Grice e Cherchi: la ragione
conversazionale e implicatura sarda – filosofia sarda – scuola di Oschiri –
filosofia sarda -filosofia italiana – Luigi Speranza, pel Gruppo di Gioco di H.
P. Grice, The Swimming-Pool Library (Oschiri). Filosofo italiano. Filosofo sardo. Oschiri, Sassari, Sardegna. Grice:
“Cherchi demonstrates that Jersey exists – if a philosopher is from Jersey we
wouldn’t call him English – neither would he! Cherchi is from ‘Sardinia,’ and
he philosophises mainly about that – which is very fun! My favourite of his
tracts is one on the circle and the ellipse as it relates to Vinci’s ‘homo
vitruviano.’ Anda
a scuola al liceo Siotto Pintor a Cagliari. Placido Cherchi studiò a Cagliari
con Ernesto De Martino e Corrado Maltese, interessandosi contemporaneamente di
studi e problemi etno-antropologici e storico artistici. Come autore di
importanti lavori sul pensiero di Ernesto De Martino e sui problemi
dell'identità e della cultura sarda, fu un membro attivo della Scuola
antropologica di Cagliari, dovuta alla presenza all'Cagliari di maestri come
Ernesto de Martino e Alberto Mario Cirese, come pure di loro allievi quali
Clara Gallini, Giulio Angioni e lo stesso Cherchi. Morì nel
all'età di 74 anni a causa di un'emorragia cerebrale. Altre opere: “Paul
Klee teorico, De Donato, Bari); Sciola, percorsi materici, Stef, Cagliari); “Pittura
e mito in Giovanni Nonnis, Alfa, Quartu S.E.); Nivola, Ilisso, Nuoro); C. Martino: dalla crisi della presenza alla
comunità umana, Liguori, Napoli); “Il signore del limite: tre variazioni
critiche su Martino, Liguori, Napoli); “Il peso dell'ombra: l'etnocentrismo
critico di Ernesto De Martino e il problema dell'autocoscienza culturale,
Liguori, Napoli); “Etnos e apocalisse: mutamento e crisi nella cultura sarda e
in altre culture periferiche, Zonza, Sestu); “Manifesto della gioventù eretica
del comunitarismo e della Confederazione politica dei circoli, organizzazione
non-partitica dei sardi, coautori Francesco Masala ed Eliseo Spiga, Zonza,
Sestu); “Il recupero del significato: dall'utopia all'identità nella cultura
figurativa sarda, Zonza, Sestu); “Crais: su alcune pieghe profonde dell'identità,
Zonza, Sestu); “Il cerchio e l’ellisse. Etnopsichiatria e antropologia
religiosa in Ernesto De Martino: le dialettiche risolventi dell’autocritica,
Aìsara); “La riscrittura oltrepassante, Calimera, Curumuny); “Per un’identità
critica. Alcune incursioni auto-analitiche nel mondo identitario dei sardi”
(Arkadia. Silvano Tagliagambe: Giulio
Angioni, Una scuola sarda di antropologia?, in
(Luciano Marrocu, Francesco Bachis, Valeria Deplano), La Sardegna
contemporanea. Idee, luoghi, processi culturali, Roma, Donzelli,, 649-663 Addio a C., il ricordo di Angioni: "Fu
ideologo del neo sardismo" Archiviato in. Notizie. tiscali È morto Placido Cherchi, vicepresidente della
Fondazione Sardinia Fondazione sardinia.eu
Scuola antropologica di Cagliari Ernesto de Martino Angioni, In morte di C., sito "il
manifesto sardo". Carta, Che cosa è C.? Due o tre cose, per decidere di
essere sardi Po arregordai a C. Enrico Lobina, su enricolobina.org. Silvano
Tagliagambe, L'eredità preziosa di C. La colonizzazione e la penetrazione
romana nell'isola furono oltremodo intense e furono facilitate da
affinità di razza, per cui si può dire che lo spirito latino g-iunse nell'intimo
dell'anima del popolo sardo. Pinza, IMonuineiiti prUìiHivi della
Sardegna in Monumenti Antichi, pubblicati per cura della Reale Accademia
dei Lincei. Taramelli, nel recente lavoro sulla questione nu- ragica
(Arch. Stor. Sardo), ritiene che il carattere prevalentemente guerresco
della schiatta sarda, l'accanimento delle lotte interne dapprima, poi con lo
straniero invasore, abbiano nuociuto allo sviluppo artistico, che in
germe aveva la stessa disposizione che presso altre genti del Mediterraneo. Quando
le legioni romane, in seguito alle fiere lotte sostenute contro i
montanari Olaesi o Iliesi ebbero assoluta padronanza dell'intera
isola, l'arte sarda scomparì con questa che può definirsi l'ultima
ribellione dell'antica civiltà nuragica, e di essa non rimasero che vaghe
reminiscenze presso gli artefici più umili, le quali perdurarono
attraverso il medio evo fino ai nostri giorni. Nel periodo
glorioso dell'impero romano la fusione fra l'elemento latino ed indigeno
fu così intima da potersi asserire che le nostre sono
manifestazioni della civiltà derivante da Roma; le grandi opere pubbliche
mostrano una regione che assurse ad alto grado di fiorimento civile
ed economico; non v'è paese, né plaga nell'isola che non abbiano
traccia dell'opera meravigliosa svolta dai Romani. Nelle regioni più
inaccessibili, in quella stessa Barbagia che raccolse gli ultimi
difensori della civiltà indigena, e che mostrossi. Statuetta preistorica
1 Museo di Casa;! i a sempre indomita e ribelle ad ogni forma di
potere, sono strade, ponti, ed altri segni palesanti ima
florida colonizzazione romana, tanto intensa da perdiu-are in
molte manifestazioni e iiello stesso linguaggio, attraverso secoli
di bar- barie e di dominazione. Oreficeria punica nel Museo di
Cagliari. gran parte Nello sfasciarsi della romana potenza lo spirito
conservatore delle genti sarde custodì gelosamente la bella tradizione
latina. Mentre nel tempo che segnò il passaggio dall'evo antico all'evo
medio, d'Italia, come scrive Solmi, soggiacque a una lunga,
trasformativa dominazione germanica, la Sardegna fu invece fra le scarse
regioni italiane che ne restarono quasi pienamente immuni, dando
così un nuovo, singolare atteggiamento alla sua storia, che fu lenta e
spontanea elaborazione degli elementi indigeni e latini. La furia
distruggitrice della conquista vanda- lica, assai breve e poco estesa,
non lasciò traccia alcuna d'arte e di vita e paralizzò
quell'ascensione alle più nobili conquiste, che la Sardegna avea iniziato
con la signoria di Roma. Una completa oscurità avvolge in questo fu-
nesto periodo ogni azione isolana, che non siano le fasi di quelle guerre
che dilaniarono l'isola. Tur- bini di barbarie la dovettero ridurre in un
vasto campo funebre e quando cessarono le irruenze degli invasori,
l'opera degli architetti e degli ar- tisti si svolse come se nel
naufragio delle romanità questi avessero perduto la memoria d'ogni
bella forma. La conquista di Belisario ed il riordinamento
amministrativo di GIUSTINIANO, assicurando la Sardegna al dominio degli
imperatori d'Oriente, consentirono lo spontaneo sviluppo degli elementi
latini. Artehci che trassero la loro arte da Bisanzio
svolsero nell'isola quell'architettura, che derivò da armonica fusione di
forme orientali e di bellezze classiche, sparse quest'ultime con
profusione nella terra che vide erigere l'Acropoli e scolpire la X'enere
di Milo. Furono greci gli artisti che scol- Statuetta ienicia nel Museo
di Cagliari. fase. Arrigo Solmi, La Sardegna e gli studi
storici wnW Arcìiivio Storico Sarda, Cagliari, Dessi. pirone bassorilievi,
iscrizioni ed altre forme ornamentali, che recenti indagini hanno messo
in evidenza e che sistematiche ricerche renderanno indubbiamente tanto
copiose da darci modo di determinare entro limiti detiniti l'influenza
artistica che Bisanzio svolse nell'isola dandole carattere e forme
stilisticamente rilevanti. ampacla cristiana rinv Chic a di
S. Giovanili tli Siiiis in territorio di Cabras nell'antica Tarros. L'arte
romana per opera di greci artefici divenne arte bizantina, la (jLiale
rappresenta non un nuovo stile, ma ima trasformazione dello spirito
latino a contatto delle forme orientali. F.d in Ravenna, in Grado, in
Sicilia, nelle Puglie sorsero quelli edifici, rudi e disadorni
all'esterno, che inter- namente brillano di ricchi mosaici, in cui l'oro
e le gemme preziose sfaccettano in mille raggi la tenue luce
diffondentesi dalle arcuate finestre. Anche nella nostra isola dovettero svolgersi
queste forme architet- toniche giacché dal primo trentennio del secolo VI
e per non breve corso di tempo la Sardegna fu una provincia dell'impero
di Bisanzio. Xè questa signoria fu solo nominale, ma tanto si
compenetrò nella vita e nelle istituzioni che l'infiuenza greca nel
linguaggio, nella diplomatica, nel dritto apparisce evidente anche nel secolo
XI, quando la Sardegna erasi già sottratta di nome e di fatto al dominio
degli impe- ratori di Oriente e ne reggevano le sorti da più che un
secolo i regoli o giudici nazionali. La nostra cattedrale conserva in
una sua cappella una Madonna, splendente d'oro e di bellezza. Intorno ad
essa fiorisce una fine e pia leggenda, comune del resto a molti altri
antichi simulacri d'Italia. Vuoisi che la vaga madonnina sia stata scolpita da
S. Luca e da Costantinopoli trasportata a cura del Cagliaritano Eusebio,
vescovo di Vercelli, alla città di Cagliari, con nave guidata da una
corte di angeli e di cherubini. Il simulacro è indubbiamente opera del
XIV secolo, ma la tenue leggenda può interpretarsi come un poetico
simbolo del tra- [Stele puniclie nel Museo di Cagliari.] piantarsi
dell'ellenismo nell'isola, perpetuato dal nostro popolo attraverso gli
oggetti suoi pili cari. Ed infatti molti frammenti decorativi ed
epigrafici nonché parecchi edifici attestano dell'inlluenza dei
costruttori bizantini neh' architettura dell'alto medio evo in
Sardegna. Tale è la Chiesa di S. Giovanni di Sinis, nell'agro di Cabras
in vicinanza ad Oristano e presso le rovine dell'antica e fiorente città
di artp: preromanica Tarros. Le origini e le vicende di questa
chiesa ci sono ignote; si volle veder in essa la cattedrale di Tarros
cristiana, ma ciò non è che una congettura, giacché nessun
documento veramente ineccepi- bile ci dice quando la città venne
abbandonata e se essa perdurò fino al- l'epoca che gli elementi
costruttivi e stilistici permettono d'assegnare all'antico tempio. L'aver
i presuli d'Oristano assunto il titolo di abate di S. Giovanni di
Sinis fa presumere che a questa chiesa originariamente fosse
annesso un monastero. Essa presentemente è a tre navate Testa
di irrito rin\enuta in Cagliari Punica. coperta da volta a botte e
comunicante per mezzo di arcate poggianti su massicci pilastri. Anche i
due muri |jerimetrali e laterali hanno la struttura a pilastri ed archi,
chiusi questi ultimi posteriormente. Il prospetto, sormontato da
im frontone che segue l'andamento della volta a botte, non ha
ornamentazione alcuna e la porta che in esso è aperta è
rettangolare, semplicemente con- tornata da una fascia di marmo. La
navata centrale è terminata da un'abside circolare e sopra le ul-
JNIaschera rinvenuta in Tarros Punica. D. SCANO storia
dell' Ai le in Sardegna. time quattro pilastrate si svolge il tamburo,
sostenente la piccola volta a bacino, costituente la cupola.
La forma di questa chiesa è basilicale e non differenzia da quelle
di tante altre chiese medioevali sarde, del XI o XII secolo, se non che
alcune forme costruttive come la cupola e la volta a botte inducono a ritenere
che originariamente dovea avere tutt' altra struttura. Mancando ogni
qualsiasi elemento decorativo, giacché la chiesa ha le pareti nude senza
frammenti di pittura, di scultura o di semplice ornamentazione, che di solito
guidano lo studioso nei riscontri stilistici, pro- cedetti per
identificare le forme primitive ad un esame tecnico delle parti
architettoniche. I risultati confermarono la prima impressione,
giacché potei ri- scontrare: La volta che copre la navata
centrale è relativamente moderna; I muri della navata cen-
trale e delle navatelle furono eretti posteriormente al nucleo
centrale, su cui poggia il cupolino. Della struttura originaria
della Chiesa non resta che detto nucleo centrale e le braccia
trasversali. Ridotte in tal modo le parti originarie ed
eliminate le aggiunte posteriori è facile completare l'iconografia primitiva,
partita in quattro braccia a modo di croce, che s'in- tersecano secondo
quattro piloni sostenenti il tamburo su cui poggia la cupola per mezzo di
quattro pennacchi. Di più i piloni hanno gli angoli rientranti in modo da
permettere il collocamento in dette pilastrate di quattro colonne, che
ora più non esistono. Questa particolarità co- struttiva è degna di nota,
giacche la ritroveremo in altra chiesa, colla quale S. Giovanni di Sinis
presenta molte affinità. Nei muri terminali delle braccia
trasversali della croce sono aperte i nnvc-mita 111 Cai^l influenza
greca). iri l'ui due finestre bifore, in cui la colonnina è
sostituita da un semplice pila- strino in pietra da taglio senza
capitello e senza base. Abbiamo la forma iniziale di quelle bifore, che
posteriormente vennero rese più eleganti e più svelte dalle colonnine col
pulvino, permettente agli archi un'imposta corrispondente allo spessore
della muraglia. Questa forma arcaica conferma l'origine pre-romanica di S.
