the Balkans.
Geneticists have shown
that former American president Thomas Jefferson, who might have been of Welsh
descent, along with two other British men out of 85 British men with the surname
Jefferson, carry the rare Y chromosome marker T which is typically found in East
Africa and the Middle East.
Haplogroup T is rare in Europe but phylogenetic
network analysis of its Y-STR (short tandem repeat) haplotype shows that it is
most closely related to an Egyptian T haplotype.
The presence of scattered and
diverse European haplotypes within the network is nonetheless consistent with
Jefferson's patrilineage belonging to an ancient and rare indigenous European
type
See also[edit]
Prehistoric Britain
Prehistoric settlement of
the British Isles
Historical immigration to Great Britain
Celtic
settlement in Britain
Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain
Nordic migration
to Britain
British Isles DNA Project
List of haplogroups of historical and
famous figures
Other locations:
Archaeogenetics of the Near
East
Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas
Genetic history
of Europe
Genetic history of Italy
Genetics and archaeogenetics of South
Asia
Molecular Anthropology portal
Evolutionary biology
portal
References[edit]
Notes
Jump up ^ Cavalli-Sforza
(1997)
Jump up ^ The People of The British Isles website
^ Jump up to: a b
Sykes (2001)
^ Jump up to: a b Balaresque et al. (2010)
^ Jump up to: a b
Myres et al. (2011)
^ Jump up to: a b Cruciani et al. (2011)
Jump up ^
Pala et al. 2012 Mitochondrial DNA signals of late glacial recolonization of
Europe from near eastern refugia.
http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/22560092/reload=0;jsessionid=Ex1l76DwTiCwb3huDcM9.6
Jump
up ^ Oppenheimer (2006), pp. 413–416.
Jump up ^ Capelli et al. (2003),
p.983
Jump up ^ Excavating Past Population Structures by Surname-Based
Sampling: The Genetic Legacy of the Vikings in Northwest England
Jump up ^
Goodacre, S; Helgason, A; Nicholson, J; Southam, L; Ferguson, L; Hickey, E;
Vega, E; Stefánsson, K; Ward, R; Sykes, B (2005). "Genetic evidence for a
family-based Scandinavian settlement of Shetland and Orkney during the Viking
periods". Heredity 95 (2): 129–135. doi:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800661. PMID 15815712.
Cite uses deprecated parameters (help)
Jump up ^ "Gene geography: Do you have
Viking ancestry in your DNA?". Wellcome Trust. 2004. Retrieved 9 January 2010.
Jump up ^ Branagan, Mark (30 January 2009). "'Time team' to seek out genetic
secrets of Yorkshire's Viking past". Yorkshire Post. Retrieved 9 January 2010.
Jump up ^ O'Dushlaine et al. (2010a); O'Dushlaine et al. (2010b)
Jump up
^ Chiaroni et al. (2009)
Jump up ^ ISOGG website
Jump up ^ See Campbell
(2007) for an attempt to "deconstruct" these.
^ Jump up to: a b "ISOGG 2011
Y-DNA Haplogroup I". Isogg.org. Retrieved 2011-09-16.
^ Jump up to: a b
Rootsi et al. (2004)
Jump up ^ Bowden et al. (2008)
^ Jump up to: a b
Cruciani et al. (2007)
^ Jump up to: a b King et al. (2007a)
Jump up ^
"Ancient Britons come mainly from Spain". Evening Standard. September 20, 2006.
Retrieved June 23, 2012.
Jump up ^ King et al.
(2007b)
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Further reading[edit]
Bramanti et al.; Thomas, MG; Haak, W;
Unterlaender, M; Jores, P; Tambets, K; Antanaitis-Jacobs, I; Haidle, MN et al.
(2009). "Genetic discontinuity between local hunter-gatherers and central
Europe's first farmers". Science 326 (5949): 137–40.
Bibcode:2009Sci...326..137B. doi:10.1126/science.1176869. PMID
19729620{{inconsistent citations}}
A study headed by Dr Bradley was
published in the American Journal of Human Genetics. Geneticists find Celtic
links to Spain and Portugal
Collard et al; Edinburgh, Kevan; Shennan,
Stephen; Thomas, Mark G. (2010). "Radiocarbon evidence indicates that migrants
introduced farming to Britain". Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (4):
866–870. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2009.11.016{{inconsistent citations}}
Gibbons,
Anne (2000). "Evolutionary Genetics: Europeans Trace Ancestry to Paleolithic
People". Science 290 (5494): 1080–1081. doi:10.1126/science.290.5494.1080. PMID
11185000{{inconsistent citations}}
Hill, C. Origins of the English
Hill
et al. (2000). "Y-chromosome variation and Irish origins". Nature
404{{inconsistent citations}}
Jobling. "In the name of the father: surnames
and genetics"{{inconsistent citations}}
Jobling; Tyler-Smith. "THE HUMAN Y
CHROMOSOME AN EVOLUTIONARY MARKER COMES OF AGE"{{inconsistent citations}}
King; Jobling (February 2009). "Founders, Drift, and Infidelity: The
Relationship between Y Chromosome Diversity and Patrilineal Surnames". Molecular
Biology and Evolution 26 (5): 1093–1102. doi:10.1093/molbev/msp022. PMC 2668828.
PMID 19204044{{inconsistent citations}}
King; Jobling (August 2009). "What's
in a name? Y chromosomes, surnames and the genetic genealogy revolution". Trends
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Wednesday, May 7, 2014
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