Giovanni di Sinis. Alle forme costruttive di questa chiesa
dovettero infiuire le catacombe di S. Salvatore, le quali ne
distano circa quattro chilo- metri. Queste catacombe poste presso
ad alcune rovine romane, malgrado non siano state ancora ne stu-
diate, né menzionate, sono interessantissime e costituiscono il più pregevole
ed interessante monumento isolano dei primi tempi del
cristianesimo. La chiesetta soprasuolo è relativamente moderna e non
presenta niente d' interessante . Ai sotter- ranei s'accede
mediante una gradinata svolgentesi in uno stretto passaggio
coperto da un voltino a botte. In quell'andito sono aperte due
porte, una di fronte all'altra, per le quali si perviene a due camere
rettangolari di m. 4,30 X 3,26 ciascuna, coperte ancor esse con volte a
botte. Lo stretto passaggio fa capo ad un vano circolare, coperto da
volta a bacino ed illuminato dall'alto, che costituisce il nucleo
centrale delle catacombe, comunicando esso con altre due camere laterali
terminate da absidi e con altra circolare, che è l'ultima [Busto
di a rinveiiutu in Tarros Punica influenza
jj;reca). dell'edificio sotterraneo. Si ha una disposizione planimetrica,
che ricorda i più antichi edifici cristiani: la struttura è prettamente
romana con muratura di laterizi opportunamente collegata con altra di pietrame
informe. Ceramica punica nel Museo di Caigliari. Le pareti delle
diverse camere sono intonacate a stucco lucido, const'ivante tutt'ora traccia
di antiche pitture. Più che pitture sono schi/zi, Sarcofago romano nel
Museo di Cagliari.figure eseguite a caso, alcune abilmente, altre con tecnica
ed arte infan- tili. In ima parete di una camera absidale sono traccie di
un gruppo interessantissimo rappresentante una lotta fra un leone ed un
uomo dalle forme erculee. Nelle altre i)areti e; nell'abside della stessa
camera sono schizzate alcune nax'i, due leoni, un Eros e diverse figure di
donne delineate con maestria dal tipo classicamente pagano. Esse vennero
eseguite al di là di (iualun<[ue preoccu[)azione mistica e sono di
gentile arte, piene di grazia voluttuosa e di vita. L'na di esse dalle
linee formose, che rievoca la Venus (ìcnitri.w solleva con ima mano i
veli che le coprono i turgidi seni e le belle forme. l'"ra ([uesti
schizzi e queste figure di donne ricorre sjx'sso il mouogramiua RI e sono
intercalate frasi scritte in greco corsivo, la di cui esatta
interpretazione potrà portare non lieve luce sulle origini di (|ueste
forme pittoriche. Non un simbolo cristiano, non il monogramma di Cristo
che attestino la fede di chi rese nelle pareti, con [Sarcofajj:o romano
nel Museo di Ca.sjliari. decise linee, figure voluttuose di belle donne.
D'altra parte l'iconografia dei sotterranei segue la disposizione delle
prime chiesette cristiane specialmente nelle forme absidali delle due cappelle
laterali e della camera termi- nale. E vero che nelle costruzioni
cimiteriali più antiche le tetre muraglie coprivansi di scene tratte
dalla vita reale e molto spesso dalla mitologia pagana tanto che nelle
catacombe di Pri.scilla e di Domitilla, nelle quali meglio che altrove si
possono studiare le origini della pittura primitiva cristiana, cjuesta è
stranamente impregnata di paganesimo; ma se la tradizione è pagana, nell'antica
forma l'arte si penetra di spirito cristiano. Qui no, forma e spirito
sono schiettamente inspirate al paganesimo più libero e più
licenzioso. Statua di Bacco rinvenuta In Cagliari. Queste contradizioni
non permettono ora di poter dare un sicuro o^iudizio su questo
interessantissimo monumento: forse l'ipotesi che più concilia ((ueste
forme cozzanti tra loro è quella dell'orij^i'ine pagana dei sotterranei,
costrutti ed usati come carceri e poscia serviti come rifugio nei primi
tempi del cristianesimo. Con ciò si spiegherebbero la disposizione a celle,
poste sotto il livello del suolo e gli schizzi delineati da (jualche
artista, che nel tedio della prigionia volle rievocare senza una
direttiva pittorica immagini impure e dar forma d'arte a sogni libertini.
Oualun([ue sia l'origine di queste, che vengono chiamate catacombe. è
certo che esse furono nei primi secoli, forse nel IV^ secolo, adibite
al culto cristiano. Non ritengo la costruzione cimiteriale, mancando
qualsiasi indizio di loculo o di pittura funeraria. Nel nucleo
centrale è un pozzo, poco profondo, in cui è perenne una fresca lama
d'acqua. Questo può spiegare la destinazione che dai primi cristiani
venne data a questi sotterranei, qualunque sia la loro origine. A mio
parere essi dovettero servire di battistero in tempi di per- secuzione.
Infatti non è spiegabile con l'ordinario uso degli edifici di culto la
presenza del pozzo nella parte centrale della chiesa sotterranea. Inoltre
la poca profondità del fondo, la presenza ininterrotta di una fresca lama
d'acqua e le traccie di alcuni fori, per cui mediante tavole potevano i
convertiti scender s^nù nell'acqua, rendono attendibile
questa destinazione, la quale ha molti riscontri e molte analogie colle
prime forme battisteriali. Ai primi tempi del cristianesimo
non aveasi altri battisteri che le rive dei fiumi e le fontane. Ancor
oggi nella prigione Mamertina a Roma ARTE PREROMANICA esiste il
[)ozzo miracoloso, in cui, secondo un'antica tradizione, S. Pietro e S.
I^iolo battezzarono i loro (guardiani. In alcuni battisteri ])riniiti\'i
rac(iua era fornita da pozzi come nelle catacomlje di S. balena o da sorbenti
naturali come in ([uelle di Priscilla e di Callista. I*\i solo colla
cessa/ione delle persecuzioni al tempo di COSTANTINO che si commcia a costrurre
battisteri snò dio, editici s[)eciali, che non differivano dalle chiese
propriamente dette se non per la loro destinazione. La cripta di S.
.Sahatore forse in oriu-ine ebbe altra inxocazione, oiacchè era
fre([uente dedicare i battisteri al precursore di Cristo. Ad Avanzi di
\ille romane in Cagliari. ot^ni modo ciò che non |)U() essere messo
in dul)bio si è che i sotter- ranei di S. Salvatore, per le forme
costruttive, i)er le pitture e per le iscrizioni costituiscono un
monumento d'arte cristiana di rrancle interesse e merita uno studio ampio
e speciale più di (pianto io abbia fatto in questi cenni brevi e
riassuntivi. L'oratorio di S. Giovanni d'Assemini fu ancor esso
elevato con forme costruttive bizantine, come può desumersi da
un'attenta disamina. La più antica memoria riflettente questa chiesetta si
conserva in un diploma dell'archivio Capitolare della Chiesa di S. Lorenzo
di Genova, con cui Trogotorio di Gunale, giudice di Cagliari, e suo
figlio Costan- tino concedono nel 1108 alla Cattedrale di Genova la
Chiesa di S. Gio- vanni e rinnovano la promessa annua di una libra d'oro:
Ego Indice Trogotori de Giinali cinti, filio meo doninu Costantini fazo
dista carta prò S. Ioaiinc de Arseiuin, qui dabo ad sancto Lanreìizio de
lamia prò Deus et prò anima mca ecc. ecc. La facciata non ha niente di
notevole ed è posteriore alla fonda- zione della Chiesa. Nell'interno due
navate larghe m. 2,00 disimpegnano Idinha di Atilia Pnmptilla in
Cagliari. per mezzo d'arcate quattro cappelle. All'incrocio delle due
strette navate formanti una croce greca a braccia eguali s'imposta sopra
un tamburo a sezione quadrata una piccola volta a bacino. Anche in questa
chiesa dobbiamo distinguere il nucleo originario dalle posteriori
costruzioni; queste sono costituite dalle quattro cappelle, che, coperte
da un rozzo tetto a vista, sono appiccicature evidenti e per la diversa
struttura muraria e per non essere collegate organicamente ai muri
antichi. ToLA, Cod. Dipi.] Eliminando queste aggiunte risultano in
modestissime proporzioni le stesse forme bizantine della chiesa di S.
Giovanni di Sinis e di S. Sa- turnino in Cagliari. Nell'altare è
murata un'iscrizione in caratteri greci, che porta imo sprazzo di luce
sulla chiesetta. E contornata da una doppia fascia di perline in rilievo,
che attesta come facesse parte di qualche monumento, probabilmente
sepolcrale, dedicato alle persone in essa ricordate. Trascrivo
l'interpretazione fattane dal Prof. Taramelli: Anlìteatro romano in
Ca.uliari. O Signore, abbi pietà del tuo servo Torcotorio, arconte di
Sardegna e della serva Gè ti '.''Lo Spano ed il Martini ritennero erroneamente come vedremo in
appresso trattarsi del Torcotorio, che
governò il giudicato di Cagliari e che donò la chiesa di S. Giovanni
d'Assemini al Duomo di Genova. A pochi metri dell'oratorio di S.
Giovanni sorge la Chiesa Parroc- chiale di S. Pietro, che contiene fra le
sue mura alcuni frammenti deco- rativi bizantini e sulla soglia ha incisa
la seguente inscrizione in carat- [Taramelli, Iscrizioni Bizantine della
Chiesa di S. Giovanni e della Chiesa Par- rocchiale d' Assemini in
Notizie degli Scavi, fase. 3. teri greci, la quale ricorda
probabilmente l'erezione e la dedicazione di detta chiesa, che è ancora
oggi sotto l'invocazione di S. Pietro: In nome del Padre, del
figlio e dello Spirito Santo, io Nispella Ochote (co- strusse il
tempio) in onore dei Santi corifei gli apostoli Pietro e Paolo e S.
Giovanni Battista e della l^ergine martire Barbara, affinchè per le
loro preghiere dia a me il Signore la, liberazione dei peccati. Anche
quest' iscrizione venne dallo Spano attribuita al Torcotorio del XI
se- [Erma bacchica di fronte. In un mio studio sulla chiesa
di S. Saturnino di Cagliari '* trattando ac- cidentalmente di
queste epigrafi, le ri- tenni anteriori al mille. Infatti le
lettere, elegantemente incise, ed i pochi motivi ornamentali sono
sufficienti a determinare forme stilistiche molto più antiche delle
romaniche del mille e dei secoli susse- guenti. Inoltre la carica di
protospathariìis, che si riscontra in un'altra iscrizione coeva di
Villasor, indica ancora una sog- gezione alla corte di Bisanzio non
concepibile nel Torcotorio, che nei suoi atti ed in ispecial modo nella
donazione fatta ai Testa di Sileno.(i| 1). SCANO, Im Cliicsa di S.
Satuvìiiuo in Ihillrltiìio /ìiò/ioorajìco Sardo, \-o\. Ili, Cagliari,
Unione Sarda. monaci di Monte Cassino esercita la sua podestà come
CJiudice e Re libero da ogni ingerenza anche nominale dell'impero.
Un'altra consi- derazione distrugge l'attribuzione dello Spano e cioè il
Torcotorio menzionato nell'iscrizione d'Assemini avea per moglie Nispella,
mentre quello del mille avea per consorte Vera, la pia donna, che indusse
prima il marito e poscia il figlio suo Costantino a larghe e ricche
concessioni verso gli ordini monastici ed in isj)ecial modo verso i
monaci di S. Vittore di Marsiglia: Eoo iìidigi Trocodori de Ugnnali C(im
imiliei'i mia Doìnia \ 'era et cnui filin uieiL noìiìiii
Costaiitìjm '.Queste conclusioni vennero confermate di recente dagli
studi dei Professori Solmi e Tarameli i, che pervennero a risultati
interessantissimi per la storia medioevale della Sardegna. Negli
scavi eseguiti venti anni or sono dal Vivanet presso l'antica
chiesa di S. Nicolò di Donori insieme ad interessanti resti di materiale
epigrafico d'età romana, vennero fuori frammenti decorativi ed
iscrizioni greche, che furono oggetto di un recente ed interessante
studio del Taramelli, che attribuì queste ultime ad iscrizioni funerarie
assai eleganti, di persone elevate, probabilmente del IX o X
secolo. In una casa privata di Mara sono due bassorilievi marmorei,
recanti croci greche incluse in cerchi, di fattura l)izantina, e nel
fianco della chiesa parrocchiale è murata una piccola scultura marmorea
molto corrosa, rappresentante una figura d'uomo vestite; di lunga tunica
manicata, figura che per quanto rovinata accenna ad epoche ed a forme
bizantine. Le iscrizioni della distrutta Chiesa di S. Sofia fra
Decimoputzu e [Erma di Bacco \i.sta di fianco. [ToLA, Cud. Dipi.
Sardo. Villasor presentano grande analogia coi frammenti di S. Giovanni
di Assemini e per la forma delle lettere e per la decorazione a
perline. Faccio mie senz'altro le considerazioni esposte dal Taramelli
nello studio sovradetto: « Due delle iscrizioni sono sopra una coppia di
mensole « decorate da un ramoscello di fiori a voluta, alla loro
estremità; l'altra « più lunga è incisa sopra due robusti listelli di
marmo, decorati da una « doppia fascia di perline e nodetti, i quali come
quello della iscrizione di S. Giovanni d'Assemini potevano far parte o
della decorazione della porta o di un ambone o d'altro
monumento eretto in quella chiesa « dalle persone ricordate «
dall'iscrizione e per il « motivo decorativo come per lo stile ricordano
il fregio dell'am- « bone del Duomo di Torcello, riferito al secolo
X circa, alla quale età può convenire la '< grafia
dell'epigrafe, elegante ma alquanto incerta. Trascrivo,
tradotte, queste iscrizioni: O Signore, abbi pietà dei
servi di Dio, Torco- torio, reale protospatario, e di Satusio,
uobilissi)}ii arconti nostri, così sia. Ricordati anche o Signore del tuo
servo Ozzoccorre. Signore abbi pietà del tico servo Unnspete e della
consorte di Ini Soreca. È d'aggiungersi infine a questo bel nucleo di
documenti epigrafici e decorativi di carattere bizantino la seguente
iscrizione, conservantesi nell'altare della chiesa parrocchiale di S.
Antioco: O Signore abbi pietà del tuo servo Torcotorio, protospatario e
di Salusio arconte e della moglie [Ni spella. Sarcufago romano nel Museo
di Cajj;liari. [Taramelli, Iscrizioni Bizantine ecc. ecc. In una parete
esterna della chiesa è murato un bassorilievo, che reca una porzione di
figura umana, vista di fronte, con lunsj^a tunica a maniche, con colletto
ornato e con larga fascia al petto (i). Da (|uest() non indifferente
materiale epigrafico rinvenuto in una ristretta porzione dell'isola il
Prof. Solmi pervenne col suo fine discerni- mento di storico e di critico
a congetture, che sono sprazzi di luce nel buio che avvolge
l'ori- gine dei giudicati '^l, Fiondandosi nell'avvicendamento del nome
di Torcotorio a quello di Salusio. il Solmi distingue il nome
personale del giudice dal lìome pubblico o di governo. Mentre
([uesto è sempre identico, Torcotorio o Salusio, invece, il nome
personale, che talora si identifica col nome di governo, può essere
qualche volta da cjuesto essenzialmente diverso. E
questo avvicendamento dei due nomi, (qualunque sia quello privato
che abbia il giudice, permette insieme al contenuto delle iscrizioni
bizantine d'integrare la serie dei giudici, iniziandola col
Torcotorio, im- periale protospatario e arconte di Sardegna, ricordato
nell'iscrizione di S. Giovanni d'Assemini. A questi, che ebbe per moglie
Geti e che regnò probabilmente intorno alla metà del X secolo succedette
il figlio Salusio, già aggregato, come risulta dalle iscrizioni di S.
Sofia al trono del padre, ed [Testa di Bacco. |i) A. Taramelli,
Iscrizioni nizantìne ecc. ecc.Solmi, Le carte volgari dell' Arcliivio
Arcivescovile di Canliari, I-'irenze, Tip. Ga lileiana, pag.
69. erede poi dei suoi titoli e del suo potere. Sulla fine del X secolo e
nei primi decenni del seguente governò il giudicato di Cagliari il
Torcotorio della lapide di S. Antioco, marito a Sinispella e
contemporaneo di S. Giorgio di Snelli, Con Mariano Salusio, menzionato in
una carta greca di S. Vittore di Marsiglia, s'inizia la serie dei
giudici precedentemente ac- certati dagli storici sardi. Questi
risultati confermano il lento ed amichevole distacco dalla Sardegna
dalla dominazione di Oriente. L'ultimo ricordo di un'effettiva
dipendenza da Bisanzio appartiene all'anno 687 e mostra l'esarca
residente in Ceuta, ancora a capo di un « Africauìis excr- citìts »
e di im exercitiis de Sardinia, costituito come corpo distinto entro
l'esarcato africano. Caduta Cartagine e Ceuta, scrive Solmi, agli
ultimi del VII secolo e mancati
così gli ultimi centri dell'antico esarcato d'Africa, l'impero Greco «
lasciò in pieno abbandono anche l'isola, che n'era parte, separata ormai
« da un ampio mare, che divenne il « campo pericoloso delle imprese
saracene; ne più la flotta greca varcò oltre « le coste della Sicilia,
dove si accentrò « l'estrema punta occidentale del dominio bizantino. Il
duca di Cagliari « restò a capo deWe.rerciins Sardiniae « sotto la
signoria nominale dell'impero f. greco; si vestì forse dei pomposi
titoli « delle alte magistrature bizantine, ma in realtà divenuta la
soggezione vuota apparenza, resa ereditaria la carica, ogni rapporto
coll'impero « bizantino venne ad essere illanguidito e sui primi anni del
secolo VIII la Sardegna sembra restare esclusa dall'organizzazione
tematica Orien- « tale e interamente libera da o^ni dominazione di
Bisanzio ». Madonna detta di nel Duomo di C; Onesto per i
ris^r.ardi storici; dal punto di vista dell'arte i numerosi tVainnieiui
l)i/antini. ai ([uali fino ad ora non si dette importanza alcuna, le
Chiese di S. Ciio\anni di Sinis, di S. Giovanni d'Assemini. di S.
Sofia Chiesa di S. Ciiovaimi di Sinis (tìanci)!. di \'iilas()r, di S.
Stefano di Maracala^-onis, di S. Antioco di Sulcis, di S. Saturnino di
Cagliari, sfui^i^ite alle indai:rini de-^ii studiosi, attestano un Chiesa
di S. (Giovanni di Sinis i abside). periodo architettonico
bizantino, che <^ià si presenta intenso e che lo sarà
ma}j^_t(iormente, quando con indai^ini sistematiche si procederà allo
studio di tante strutture ora nascoste sotto gl'intonaci e gli stucchi
seicentisti I Altri franinienti bizantini rinvenni nel paramento della chiesa
inedioevale di .S. Gemi- nano in Saniassi. D. ScANo storia dell'Arte in Sardegna. Né poteva
esser altrimenti e le conclusioni storiche che traggonsi dalle iscrizioni
bizantine e le congetture che su di esse e su altre prove poterono
formarsi, rendono attendibile quest'influsso e questo fiorimento d'arte
bizantina nell'isola, che non poteva sottrarsi alle manifestazioni di
vita dell'impero che la congiungeva al mondo latino. Queste forme
greche perdurarono anche (juando venne a mancare la effettiva, se non
nominale, dipendenza agli imperatori d'Oriente. Discendenti dagli
arconti o patrizi della corte di Bisanzio, i giudici conservarono negli
atti ufficiali colle cariche bizantine le forme diploma- tiche e la
lingua greca; e come queste forme si mantennero fino al XI secolo, così
anche gli allievi ed i discendenti degli artefici greci conservarono le norme
costruttive bizantine, fino a quando si dischiuse per la Sardegna una
nuova fase col rinnovamento, che prorompe nel XI secolo al contatto delle
fresche energie delle civiltà di Pisa e di Genova. Placido Cherchi.
Keywords: implicature sarda, filosofia sarda, etnos, etnicicita italiana,
sardegna non e parte d’Italia. Refs.: Luigi Speranza, “Grice e Cerchi” – The
Swimming-Pool Library
Grice
e Cheremone: l’implicatura conversazionale -- Roma – filosofia italiana – Luigi
Speranza.
Filosofio italiano. Cheremone di Alessandria. Cheremone di Alessandria è
un filosofo Italiano. Cheremone, figlio di Leonida, e sovrintendente della
porzione della biblioteca di Alessandria che si trova nel Serapeo e, in quanto
custode e commentatore dei libri sacri, appartene ai più alti ranghi del
sacerdozio. E convocato a Roma, con Alessandro di Aegae, per diventare tutore
di Nerone. Può essere identificato con il Cheremone che accompagna Elio
Gallo, prefetto d'Egitto, in un viaggio nell'entroterra. E autore di una Storia
dell'Egitto, di opere sulle comete, sull'astrologia egizia e sui geroglifici,
oltre ad un trattato grammaticale. Tuttavia, di queste opere, non restano che
frammenti. Notevoli, dall'opera sui geroglifici, 14 frammenti, riportati soprattutto
da Porfirio, che se ne serve ampiamente nel De abstinentia e nella sua Lettera
ad Anebo. Cheremone descrive la religione come una mera ALLEGORIA del
culto della natura. In tale direzione, il suo principale obbiettivo e quello di
descrivere i segreti simbolici e religiosi. Si veda la lettera dell'imperatore
Claudio, in Corpus Papyrorum Iudaicarum, ICambridge, Suda, s.v.
"Alessandro Egeo". ^ Strabone, XVII, 806C. ^ Flavio Giuseppe, Contro
Apione, Tradotti e commentati in I. Ramelli, Allegoristi dell'età classica.
Opere e frammenti, Milano, Bompiani, Horst, Chaeremon, Egyptian Priest and
Stoic Philosopher. The fragments collected and translated, Leiden, Brill,
Ramelli, Giulio Lucchetta, Allegoria. L'età classica, Milano, Vita e Pensiero,
Ramelli, Allegoristi dell'età classica. Opere e frammenti, Milano, Bompiani,
Treccani.it – Enciclopedie on line, Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana; Cheremone,
in Dizionario di filosofia, Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana, V · D · M
Grammatici greci antichi Portale Antico Egitto Portale
Biografie Portale Ellenismo Categorie: Filosofi egiz iStorici
iFilosofi Storici Capo-bibliotecari della biblioteca di Alessandria Grammatici
egiziani Grammatici greci antichiStoici. Ceremone.
Grice e Chiappelli: la ragione
conversazionale e l’implicatura conversazionale dell’academici – Cicerone e il
segno di Marte – scuola di Pistoia – filosofia toscana -- filosofia italiana –
Luigi Speranza, pel Gruppo di Gioco di H. P. Grice, The Swimming-Pool Library (Pistoia). Filosofo toscano. Filosofo italiano. Pistoia, Toscana. Grice: “One of my
most recent reflections is on the distinction and striking parallelisms I draw
between the Athenian dialectic – best represented in Raffaello’s “La scuola di
Atene” at Rome – and the Oxonian dialectic – but represented in those reeky
meeting at the Philosophy Room at Merton – or better, my Saturday mornings at
St. John’s with Austin! Chiappelli provides us with a most brilliant
hermeneutic of the iconography in Raffaello’s painting – Strawson tried to
emulate him with some caricatures of Austin, Grice, and the rest of the Play
Group – but his doodlings ccouldn’t compare!” Figlio del
fisiologo Francesco C., zio del pittore omonimo, si laurea in lettere e
filosofia all'istituto superiore di Firenze ed inizia la carriera universitaria
a Napoli, dove è stato titolare della cattedra di storia della filosofia e
incaricato dell'insegnamento di pedagogia e direttore dell'annesso museo. Ha
inoltre insegnato storia delle chiese a Pisa, Bologna e Firenze. È stato membro
della Società reale di Napoli, delle accademie dei Lincei di Roma, delle
scienze di Torino, pontaniana di Napoli e della Crusca di Firenze. Consigliere
comunale a Firenze è stato incaricato di una missione di ricerche e studi negli
archivi e biblioteche di Firenze sull'arte fiorentina del Rinascimento e membro
della commissione provinciale di Firenze per la conservazione dei monumenti e
delle opere d'arte. Altre opere: “Della interpretazione panteistica di Platone,
Firenze: Succ. Le Monnier); La dottrina della realtà del mondo esterno nella filosofia
moderna prima di Kant” (Firenze, Tip. dell'arte della stampa); “Studi di antica
letteratura cristiana, Torino, Loescher); “Darwinismo e socialismo, Roma,
Forzani e C. Tipografi del Senato); Saggi e note critiche, Bologna, Ditta
Nicola Zanichelli); “Il socialismo e il pensiero moderno, Firenze, Succ. Le
Monnier); “Leopardi e la poesia della natura” (Roma, Alighieri); “Leggendo e
meditando. Pagine critiche di arte, letteratura e scienza sociale, Roma,
Società editrice Dante Alighieri); “Nuove pagine sul cristianesimo antico, Firenze:
succ. Le Monnier); “Pagine d'antica arte fiorentina, Firenze, Lumachi); “Dalla
critica al nuovo idealismo, Torino, Bocca); “Pagine di critica letteraria,
Firenze, Le Monnier); “Idee e figure moderne, Ancona, Puccini). Dizionario
biografico degli italiani. Crusca. Cicerone affronta e sviluppa la problematica
semiotica in due importanti ambiti della sua produzione teorica: le opere di
argomento retorico; le opere che parlano dei se gni divinatori. Se prendiamo
in considerazione il primo di questo ambi to, possiamo osservare che
l'interesse per i segni non è ugualmente centrale in tutti i testi. Infatti, da
una parte, ci sono il De oratore, I'Orator, il Brutus, il De optimo genere
oratorum che affrontano una problematica a carattere so cio-politico, volta a
definire la figura deli'oratore perfetto, il suo ruolo nella società romana, la
sua posizione rispetto alla scuola attica e a quella di Pergamo; in queste
opere tut to ciò che costituisce l'apparato tecnico tradizionale della
retorica (e con esso anche la problematica sui segni e sulle prove indiziarie)
appare non tanto trascurato, quanto dato per scontato: esso si confi:ura come
un vasto campo di competenza che rimane implicito sullo sfondo e affiora
solo nei termini di un uso personalissimo che ne fa l'autore, in prima persona
o attraverso i personaggi del dialogo. Dall'altra parte ci sono, poi, il De
inventione, le Partitio nes oratoriae e i Topica, opere molto diverse tra
loro, ma accomunate dalla caratteristica di prendere in considerazio ne e di
sistematizzare la gran massa delle nozioni che com pongono l'apparato tecnico
della retorica. Un limite di que ste opere, in generale, è rintracciabile
nella minuziosità del procedimento classificatorio, che raggiunge talvolta il
pa rossismo, come nel De inventione, e che spesso non trova un'adeguta
giustificazione teoretica. Tuttavia è proprio ali'interno di queste opere che è
dato rintracciare gli spunti e i documenti per la ricostruzione di una teoria
ciceroniana del segno. Il "De inventione" Il De inventione di
Cicerone condensa l'ampia tradizione retorica che da Aristotele giunge fino a
Ermagora: è quindi naturale che al suo interno si tro vino riprodotti alcuni
aspetti della concezione del segno che in quell'ambito si è sedimentata. In
particolare è presente la concezione del segno in forma proposizionale, come antecedente
che permette di scoprire un conseguente. Viene poi confermata l'attenzione
verso i segni involontari (l'im pallidire, l'arrossire, il balbettare
dell'imputato) come indi zi di colpevolezza. Infine compare la classica
divisione degli indizi secondo la loro relazione temporale con il fatto crimi
noso (anteriorità, contemporaneità, posteriorità). Questi i punti di contatto
con la tradizione. Ma bisogna anche dire che la classificazione dei segni
proposta da Cicerone è in larga misura diversa da quelle precedenti. Essa ap
pare infatti all'interno della teoria della argumentatio (ar gomentazione),
cioè del procedimento attraverso il quale vengono addotte delle prove per
confermare una certa tesi: "L'argomentazione sembra essere qualche cosa
che si esco gita da qualche genere e che rivela un'altra cosa in
maniera probabile (probabiliter ostendens), o la dimostra in un modo
necessario (necessarie demonstrans)" (De inv.). Anche se non viene usato
il normale lessico semiotico, ciò che è in gioco in questa definizione è
proprio il meccanismo del segno: infatti, qualcosa che è stato trovato (un
indizio che viene depositato nel dossier deli'avvocato) rinvia a qualcos'altro.
Compare, a questo punto, la distinzione (già aristotelica) tra una forza
argomentativa debole (probabili ter ostendens) e un'inferenza necessaria
(necessarie demon strans). Rinvio necessario e non necessario I segni
necessari sono così definiti: "Viene dimostrato in modo necessario ciò che
non può verificarsi né essere pro vato diversamente da come viene detto. Ne
sono esempi: "Se ha partorito, è stata con un uomo" (ibidem);
"Se respira, è vivo", "Se è giorno, c'è luce" (De inv.).
Come Cicerone spiega in un altro passo, in casi di questo genere l'antecedente
e il conseguente sono legati da una re lazione inscindibile (cum priore
necessario posterius cohae rere videtur, De inv.). Il rapporto di rinvio non
necessario viene poi cosi defini to: "Probabile è poi ciò che suole
generalmente accadere, o che è basato sulla comune opinione, o che ha in sé
qualche somiglianza con questa qualità, sia esso vero o sia falso" (De
inv.). Con questa definizione Cicerone mette in evidenza due caratteri: (i)
quello probabilistico e (ii) quello doxastico; il primo di questi era da
Aristotele attribuito peculiarmente all'eikos (verisimile). E infatti i primi
due esempi sono di un tipo che Aristotele avrebbe classificato come eikos:
"Se è madre, ama suo figlio", "Se è avido, non fa gran caso del
giuramento" (De inv.). In essi compare anche il tipico rapporto di
generalizzazio ne che per Aristotele definisce il verosimile (Arist., Rhet.).
C'è però un terzo esempio, "Se c'era molta polvere nei calzari, era
sicuramente reduce da un viaggio" (De inv.), che non sembra dello stesso
tipo, ma è più vicino al smeion aristotelico. La categoria di signum, poi,
compare come una sottopartizione dei segni non necessari, accanto al credibile
(credibi le), ali'iudicatum (giudicato) e al comparabile (paragonabile). Se
le ultime tre nozioni appaiono distinte in base a crite ri estrinseci (e
scompariranno nelle trattazioni successive), il signum corrisponde a una
categoria di fenomeni abbastanza particolare: "Segno è ciò che cade sotto
qualcuno dei no stri sensi e indica (significar) un qualcosa che sembra deri
vato dal fatto stesso, e che può essere verificato prima del fatto, durante il
fatto, o può averlo seguito, e tuttavia ha bisogno di una prova e di una
conferma più sicura" (De inv. ). Ne sono esempi: "il sangue",
"il pallore", "la fuga", "la poivere". Si tratta,
come si vede, degli indizi, intesi come fenomeni percepibili, scarsamente
codificati e generalmente non vo lontari. Qui sono presentati in una forma non
proposizio nale; ma niente vieta che vengano sviluppati in proposizio ni,
come dimostra il caso deli'indizio "polvere": "Se c'era molta
polvere nei calzari, era sicuramente reduce da un viaggio". Gli indizi,
infine, vengono suddivisi secondo la nota relazione temporale con il fatto
criminoso. Possiamo quindi schematizzare la classificazione propo sta nel De
inventione. Le Partitiones oratoriae
sono un'opera di Cicerone nella quale la classificazione della materia
semiotica presenta alcune differenze e peculiarità rispetto al De Inventione.
Innanzitutto la terminologia si sgancia completamente da quella dei modelli
greci e viene completa mente latinizzata. In secondo luogo gli indizi (qui
chiamati RETORICA LATINA argumentatio necessaria probsbilis (quod fero
solet fiori élut quod in opi nione positum est") es.: ..
"pallore'", ..polvere" vestigiafactl) non compaiono più come
sottopartizione di un'altra categoria, ma assumono un ruolo autonomo. (·ea quae
alitar ac discuntur nec fieri nec probari pos sunt"l es . : ·se ha
partorito, è stata con un uomo'" (.,quod sub sensum aliquem cadit, et
quiddam sig nificat, quod ex ipso profectum est'") es.: ·sangue",
·ruga"', Se è madre, ama suo figlio
-- signum erodibile indicBtLm comparabile. Infine, viene accettata la
distinzione aristotelica tra luoghi estrinseci, corrispondenti alle prove
extra-tecniche, titechnol, e luoghi intrinseci. corrispondenti alle prove
tecniche, éntechno, che vienne criticata nel De inventione e che invece è sviluppata
nei Topica. È curioso notare come tra i luoghi estrinseci (sine arte) trovino
posto, accanto alle testimonianze umane, anche quelle divine: gl’oracoli, gl’auspici,
i vaticini, i responsi sacri, di sacerdoti, aruspici, interpreti onirici, Part.
or. Tutto ciò è sicuramente un residuo di una concezione ordalica e
antichissima dell'amministrazione della giustizia. Tuttavia è anche un indizio
di un continuo riaffiorare del paradigma divinatorio all'interno dei fatti
semiotici, anche quando ormai i segni si sono completamente LAICIZZATI.
CICERONE Né questo è un caso isolato in ambito giuridico. Per quel che riguarda
la cultura greca, si ricorda l’orazione per /,uccisione d’Erode, in cui
Antifonte così si esprime. Tutto quel che è provabile con indizi e
testimonianze umane l'avete udito, ma in questo caso dovete votare dopo aver
trattato indizi anche dai segni che vengono dagli dei (V, 81; Lanza. Il
verisimile e il segno caratteristico. I segni umani sono invece trattati tra gl’argomenti
intrinseci, in particolare tra quelli che riguardano lo stato di causa
congetturale. Infatti, la congettura può essere tratta da due tipi di segni: i
verisimilia e le notae propriae rerum. Il verisimile, come dice CICERONE (si
veda), è ciò che accade per lo più, Part. or., come a esempio, la gioventù è
incline al piacere in modo particolare. Questo tipo di segno corrisponde all’eik6s
del LIZIO, di cui ha il carattere probabilistico e generalizzante. La nnta
propria rei viene definita come una prova che non si verifica mai direttamente
e indica una cosa certa, come IL FUMO INDICA IL FUOCO, Part. or. Si tratta,
evidentemente, del segno necessario, come è dimostrato anche dall'esempio e
dall'uso dell'aggettivo PROPRIO, che rimanda alla nozione di fdion semeion, segno
proprio. Per il LIZIO, il segno proprio èla caratteristica specifica di un
certo genere, come, ad esempio, il fatto che i leoni avessero grandi estremità,
segno del coraggio (An. Pr.). Per le scuole postaristoteliche il segno proprio
aveva carat tere di necessità e si definiva come quel segno che non può
esistere se non esiste la cosa a cui rimanda (Philod., De signis). Ci sono,
poi, i vestigia facti, dei quali vengono dati questi esempi:
"un'arma, macchie di sangue, grida, lamenti, imbarazzo, alterazione del
colorito, discor so contraddittorio, tremore, gli indizi materiali della
premeditazione, le confidenze sulle intenzioni delittuose, le risultanze
visive, uditive, rivelate" (Pari. or.). Cicerone non definisce QUf)tO tipo
di segni, se non dicendo che si tratta di ''fenomeni avvertibili con i sensi",
caratteristica condivisa anche dai signa del De inventione, in cui ricorrono
esempi analoghi, e dagli argumenta di Cornificio (Rhet. adHer.). I
commentatori si sono chiesti se i vestigiafacti siano più in relazione con le “notae
propriae rerum” o con il “verisimile” (Crapis). In realtà questa sembra una
categoria abbastanza autonoma non avendo la necessità dei primi, ma nemmeno le
caratteristi che degli ultimi. È plausibile che essa corrisponda alla cate
goria dei semefa aristotelici, diversi tanto dai tekmoria quanto dagli eik6ta.
Da un altro passo delle Partitiones oratoria, dove ricorrono esempi analoghi, i
vestigiafacti (chiamati lì anche signa) vengono definiti come consequentia,
cioè inferenze che si traggono dal conseguente, caratteristica che definiva
appunto, per Aristotele, i segni non necessari. Ma mentre Aristotele condannava
i semefa da un punto di vista episte mologico per la loro insicurezza,
Cicerone è pronto a rico noscerne l'efficacia qualora si presentino in gran
numero (coacervata proficiunt, 40). Possiamo quindi schematizzare la
classificazione cicero niana nelle Partitiones oratoriae. Le opere sulla
divinazione Molte cose collegano la retorica giudiziaria alla divina zione.
Innanzitutto il fatto che entrambe si avvalgano dei segni per arrivare alla
conoscenza di fatti non direttamente accessibili alla percezione. In secondo
luogo, in entrambe viene operata una distinzione tra aspetti che sono eminente
mente congetturali e altri aspetti che sono invece naturali o trt•)
(sensu percipi potest) es .sangue - uccisione· es.: adolescenza inclinazione
alla libidine coniecturs verisimilie
(quod plerumque rta notse proprise rerum (quod numquam alrter frt certumque
declarat) es.: '"fumo-fuoco· vestigia fecti o signa dati: alla dicotomia
retorica tra prove tecniche (o congettu rali) e prove extratecniche
corrisponde la distinzione tra di vinazione artificiale (basata
sull'interpretazione e sulla con gettura) e divinazione naturale. Infine, come
Cicerone pole micamente rileva (De div), i segni della divinazione sono
talvolta interpretati in maniera diametralmente oppo sta, proprio come avviene
nel processo, in cui l'accusa e la difesa propongono dello stesso fatto due
interpretazioni di verse ed entrambe plausibili. Ma Cicerone apprezza i metodi
deli'indagine giudiziaria, mentre nutre una diffidenza enorme nei confronti
della di vinazione. In linea, infatti, con un vasto gruppo di intellet tuali
della sua epoca, educati ai metodi di indagine della fi losofia greca, a
fondamento razionalistico, e contempora neamente impegnato in politica, sente
l'esigenza di operare una distinzione netta tra religione e superstizione, di
cui la divinazione fa, per lui, parte. La religione appartiene alla più antica
tradizione romana e, posta come è ai fondamenti dello stato, deve essere
conservata, pena la disgregazione dello stato stessso; la superstizione,
invece, costituita dal coacervo degli elementi spuri che inquinano e rendono
poco credibile la religione stessa, dev'essere respinta, anche per ché non
venga limitata la libertà del cittadino romano nel suo impegno di gestione
della repubblica. Cicerone affronta questi argomenti nel De natura deo
rum, nel De fato e, soprattutto, nel De divinatione. Que st'ultima opera è
scritta in forma di dialogo tra l'autore e il fratello Quinto, il quale difende
l'arte divinatoria basandosi sulle teorie storiche che legavano la divinazione
all'esistenza degli dei. Le osservazioni di Cicerone contro la teoria soste
nuta da Quinto sono particolarmente interessanti perché costituiscono una vera
e propria critica a un meccanismo semiotico settoriale e contribuiscono, in
negativo, a una concezione generale del segno. Secondo la teoria di Quinto, gli
dei si pongono come fon te dell'informazione e come emittenti nei processi di
comu nicazione divinatoria, dei quali gli uomini sono i destinata ri. Ma, a
seconda dei due specifici tipi di divinazione, il pro cesso comunicativo si
struttura in modo differente. Il primo tipo è costituito dalla divinatio
artificialis, in cui l'interpretazione dei segni è legata a un'ars, ovvero a
una tecnica professionale di decriptazione, demandata a specia listi, ciascuno
esperto in un settore: extispices (esaminatori delle viscere), interpretes
monstrorum et fu/gurum (inter preti dei fatti prodigiosi e dei fulmini),
augures (interpreti del volo degli uccelli), astrologi (interpreti delle
stelle), in terpretes sortium (interpreti delle combinazioni di tavolette
mescolate in un'urna ed estratte a caso). In tale divinazione l'informazione
proveniente dalla divinità si materializza prima di tutto in una sostanza
espressiva percepibile, a cui l'ars permetterà di abbinare un contenuto
semantico. I presupposti su cui si basano le interpretazioni di questo tipo
sono dati dalla teoria, di origine stoica, secondo cui tutti i fenomeni sono
legati tra di loro in una catena di cau se ed effetti, senza soluzione di
continuità. Questa catena che ha come fondamento primo il /6gos divino e
costituisce il fato (heimarméne), non è conoscibile per intero da parte degli
uomini, dato che l'onniscienza è prerogativa della sola divinità (De div.).
Tuttavia viene prevista l'esistenza di un tempo ciclico che "può essere
paragonato con lo srotolarsi di una gomena, in quanto non dà mai luogo a fatti
nuovi, ma ripete sempre quanto prima è accaduto" (Dediv.,l,
127).Questofasìche gli uomini, attraverso l'osservazione attenta, colgano il mo
do in cui gli eventi si ripetono e, pur non potendo conoscere direttamente le
cause, possono però arrivare a coglierne gli indizi caratteristici (signa
tamc.z causarum et notas cernunt) (ibidem). Dato poi che è possibile tramandare
memoria dalle con nessioni passate, si crea un vero e proprio codice basato
sul la iteratività. Si può schematizzare così il processo: emittente divino-segni
di cause-eventi futuri codice basato sulla iterattività La divinazione
"naturale" Il secondo tipo di divinazione è quello definito
naturalis, in quanto indipendente da qualunque tecnica professionale, ma
derivante piuttosto da una diretta ispirazione divina, senza passare attraverso
la mediazione di un segno esterno. Fanno parte di questo tipo le forme di
preveggenza derivan ti da invasamento profetico, cioè le vaticinationes e
quelle derivanti dai sogni. Il palinsesto filosofico ·a cui è legato questo
secondo tipo di divinazione è quello delle teorie peri patetiche (Dicearco e
Cratippo vengono esplicitamente no minati, De div., II, 100), secondo le quali
l'anima, per il suo legame naturale con la divinità, una volta che sia spinta
da una divina follia o sciolta, nel sonno, dai vincoli che la legano al corpo,
partecipa direttamente della conoscenza del dio. Il ruolo del codice è in
questo caso ridotto, se non addirittura sostituito da una parziale
identificazione tra emittente e ricevente, secondo lo schema: RETORICA
LATINA emittente divino - segno interno - evento futuro .... ricevente umano
9.2.3 .3 Critiche "semiologiche" contro i segni divinatori Le
obiezioni che Cicerone muove ai sostenitori della divi nazione si basano su
argomenti specificamente semiotici. La tesi generale, mediante la quale
Cicerone nega valore alla divinazione, è che essa non abbia veramente carattere
semiotico, e cioè che i fenomeni che essa interpreta come se gni non siano
veramente tali, ovvero che non si comportino veramente come degli antecedenti
rispetto a dei conse guenti. Per distinguere i segni veri rispetto a quelli
presunti della divinazione, Cicerone istituisce un paragone tra le tecniche
scientifiche (come la medicina, la meteorologia, la nautica, la tecnica
previsionale del contadino e deli'astronomo) e la divinazione. In entrambi i
casi è in gioco la predizione del futuro a partire da certi indizi; ma, mentre
le pratiche pro fessionali adottano una vera e propria metodologia che
comporta "scienza (ars), ragionamento (ratio), esperienza (usus) e
congettura (coniectura)" (De div., II, 14), le prati che divinatorie si
basano sul "capriccio della sorte, tanto che nemmeno la divinità sembra
che possa avere, fra le sue prerogative, quella di sapere quali fatti il caso
farà accade re" (De div., II, 18). Questa opposizione tra ciò che, in
definitiva, è il codice (anche se 1si tratta di legami naturali basati sulla
frequenza statistica) e il caso è del resto la stessa con cui i medici ip
pocratici tendevano a distinguere la propria scienza profes sionale dalla
divinazione e dalla medicina magica (Antica medicina, cap. XII). Cicerone poi
si sbarazza in termini razionalistici della teoria secondo cui anche nel caso
della divinazione tecnica si farebbe appello ali'osservazione iterata delle
coincidenze, ritenendola ridicola e insostenibile (De div., II, 28). Ma ci sono
altri gravi difetti che la divinazione presenta dal punto di vista semiotico:
(i) le interpretazioni di uno stesso segno sono spesso diametralmente opposte
(De div., Il, 83); (ii) si verificano frequentemente fenomeni di falsa
identificazione dell'antecedente, per cui un certo evento non è connesso a
quello individuato come segno prodigio so, ma a ben diverse cause naturali (De
div., II, 62); (iii) l'interpretazione avviene a posteriori e così toglie ogni
ne¬ cessità di rapporto tra antecedente e conseguente (De div.); (iv) in certi
casi l'interpretazione è motivata da ragioni di faziosità politica e quindi è
priva di oggettività (De div.). Cicero composed this treatise
immediately after that on the Nature of
the Gods; the two subjects being indeed very closely connected. In the
first book all kinds of divination are represented as maintained by his brother
Quintus, on the principles of the Porch. It is an old opinion, derived as far
back asfrom the heroic times, and confirmed by the unanimous agreement of the
rather superstitious Roman people, and indeed of other nations, too, that there is a species of divination in existence
among men, which the Greeks call “xarrt/c^,”
that is to say, a presentiment, and foreknowledge of future events. A truly splendid and
serviceable gift, if it only exists in reality; and one by which our mortal
nature makes its nearest approach to the
power of the gods. Therefore, as we have done many other things better than the Greeks, so, most
especially have we excelled them in giving a name to this most admirable endowment, since our nation derives the name
which it gives to it, “divination,” from
the gods (“divis”), while the Greeks derive the title
which they give
it, namely, “juavn/cr/,”
from madness (juai'ia). For that
is Plato's interpretatin of the word.
Now, as far
as I know,
there is no
nation whatever, how
ever polished and
learned, or however
barbarous and un
civilized, which does
not believe it
possible that future
events may be
indicated, and understood,
and predicted by
certain persons. In the first
place the Assyrians,
that I may
trace back the
authority for this
belief to the
most remote ages
and countries, as
a natural consequence
of the champaign
country in which
they lived, and
of the vast
extent of their
territories, which led
them to observe
the heavens which
lay open to
their view in every direction, began
to take notice
also of the
paths and motions
of the stars;
and having taken
these observations for
some time, they
handed down to
their posterity informa
tion as to what
was indicated by
their various positions
and revolutions. And
among the Assyrians,
the Chaldaeans, a
tribe who had this name
not from any
art which they
professe, but from
the district which
they inhabited, by
a very long
course of observation
of the stars
are considered to
have established a
complete science, so
that it became
possible to predict
what would happen
to each individual,
and with what
destiny each separate
person was born. The
Egyptians also are
believed tohave acquired the
knowledge of the
same art by
a continued practice
of it extending
through countless ages.
But the nature
of the Cilicians
and Pisidians, and
the Pamphylians, who
border on them,
nations which we
ourselves have had
under our government,1
think that future events
are pointed out
by the flight
and voices of
birds as the surest
of all indications.
And when was
there ever an
instance of Greece
sending any colony
into yEolia, Ionia,
Asia, Sicily or
Italy, without consulting
the Pythian or
Dodonrean oracle, or
that of Jupiter
Hammon? or when did
that nation ever
undertake a war
without first asking
counsel of the
Gods 1 Nor is
there only one
kind of divination
celebrated both in
public and private.
For, (to say
nothing of the
practice of other
nations.) how many
different kinds have
been adopted by
our own people.
In the first
place, the founder
of this city,
Romulus, is said
not only to
have founded the
city in obedience
to the auspices; but also to have been himself an
augur of the highest reputation. After him the other kings also had recourse to
soothsayers; and after
the kings were
driven out, no
public business was
ever transacted, either
at home or in
war, without reference
to the auspices.
And as there
appeared to be
great power and
usefulness in the
system of the
soothsayers (haruspices),2 in
reference to the
people's succeeding in
their objects, and
consulting the Gods,
and arriving at
an understanding of
the meaning of
prodigies and averting
evil omens, they
introduced the whole
of their science from Etruria, to prevent the
appearance [Cicero had been proconsul
of Cilicia, and
had gained a
very high reputation by the integrity andenergy which he displayed in
that government. Aruspex
is derived from
the Greek word
Ifptiv, and specio,
to behold, because
the Aruspex prophesied from
the omens which
he drew from
an inspection of
the entrails of the victims. Augur, from avis, and garrio,
to chatter; because the
omens were drawn from
the noise made
by the birds
in their flight
of allowing any
kind of divination
to be neglected.
And as men's
minds were often
seen to be excited in
two manners, without
any rules of
reason or science,
by their own
mere uncontrolled and
free motion, being
sometimes under the
influence of frenzy,
and at others under that of
dreams, our ancestors,
thinking that the
divination which proceeded from
frenzy was contained
chiefly in verses
of the Sibyl, ordained
that there should
be ten citizens
chosen as interpreters of these compositions. And
in the same
spirit they have
also, at times,
thought the frantic
predictions of conjurors
and prophets worth, attending to; as they did in the Octavianl war
in the case
of Cornelius Culleolus.
Nor indeed have
men of the
greatest wisdom thought
it beneath them
to attend to
the warnings of
important dreams, if
at any time
any such appeared
to have reference
to the interests
of the republic.
Moreover, even in
our own time,
Lucius Junius, who
was consul, as
colleague of Publius
Rutilius, was ordered
by a vote
of the senate
to erect a
temple to Juno
Sospita, in compliance
with a dream
seen by Csecilia,
the daughter of
Balearicus.2 III. And,
as I apprehend,
our ancestors were
induced to establish
this custom more
because they had
been warned, by
the events which
they saw, to
do so, than
from any previous
conclusion of reason.
But some exquisite
arguments of philo
sophers have been
collected to prove
why divination may well be
a true science.
Now of these
philosophers, to go
back to the
most ancient ones,
Xenophanes the Colophonian
appears to have
been the only
one who admitted
the existence of
Gods, and yet
utterly denied the
efficacy of divination.
But every other
philosopher except Epicurus,
who talks so
childishly about the
nature of the
Gods, has sanctioned
a belief in
divination; though they
have not all
spoken in the
same manner. For,
though Socrates, and
all his followers,
and Zeno, and
all those of
his school, adhered
to the opinion
of the ancient
philosophers, and the
Old Academy and
the 1 This
was the civil
war in the
consulship of Cinna
and Octavius, which ended
in Octavius being
put to death
by the orders
of Cinna and
Mariu?. 2 This
was Quintus Caecilius
Metellua (the eldest
son of Metellus
Macedonians), who was
consul with T. Quinctius
Flamininus: in which
consulship he cleared
the Balearic Isles
of pirates, and
founded several cities
in the islands.
Peripatetics agreed with
them; and though
Pythagoras, who lived
some time before
these men; had
added a great
weight of authority
to this belief and
indeed he himself
wished to acquire
the skill of
an augur, and
though that most
im portant authority,
Democritus, had in
very many passages
of his writings
sanctioned a belief
in the foreknowledge
of future events;
yet Dicsearchus the
Peripatetic, on the
other hand, denied
all other kinds
of divination, and
left none except
those which proceed
from frenzy or
from dreams. And
my own friend
Cratippus, whom I
consider equal to
the most ancient
among the Peripatetics,
confined his belief
to the same
matters, and denied
the correctness of
any other kind
of divination. But
as the Stoics
defended nearly every
kind, because Zeno
in his Commentaries
had scattered some
seeds of such
a belief, and
Cleanthes had amplified
and extended his
predecessor's observations; Chrysippus
succeeded them, a
man of the
most acute and
vivid genius; who
discussed the whole
belief in, and
question about divination
in two books
on that subject,
and a third
on oracles, and
a fourth on
dreams. And he
was followed by
Diogenes the Babylonian,
a pupil of
his OATH, who
published one treatise
on the same
subject; by Antipater,
who wrote two
books, and our
friend Posidonius, who
wrote five. But
Pantetius, the tutor
of Posidonius and
pupil of Antipater,
has degenerated in
some degree from
the Stoics, or
at least from
the most eminent
men of that
school; and yet
he did not
dare absolutelyto deny
that there was
a power of
divina tion, but
said that he
had doubts on
the subject. Now
if he, aStoic,
was allowed to
express a doubt
on a matter
very much against
the inclination of the rest
of that school,
shall we not
obtain leave from
the Stoics to
behave in a
similar manner with
respect to other
subjects'? especially when
that very question
which is a
matter of doubt
to Paneetius, is
generally considered a
thing as clear
as day to
the other philosophers
of that sect.
However, this praise
of the Academy
has been confirmed
by the testimony
and deliberate judgment
of a most
admirable philosopher. IV.
Indeed, since we
are ourselves inquiring
what we are
to think of divination, because
Carneades maintained a very long
argument against the
Stoics with great
acuteness and variety
of resource, and
as we wish
to be on
our guard against
admitting rashly any
assertion which is
incorrect, or the
truth of which
is riot sufficiently
ascertained, it appears
neces sary for
us to compare
over and over
again the arguments
on one side
with those on
the other, as
we have done
in the three
books which we
have written on the Nature
of the Gods.
For, as in
every discussion, rashness
in assenting to
propositions of others,
and error in
asserting such ourselves,
is very discreditable, so
above all is
it in a
discussion where the
question for our
decision is how
much weight we
are to attribute
to auspices, and
to divine ceremonies,
and to religion.
For there is
danger lest, if
we neglect these
things, we may
become involved in
the guilt of
blasphemous impiety, or
if we embrace
them, we may
become liable to the reproach
of old women's
superstition. Now these
topics I have
often discussed, and
I did so
lately with more
than usual minuteness,
when I was
with my brother
Quintus, in my
villa at Tusculum.
For when, for
the purpose of
taking walking exercise,
we had come
into the Lyceum,
(for that is
the name of
the upper Gymnasium) I
read, said he,
a little while
ago your third
book on the
Nature of the
Gods; in which,
although the arguments
of Cotta have
not wholly changed
my previous opinions,
they have undoubtedly
a good deal
shaken them. You
are very right
to say so,
I replied; for,
indeed, Cotta himself
ai'gues rather with
a view to
confute the arguments
of the Stoics,
than to eradicate
religion from men's
minds. Then, said
Quintus, that is
what Cotta himself
says, and indeed
he repeats it
very often; I
imagine, because he
does not wish
to seem to
depart from the
ordinary opinions; but
still the zeal
with which he
argues against the
Stoics seems to
cany him on
to the extent
of wholly denying
the existence of
the Gods. I
do not indeed
think it necessary
to reply to
all he says,
for religion has
been sufficiently defended
in your second
book by Lucilius;
whose arguments, as you say
at the end
of the third
book, appear to you yourself
to be much
nearer to the
truth. But with
reference to the
point which has
been passed over
in those books,
because, I presume,
you con sidered
that the inquiry
into it could
be carried on,
and an argument
held upon it
with more convenience
if it were
taken separately, I mean Divination which
is a foreknowledge
and A foretelling
of those events
which arc usually
considered fortuitous, I should
like very much
at this moment,
if you please,
to examine what
power that science
really has, and
what its character
is. For my
own opinion is
this; that if
those kinds of
divination which we
have been in
the habit of
hearing of and
respecting, are real,
then there are
Gods; and on
the other hand
that, if there
really are Gods,
then there certainly
are men who
are possessed of
the art of
divination. You are defending,
I reply, the
very citadel of
the Stoics, O Quintus, by
asserting the reciprocal
dependence of these
two conditions on
one another; so
that if there
be such an art as
divination, then there
are Gods, and
if there be
such beings as
Gods, then there
is such an
art as divination.
But neither of
these points is
admitted as easily
as you imagine.
For future events
may possibly be
indicated by nature
without the intervention
of any God;
and, even although
there may be
such beings as
Gods, still it
is pos sible
that no such
art as divination
may be given
by them to the human
race. He replied, But
to me it
is quite proof
enough, both that
there are Gods
and that they
have a regard
for the welfare
of mankind, that
I perceive that
there are manifest
and undeni able
kinds of divination.
With respect to
which, I will,
if you please,
recount to you
my own sentiments,
provided at least
that you have
leisure and inclination
to hear me,
and have nothing
which you would
like in preference
to this discussion.
But I, said
I, my dear
Quintus, have always
leisure for philosophical
discussion; but at
this moment, when
I have actually
nothing whatever which
I wish to
do, I shall
be all the
more glad to
hear your sentiments
on divination. You
will hear, said
he, nothing new
from me, nor
do I entertain
any ideas on
the subject different
from the rest
of the world.
For the opinion
which I follow
is not only
the most ancient,
but that which
has been sanctioned
by the unanimous
consent of all
nations and countries.
For there are
two methods of
divining; one dependent
on art, the
other on nature.
Be.!; what nation
is there, or
what state, which
is not influenced
by the omens
derived from the
entrails of victims,
or by the
predictions of those
who interpret pro
digies, or strange
lights, or of
augurs, or astrologers,
or by those who expound lots (for
these are about what come
under the head
of art); or,
again, by the
prophecies derived from dreams,
or soothsayers (for
these two are
considered natural kinds
of divination) ? And
I think it
more desirable to
examine into the
results of these
things than into
the causes. For
there is a
certain power and
nature, which, by
means of indications
which have been
observed a long
time, and also
by some instinct
and divine inspiration,
pronounces a judg
ment on future
events. So that Carneades
may well give
up pressing what
Pansetius used also
to insist upon,
when he asked
whether it was
Jupiter who had
ordained the crow
to croak on
the right- hand,
or the raven
on the left.
For these occurrences
have been observed
for an immense
series of time,
and have been
remarked and noted
from the signification
given to them
by subsequent events.
But there is
nothing which a
great length of
time may not
effect and establish
by the use
of memory retaining
the different events,
and handing them
down in durable
monuments. We may
wonder at the way in
which the different
kinds of herbs
and roots have
been observed by
physicians as good
for the bites
of beasts, for
complaints of the
eyes, and for
wounds, the power
and nature of
which reason has
never explained, but
yet both the
art and inventor
of these medicines
have gained iiniversal
approval from their
utility. Let us also
look at those
things which, though
of another kind,
still have a
resemblance to divination.
And often, too,
the agitated sea
Gives certain tokens
of impending storms,
When through the
deep with sudden
rage it swells,
And the fierce
rocks, white with
the briny foam,
Vie with hoarse
Neptune in their
sullen roar, While
the sad whistlins
o'er the mountain's
brow Adds horror
to the crash
of the iron
coast. And all your
prognostics are full
of presentiments derived
from occurrences of
this sort. Who,
then, can trace
back the causes
of these presentiments
1 Though, indeed,
I am aware
that Boethus the
Stoic has endeavoured
to do so.
And indeed he
has done some
good to this
extent, that he
has explained the
principle of those
occurrences which take
place iu the
sea, or in
the heaven. But
still, who has
ever explained, with
any appearance of
probability, why they
take place at
all 1 And
the white gull,
uprising from the
waves, With horrid
scream foretells th'
impending storm, Straining
its trembling throat
in ceaseless cry.
Oft, too, the
woodlark from his
chest pours forth
Notes of unusual
sadness, wnking up
The morn with
grievous fear and
endless plaint. When
first Aurora routs
the nightly dew,
Sometimes the dusky
crow runs o'er
the shore, Dipping
its head beneath
the rising surf. And
we see that
these signs of
the weather scarcely
ever deceive us,
though we certainly
do not understand
why they are so correct.
You too perceive
the signs of
future times, Children
of sweetest waters;
and prepare To
utter warnings loud
and salutary, Rousing
the springs and
marshes with your
cries. Yet who
could ever have
suspected frogs of
having such perception
1 However, there
is in rivulets,
and in frogs
too, a certain
nature indicating something
which is clear
enough by itself,
but more obscure
to the knowledge
of men. And
cloven-footed oxen gazing
up To heaven's expense,
have often inhaled
the air Laden
with moisture I
do not inquire
why all this
takes place, since
I am acquainted
with the fact
that it does
take place The
mastic, ever green
and ever laden
With its rich
fruit, which thrice
in every year
Doth swell to
ripeness, by its
triple crop Points
out three times
when men should
till the earth.
Here too, again,
I do not
ask why this
one tree should
bloom three times
a year, or
why it should
adapt the proper
season for ploughing
the land to
the token given
by its bloom.
I am content
with this, that,
even if I
do not know
how everything is
done, I nevertheless
do know what
is done. And
so in respect
of every kind
of divination I
will answer as
I have done
in the cases
which I have
already mentioned. Now I
know what effect
the root of
the scamniony has as a
purgative, and what
the efficacy of
the aristolochia is in the
case of bites
of serpents, (and
this herb has
derived its name
from its discoverer,
who discovered it
in consequence o
a dream.) and
that knowledge is
quite emnigh. I do not know
why these herbs
are so efficacious;
and in the
same way I
do not know on what
principle the omens
which we draw
from the signs
furnished to us
by the winds
and storms proceed;
but I do
know, and arn
certain of, and
thankful for their
power, and the
results which flow
from it. Again,
in 1 All
these predictions are
translated by CICERONE (vedasi) from
Aratus. the same
way I know
what is indicated
by a fissure
in the entrails
of a victim,
or by the
appearance of the
fibres; but what
the cause is
that these appearances
have this meaning
I know not.
And life is
full of such
things; for nearly
every one has
recourse to the
entrails of animals.
Need I say
more 1 Is
it possible for
any one to
doubt about the
power of thunder-storms ?
Is not this
too one of
the most marvel
lous of marvellous
things? When Summanus,1
which was a
figure made of
clay, standing on
the top of
the temple of
the all-powerful and
all-good Jupiter, was
struck by lightning,
and the head
of the statue
could not be
found anywhere, the
soothsayers said that
it had been
thrown down into
the Tiber, and
it was found
in that very
place which had
been pointed out
by the soothsayer.But who
is there to
whom I may
more fitly appeal
as an authority
and as a witness than
you yourself? For I have
learnt the verses,
and that with
great pleasure, which
the muse Urania
pronounces in the
second book of
your Con
sulship See
how almighty Jnve,
inflamed and bright,
With heavenly fire
fills the spacious
world, And lights
up heaven and
earth with wondrous
rays Of his
divine intelligence and
mind ; Which pierces
all the inmost
sense of men,
And vivifies their
souls, hold fast
within The boundless
caverns of eternal
air. And would
you know the
high sublimest paths
And ever revolving
orbits of the
stars, And in
what constellations they
abide, Stars which
the Greeks erratic
falsely call, For
certain order and
fixed laws direct
Their onward course ;
then shall you
learn that all
Is by divinest
wisdom fitly ruled.
For when you
ruled the state,
a consul wise,
You noted, and
with victims due
approach'd, Propitiating the
rapid stars, and
strange Concurrence of the fiery
constellations. Then, when
you purified the
Alban mount, And
celebrated the great
Latin feast, Bringing
pure milk, meet
offering for the
gods, You saw
fierce comets bright
and quivering With
light unheard of. In
the sky you
saw 1 This
is usually understood
to have been
a statue of
Pluto. The new consuls
used to celebrate
the Ferioe Latinaj
on the Albanus
Mons. Fierce wars
and dread nocturnal
massacre That Latin feast
on mournful days
did fall, When
the pale moon
with di m
and muffled light
Conceal'd her head,
and fled, and
in the midst
Of starry night
became invisible. Why
should I say
how Phoebus' fiery
beam, Sure herald
of sad war,
in mid-day set,
Hastening at undue
season to its
rest, Or how
a citizen struck
with th' awful
bolt, Hurl'd by
high Jove from
out a cloudless
sky, Left the
glad light of
life; or how
the earth Quaked
with affright and
shook in every
part? Then dreadful
forms, strange visions
stalk d abroad,
Scarce shrouded by
the darkness of
the night,And wam'd
the nations and
the land of
war. Then many
an oracle and
augury, Pregnant with
evil fate, the
soothsayers Pour'd from
their agitated breasts.
And e'en The
Father of the
Gods fill'd heaven
and earth With
signs, and tokens,
and presages sure
Of all the
things which have
befallen us since.
XII. So now
the year when
you are at
the helm, Collects
upon itself each
omen dire, Which
when Torquatus, with
his colleague Gotta,
Sat in the
curule chairs, the
Lydian seer Of
Tuscan blood breathed
to affrighted Borne.
For the great
Father of the
Gods, whose home
Is on Olympus'
height, with glowing
hand Himself attack'd
his sacred shrines
and temples, And
hurl'd his darts
against the Capitol.
Then fell the
brazen statue, honour'd
long, Of noble
Natta; then fell
down the laws
Graved on the
sacred tablets; while
the bolts Spared
not the images
of the immortal
gods. Here was
that noble nurse
o' the Roman
name, The Wolf
of Mars, who
from her kindly
breast Fed the
immortal children of
her god With
the life-giving dew
of sweetest milk.
E'en her the
lightning spared not;
down she fell.
Bearing the royal
babes in her
descent, Leaving her
footmarks on the
pedestal.1 Great interest is attached to
this passage by
antiquaries, from the
fact of there
being a bronze
statue still at
Home of a
wolf suckling two
children, with manifest
marks of lightning
on it, which
is believed to
be the very
statue here mentioned
by Cicero, and
also in his
third Oration asrainst
Catiline, c. viii.;
it is described
by Virgil too: Fecerat
et viridi foetam
Mavorf is in
antro Procubuisse lupam;
geminos huic ubcra
circum [Ludere And
who, unfolding records
of old time,
Has found no
words of sad
prediction In the
dark pages of
Etruscan books ]
All men, all
writings, all events
combined, To warn
the citizens of
freeborn race Ludere
pendentes pueros, et
lambere matrem Impavidos;
ilhun tereti cervice
reflexam Mulcere alternos
et corpora fingere
linguiL jEn. The cave of
Mars was dress'd
with mossy greens ;
There by the
wolf were laid
the martial twins; Intrepid, on her swelling
dugs they hung,
The foster-dam loll'd
out her fawning
tongue; They suck'd
secure, while bending
back her head,
She lick'd their
tender limbs, and
form'd them as
they fed. Dryden,
^En. The statue in
its present state
is beautifully described
by Byron:And thou
the thunder-stricken nurse
of Rome, She-wolf!
whose brazen imaged
dugs impart The
milk of conquest
yet within the
dome, Where, as a monument
of antique art,
Thou standest, mother
of the mighty
heart, Which the
great founder suck'd
from thy wild
teat, Scorch'd by
the Roman Jove's
ethereal dart, And
thy limbs black
with lightning, dost
thou yet Guard
thy immortal cubs,
nor thy fond
charge forget] Thou
dost but all thy
foster-babes are dead,
The men of
iron ; and the
world hath rear'd
Cities from out
their sepulchres. Childe Harold,
book iv. It may not
be out of
place here, to
set before the
reader the beautiful
description, in the
first Georgic, of
the prodigies which
happened at Rome
on the death
of Cresar : Denique
quid vesper serus
vehat. unde serenas Ventus
agat nubes, quid
cogitet humidus Auster,
Sol tibi signa
dabit : Solem quis
dicere falsum Audeat?
ille etiam csecos
instare tumultus Saspe
monet, fraudemque, et
aperta tumescere bella;
Ille etiam extincto
miseratus Caesare Romam
Cum caput obscurS,
nitidum ferrugine texit
Impiaque rcternam timuerunt
sajcula noctem, Tempore
quanquam illo tellus
quoque et aequora
ponti, Obsccenique canes,
importunaeque volucres Signa
dabant : quoties Cyclopum
effervere in auras
Vidimus undantem rnptis
fornacibus Etnam,
Flammarumque globos liquef'actaque volvere
saxa. Armorum sonitus toto
Germania coe'.o Audiit;
insolitis tremuerunt motibus
Alpes. [Vox To
dread impending wars
of civil strife,
And wicked bloodshed ;
when the laws
should fall In
one dark rain,
trampled and o'erthrown:
Then men were
warn'd to save
their holy shrines,
The statues of
the irods, their
city and lands,
Vox quoque per
lucos vulgo exaudita
recentes Ingens, ei
simulacra rnodis pallentia
miris Visa sub
obscurum noctis; pecudesque
locutae, Infandum! sistunt
amnes terrseque dehiscunt
Et moestum illacryinat
templis ebur, oeraque
sudant: Proluit insano
contorquens vertice sylvas
Pluviorum Rex Eridanus ; camposque
per omnes Cum
stabulis armenta trahit;
nee tempore eodcm
Tristibus aut extis
fibrae apparere minaces
Aut puteis manare
cruor cessavit, et
alte Per noctcm
resonare lupis ululautibus
urbe? ; Non alias
coilo cecidcruut plura
sereno Fulgura, nee
diri toties arsere
cometae ; Ergo, etc. Virgil,
Georg. i. 488.
Which is translated
by Dryden: The Sun
reveals the secrets
of the sky,
And who dares
give the source
of light the
lie? The change
of empires he
oft declares, Fierce
tumults, hidden treasons,
open wars; He
first the fate
of Caesar did
foretell, And pitied
Rome when Rome
in Caesar fell :
In iron clouds
conceal'd the public
light, And impious
mortals fear'd eternal
night. Nor was
the fact foretold
by him alone,
Nature her-elf stood
forth and seconded
the Sun. Earth,
air, and seas
with prodigies were
sign'd, And birds
obscene and howlin g
dogs divin'd. What
rocks did ^Etna's
bellowing mouth expire
From her torn
entrails, and what
floods of fire!
What clanks were
heard in German
skies afar, Of
arms and armies
rushing to the
war! Dire earthquakes
rent the solid
Alps below, And
from their summits
shook th' eternal
snow; Pale spectres
in the close
of night were
seen, And voices
heard of more
than mortal men.
In silent groves
dumb sheep and
oxen spoke ;
And streams ran
backward, and their
beds forsook; The
yawning earth disclosed
th' abyss of
hell, The weeping
statues did the
wars foretell, And
holy sweat from
brazen idols fell.
Then rising in
his might the
king of floods
Uush'd through the
forests, tore the
lofty woods; And
rolling onward with
a sweepy sway,
Bore houses, herds,
and labouring hinds
away. Blood From
slaughter and destruction,
and preserve Their
ancient customs unimpair'd
and free. And
this kind hint
of safety was subjoin'd,
That when a
splendid statue of
great Jove,1 In
godlike beauty, on
its base was
raised, With eyes
directed to Sol's
eastern gate; Then
both the senate
and the people's
bands, Duly forewarn'd,
should see the
secret plots Of
wicked men, and
disappoint their spite.
This statue, slowly
form'd and long
delay 'd, At length
by you, when
consul, has been
placed Upon its
holy pedestal ; 'tis
now That the
great sceptred Jupiter
has graced His
column, on a
well-appointed hour: And
at the self-same
moment faction's crimes
Blood sprang from
wells; wolves howl'd
in towns by
night; And boding
victims did the
priests affright. Such
peals of thunder
never pour'd from
high, Nor forky
lightnings flash'd from
such a sullen
sky: Red meteors
ran across the
ethereal space; Stars
disappear'd, and comets
took their place.
Which Shakspeare has
imitated with reference
to the same
event : Cal. Caesar, I
never stood on
ceremonies, Yet now
they fright me:
there is one
within, Besides the
things that we
have heard and
seen, Recounts most
horrid sights seen
by the watch:
A lioness hath
whelped in the
streets, And graves
have yawn'd and
yielded up their
dead. Fierce, fiery
warriors fight upon
the clouds, In
ranks and squadrons
and right form
of war, Which
drizzled blood upon
the Capitol: The
noise of battle
hurtled in the
air; Horses did
neigh, and dying
men did groan;
And ghosts did
shriek and squeak
t the streets.
O Caesar, these
things are beyond
all use, And
I do fear
them When beggars
die there are
no comets seen;
The heavens themselves
blaze forth the
death of princes.
Cats. What say
the augurers? Serv.
They would not
have you to
stir forth to-day.
Plucking the entrails
of an offering
forth, They could
not find a
heart within the
beast. 1 This
refers to the
column meant to
serve as a
pedestal for the
statue of Jupiter,
mentioned in the
second book of
this treatise, and
also in the
second oration against
Catiline, as having
been ordered in
the consulship of
Torquatus and Cotta,
but not completed
till the year
of Cicero's consulship.
Were by the
loyal Gauls reveal'd
and shown To
the astonish'd multitude
and senate. Well
then did ancient
men, whose monuments
You keep among
you,they who will
maintain Virtue and
moderation ; by these
arts Ruling the
lands an<l people
subject to them:
Well, too, your
holy sires, whose
spotless faith, And
piety, and deep
sagacity Have far
surpass'd the men
of other lands,
Worshipp'd in every
age the mighty
Gods. They with
sagacious care these
things foresaw, Spending
in virtuous studies
all their leisure,
And in the
shady Academic groves,
And fair Lyceum :
where they well
pour'd forth The
treasures of their
pure and learned
hearts. And, like
them, you have
been by virtue
placed, To save
your country, in
the imminent, breach ;
Still with philosophy
you soothe your
cares, With prudent
care dividing all
your hours Between
the Muses and
your country's claims.
Will you then
be able to
persuade your mind
to speak against
the arguments which
I adduce on
the subject of
divination, you being
a man who
have performed such
exploits as you
have done, and
who have so
admirably com posed
those verses which
I have just
recited 1 What do
you ask me,
Carneades, why these
things take place
in this manner,
or by what
art it is
possible for them
to be brought
about? I confess
that I do
not know ; but
that they do
happen, I assert
that you yourself
are a witness.
Yes, they happen
by chance, you
say. Is it
so 1 Can
anything be done
by chance which
has in itself
all the features
of reality? Four
dice when thrown
may by chance
come up sixes.
Do you think
that if you
were to throw
four hundred dice
it would be
possible for them
all to come
up sixes by
any chance in
the world 1
Paints scattered at
random on a
canvass may by
chance represent the
features of a
human face ; but
do you think
that you could
by any chance
scat tering of
colours represent the
beauty of the
Coan Venus'?1 Suppose
a pig by
burrowing in the
ground with his
snout were to
make the letter
A, would you
on that account
think it possible
that the animal
should by chance
write out the
Andromache of Ennius
1 Carneades used
to tell a
story that 1
This refers to the celebrated
picture of Venus
Anadyomene, painted by
Apelles, who was
a native of
Cos. in cutting
stones in the
stone- quarries at Chios,
there was once
discovered a natural
head of a
Pan. I dare
say there may
have been a
figure not wholly
unlike such a
head, but still
certainly it was
not such that
you could fancy
it wrought by
Scopns.1 For this
is the nature
of things, that
chance can never
imitate reality to
perfection. But, you
will say, things
which have been
predicted sometimes fail
to happen. What
act is not
liable to this
observation 1 I mean of
those acts which
proceed on con
jecture, and are
founded on opinion.
Is not medicine
to be considered
a real art?
And yet how
often is it
deceived! Need I
say more 1 Are not
pilots of ships
often deceived? Did
not the army
of the Greeks,
and the captains
of all that
numerous fleet, depart
from Troy, as
Pacuvius says So
glad at their
departure, that they
gazed In idle
mirth upon the
wanton fish, And
never ceased from
laughing at their
gambols; Meanwhile at
sunset the vast
sea grows rough,
The darkness lowers,
black night and
clouds surround them.
Did, however, the
shipwreck of so
many illustrious generals
and sovereigns prove
that there was
no such art
as naviga tion? Or is
the science of
generals good for
nothing because a
most illustrious general
was lately put
to flight, after
the total loss
of his army
1 Or are
we to say
that there is
no room for
the display of
sound principles of
politics, or wis
dom in the administration of
affairs of state,
because Cnseus Ponipeius
was often .deceived,
and even Cato
and you your
self have been
deceived in more
instances than one?
The same rule
applies to the
answers of soothsayers,
and to all
divination which rests
on opinion: for
it depends wholly
on conjecture, and
has no means
of advancing further. And
that perhaps sometimes
deceives us, but
still it more
fre quently directs
us to the
truth. For it
is traced back
to all eternity.
And as in
the infinite duration
of time, things
have happened in
an almost countless
number of ways
with the self-same
indications preceding each
occurrence, an art
has Scopas was a
Parian, nourishing. He was
one of the
greatest architects and
sculptors of antiquity,
and is mentioned
as such by
Horace, who says: Divite
me scilicet artium
Quas aut Parrhasius
protulit aut Scopas,
Hie saxo, liquidis
ille colorilius Solera
nunc hominem nonere
mmr. TV « been concocted
and reduced to
rules from a
frequent obser vation
and notice of
the same circumstances. But your
auspices, how clear how
sure they are !
which at this
time are known
nothing of by
the Roman augurs,
(excuse me for
saying this so
plainly,) though they
are main tained
by the Cilicians,
Pamphylians, Pisidians, and
Lycians. For why
should I mention
that man connected
with us in
ties of hospitality,
that most illustrious
and excellent ^man,
king Deiotarus 1
He never does
anything whatever without
taking the auspices.
And it happened
once that he
had started on
a journey which
he had arranged
and determined some
time before; but,
being warned by
the flight of
an eagle, he
returned back again,
and the very
next night the
house in which
he would have
been lodging if
he had per
sisted in his
journey, fell to
the ground. And
he was so
moved by this
occurrence, that, as
he himself used
to tell me,
he often turned
back in the
same way in a journey,
even when he
had advanced many days on
it. And what
is most remarkable
in his conduct
is, that after
he had been
deprived by GIULIO (si veda) CESARE of his
tetrarchy, his kingdom,
and his property,
he still asserted
that he did
not repent of
obeying those auspices
which had promised
success to him
when he was
setting out to
join Pompey: for
he considered that
the authority of
the senate, and
the liberty of
the Roman people,
and the dignity
of the empire
had been upheld
by his arms;
and that those
birds had taken
good care of
his honour and
real interests, inasmuch
as they had
been his counsellors
in adhering to
the claims of
good faith and
duty ; for that
character was a
thing dearer to
him than his
possessions. . And
in saying this
he seems to
me to form
a very just
estimate. For our
magis trates at
times use compulsion.
For it is
quite impossible, if
a cake is
thrown down before
a chicken, but
what some crumbs
must fall out
of his mouth
when he feeds.
And as you
have it set
down in your
books that a
tripudium takes place
if any of
the food falls
on the ground,
so you also
call this compulsory
augury which I
have spoken of
tripudium solistimum.1 And
so, as that
wise Cato complains,
owing to i Tripudium, from
terripavium (Cic Div.),
a stamping on
the ground In
divination, tripudium, or
tripudium solistimum, when-
the birds (pulli)
ate so greedily
that the food
fell from their
mouths, and so
rebounded on the
ground, which was
regarded as a
good omen. Riddle
and Arnold, Lat.
Diet. the negligence
of the college,
many auguries and
many auspices have
been wholly lost
and abandoned. Formerly
there was, I may almost
say, no ariair
of importance, not
even if it
only related to
private business, which
was transacted \vithout
taking the auspices.
And this is
proved even now
by the Auspices Nuptiarum, who,
though the custom
has fallen into
disuse, still preserve
the name. For
just as we now consult
the entrails of
victims, though even
that very practice
is observed less
now than it
used to be,
so in ancient
times, before all
transactions of importance,
men used to
consult birds; and,
therefore, from want
of paying proper
regard to ill
omens, we often
run into alarming
and destructive dangers: as
Publius Claudius, the
son of Appius
Csecus, and his
colleague Lucius Junius,
lost a fine
fleet, because they
had put to
sea in defiance
of the omens.
And, indeed, something
of the same
kind befel Agamemnon;
for he, when
the Grecians had
begun To murmur
loudly, and with
open scorn T'
asperse the skill
of th' holy
soothsayers, Bade the
crew bend the
sails and put
to sea, Choosing
the people's voice
before the omens.
But why need
we look for
old examples of
this 1 We
have ourselves seen
what happened to
Marcus Crassus, because
he neglected the
notice which was
given to him
that the omens
were unfavourable. On
which occasion, Appius,
your col league,
a good augur,
as I have
often heard you
say, branded, when
he was censor,
an excellent man
and a most
illustrious citizen, Caius
Ateius, without sufficient
consideration, because he
had cooperated in
falsifying the auspices.
However, let that
pass. It may
have been the
duty of the
censor to do
so, if he
thought that the
auspices were falsified.
But it certainly
was not the
duty of an
augur to set
down in the
books that this
was the cause
of a fearful
calamity befalling the
Roman people. For
even if that
was the cause
of the calamity,
still the fault
was not in
the man who
announced the state
of the auspices,
but in him
who disregarded the
announcement. For that
the announcement wTas
a correct one,
as the same
augur and censor
bears witness, was
proved by the
event; for if
the announcement had
been false, it
could not possibly
have caused any
calamity at all.
In truth, prognostics of
calamity, like other
auspices, and omens,
and tokens, do
not produce causes
why anything should
happen, but merely
give notice of
what will happen
unless you pro
vide against it. It was
not, therefore, the
announcement of unfavourable
omens, made by
Ateius, which was
the cause of
calamity; all that
he did was,
by declaring to him what
signs had been
seen, to warn
him what would
happen if he
did not take precautions against
it. Accordingly, either
that announcement had
no effect at
all, or else
if, as Appius
thinks, it had
an effect, the
effect was this,
that guilt was
attached, not to the man
who gave the warning, but
to him who
did not attend
to it. What shall
I say more
1 From whence
have you received
that staff (lituus)
of yours, which
is the most
cele brated ensign
of your augurship?
That is the
staff with which
Komulus parted out
the several districts,
when he founded
the city. And
that staff of
Romulus, (that is
to say, a
stick curved and
slightly bent forward
at the top,
which has derived
its name from
its resemblance to
the trumpet (lituus)
used in sounding
signals,) having been
laid up in
the meeting-house of
the Salii, which
was in the
Pala tine-hill, when
that house was
burnt to the
ground, was found unhurt. What
more need I say 1
Who of the
ancient authors is
there who does
not relate what
an arrangement of
the districts of
the city was
made, many years
after the time
of Romulus, in
the reign of
Tarqninius Priscus, by
Attius Xavius, who
employed his staff
in this manner?
And it is
said that he,
when a boy,
was forced through
poverty to act
as a swineherd;
and one day,
having lost one
of his pigs,
he made a
vow that if
he recovered it,
he would give
the god the
finest grape which
there was in
the whole vineyard.
Accordingly, when he had found
the pig, he
placed himself in
the middle of the vineyard,
with his eyes
directed towards the
south; and after
he had divided
the vineyard into
four divisions, and
had been directed
by the birds
to disregard three
of the portions,
in the fourth
division, which remained,
he found a
grape of most
wonderful size, as
we find recorded
in our books.
And when this
fact became known,
all the neighbours
used to consult
him on all
their affairs, until
he. gained a
great name and
reputation ; in consequence
of which kin<r
Priscus sent for
him. And when
he had come
to the king,
he, wishing to
make proof of
his skill in
augury, told him
that he was
thinking of something,
and asked him
whether it could
possibly be done.
He, having taken
an auguiy, answered
that it could.
But Tarquin said
that he had
been thinking that
it was possible
that a whetstone
might be cut
through by a
razor. On this
Attius bade him
try ; and accordingly
a whetstone was
brought into the
assembly, and, in
the sight of
king and people,
cut through with
a razor. And
in consequence of
this, it happened
that Tarquinius always
consulted Attius Navius
as an augur,
and that the
people also were
used to refer
their private affairs
to him. And
we are told
that that whetstone
and that razor
were buried in
the comitium, and
that the puteal
was built over
it. Let us
deny everything; let
us burn our
annals; let us
say that all
these statements are
false ; let us,
in short, confess
everything rather than
that the Gods
regard the affairs
of mankind. What
1 do not
even your writings
about Tiberius Gracchus
sanction the theories
df augurs ami
haruspices 1 For
when he had
unintentionally erected a tent to
take the auspices
informally, because he
had crossed the
pomcerium without taking
the auspices, he
held there the
comitia for the
election of the
consuls. (The matter
is one of
notoriety, and committed
to writing by
you yourself.) However,
Tiberius Gracchus, who
was himself an
augur, ratified the
authority of the
auspices by a
confession of his
error, and added
great authority to
the sj'steui of
the harus pices;
who, having at
the recent comitia
been introduced into
the senate, asserted
that the person
who proposed the
candi dates to
the comitia had
no right to
do so. I therefore
agree with those
authors who have
asserted that there
are two kinds
of divination; one
par taking of
art, and the
other wholly devoid
of it. For
art is visible
in those persons
who pursue anything
new by conjec
ture, and have
learnt to judge
of what is
old by observation.
But those men,
on the other
hand, are devoid
of art, who
give way to
presentiments of future
events, not proceeding
by reason or
conjecture, nor on
the observation and
considera tion of
particular signs, but
yielding to some
excitement of mind,
or to some
unknown influence subject
to no precise
rules or restraint,
(as is often
the case with
men who dream,
and sometimes with
those who deliver
predictions in n
frenzied manner,) as
Bacis' of Boeotia,
Epimenides2 the Cretan,
and the Erythrean
Sib}'!. And under
this head we
ought also to
rank oracles; not
those which are
drawn by lot,
but those which
are uttered under
the influence of
some divine instinct
and inspiration. Although
even lots are
not to be
despised where they
are sanctioned by
the authority of
antiquity, like those
which we are
told used to
rise out of
the earth; which,
however, are drawn
in such a
manner as to
be apposite to
the subject under
consideration, which, indeed,
is a thing
that I conceive
to be very
possible by divine
management. The interpreters
of all of
which appear to
me to come
very near to
the divining power
of those whose
interpreters they are
(just as those
grammarians do who
are the interpreters
of poets). What
proof of sagacity
is it, then,
to wish to
disparage things sanctioned
by antiquity, by
vile calumnies? I
admit that I
cannot discover the
cause. Perhaps it
lies hid, involved
in the obscurity
of nature. For
God has not
int nded me
to understand these
matters, but only
to use them.
I will use
them, then ; nor
will I be
persuaded to think,
either that all
Etruria is mad
on the subject
of the entrails
of victims, or
that the same
nation is all
wrong about lightnings,
or that it
interprets prodigies fallaciously,
when it has
often happened that
sub terranean noises
and crashes, often
that earthquakes, have
predicted, with terrible
truth, many of
the evils which
have befallen our
own republic and
other states. Why
should I say
more? The fact
of a mule having brought
forth is much
ridiculed by some
people; but because
this parturition did
take place in
the case of
an animal of
natural barrenness, was
there not an
incredible crop of
evils predicted by
the soothsayers 1
Need I go
further 1 Did
not Tiberius Gracchus,
the. son of Publius
Gracchus, who had
been twice consul
and censor, and
who was also
an augur of
the 1 Bacis
was believed to
have lived and
prophesied at Heleon,
in Bceotia, being
inspired by the
nymphs of the
Corycian cave. Some
of hjs prophecies
are given us
by Herodotus (See
also Aristophanes, Eq.;
Pax) Epimenides was a
poet and prophet
of Crete. He was
sent for by
the Athenians to
purify Athens when
it was visited by
a plague, in
consequence of the
sacrilege of Cylon.
He is said
to have lived
to a great
age.highest skill and
reputation, and a
wise man, and
a most virtuous
citizen, did not
he (as Caius
Gracchus, his son,
has left recorded
in his writings),
when two snakes
were caught in
his house, convoke
the soothsayers? And
the answer which
they gave him
was, that if he let
the male escape,
his wife would
die in a
short time ; but
if he let
the female escape,
he would die
himself: on which
he thought it
more becoming to
encounter an early
death himself, than
to expose the
youthful daughter of
Publius Africanus to it. Accordingly,
he released the
female snake, and
died himself a
few days afterwards. Let us,
after this, laugh
at the soothsayers;
let us call
them useless and
triflers, and despise
those men whose
principles the wisest
men, and subsequent
events and occur
rences, have often
proved. Let us
despise also the
Baby lonians, and
those who on
mount Caucasus observe
the stars of
heaven, and follow
all their revolutions
in regular number
and motion. Let
us, say I,
condemn all those
people for folly,
or vanity, or
impudence, who, as
they themselves assert,
have exact records
for four hundred
and seventy thousand
years carefully noted
down, and let
us decide that
they are telling
lies, and have
no regard as
to what the
judgment of future
ages concerning them
will be. Come,
then, you vain
and deceitful barbarians,
has the history
of the Greeks
likewise spoken falsely?
Who is ignorant
of the answer
(that I may
speak at present
of natural divination)
which the Pythian
Apollo gave to
Croesus, to the
Athenians, the Lacedaemonians, the
Tegeans, the Argives,
and the Corinthians?
Chrysippus has collected
a countless list
of oracles not
one without a
witness and authority
of sufficient weight;
but as they
are known to
you, I will
pass them over.
This one I
will mention and
defend. Would that
oracle at Delphi
have ever been
so celebrated and
illustrious, and so
loaded with such
splendid gifts from
all nations and
kings, if all
ages had not
had experience of
the truth of
its predic tions
1 At present,
you will say,
it has no
such reputation. Granted,
then, that it
has a lower
reputation now, because
the truth of
oracles is less
notorious; still I
affirm that it
would not have
had such a
reputation then, if
it had not
been distinguished for
extraordinary accuracy. But it is
possible that that
power in the
earth, which excited
the mind of
the Pythian priestess
by divine inspiration,
may have disappeared through
old age, just
as we know
that some rivers
have dried up,
or become changed
and diverted into
another channel. However,
let it be
owing to whatever
you please; for
it is a
great question: only
let this fact
remain which cannot
be denied, unless
we will overthrow
all his torythat
that oracle told
the truth for
many ages. However, let us pass
over the oracles;
let us come
to dreams. And
Chrysippus discussing them,
after collecting many
minute instances, does
the same that
Antipater does when
he investigates this
subject, and those
dreams which were
explained according to
the interpretation of
Antipho, which indeed
prove the acuteness
of the interpreter,
but still are
not examples of
such importance as
to have been
worthy of being
brought forward. The
mother of Dionysius of
that Dionysius, I
mean, who was
the tyrant of
Syracuse, as it
is recorded by
Philistus, a man
of learning and
diligence, and who
was a contem
porary of the
tyrant when she was
pregnant with this
very Dionysius, dreamt
that she had
become the mother
of a little
Satyr. The interpreters
of prodigies, who
at that time
were in Sicily
called Galeotse, gave
her for answer
when she con
sulted them about
it, (according to
the story told
by Philistus,) that
the child whom
she was about
to bring forth
would be the
most illustrious man
of Greece, with
very lasting good
fortune. Am I
recalling you to the fables
of the Greek
poets and those
of our country?
For the Vestal
Virgin, in Ennius,
says The agitated
dame with trembling
limbs Brings in
a lamp, and
with unbridled tears,
Starting from broken
sleep, pours forth
these words:• 0
daughter of the
fair Eurydice, You
whom rny father
loved, see strength
and life Desert
my limbs, and
leave me helpless
all. 1 thought
I saw a
man of handsome
form Seize me,
and bear me
through the willow
groves, Along the
river banks and
places yet unknown.
And then alone, T
tell you true,
my sister, I
seem'd to wander,
and with tardy
steps To seek
to trace you,
but my efforts
fail'd; While no
clear path did
guide my doubtful
feet. And then,
I thought, my
father thus address'd
me, With evil-boding
voice: Alas! my
daughter, What numerous
woes by you
must be endured;
Though fortune shall
in after times
arise From out
of the waters
of this river
here. Thus, sister,
spake my father,
and then vanish'd
• 2STor, though
much wish'd for,
did he once
return! In vain,
with many tears,
I raised my
hands Up to
the azure vault
of the highest
heaven, And with
caressing voice invoked
his name, Or
seem'd to do
so. And 'twas
long ere sleep,
Freighted with such
sad dreams, did
quit my breast. Now
these accounts, though
they perhaps may be the
mere inventions of
the poets, still
are not inconsistent
with the general
character of dreams.
We may grant
that that is
a fictitious one
by which Priam
is represented to
have been disturbed: Queen
Hecuba dream'd an
ominous dream of
fate- That she
did bear no
human child of
flesh, But a
fierce blazing torch.
Priam, alarm'd, Ponder'd
with anxious fear
the fatal dream;
And sought the
gods with smoking
sacrifice. Then the
diviner's aid he
did entreat, With
many a prayer
to the prophetic
god, If haply
he might learn
the dream's intent.
Thus spake Apollo
with all-knowing mind: The
queen shall have
a son, who,
if he grow
To man's estate,
shall set ajl
Troy in flames
The ruin of
his city and
his land. Let
us grant, then,
that these dreams
are, as I have said,
merely poetic fictions,
and let us
add the dream
of ^Eneas, which
Numerius Fabius Pictor
relates in his
Annals, as one
of the same
kind; in which
^Eneas is represented
as foreseeing, in
his trance, all
his future exploits
and adventures. But
let us come
nearer home. What
kind of dream
was that of
Tarquin the Proud,
which the poet
Accius, m his
Tragedy of Brutus,
puts into the
mouth of Tarquin
himself? Sleep closed
my weary eyelids,
when a shepherd
Brought me two
rams. The one 1
sacrificed; The other
rushing at me
with wild force
Hurl'd me upon
the ground. Prostrate
I gazed Upon
the heavens, when
a new prodigy
Dazzled my eyes.
The flashing orb
of day Took
a new course,
diverging to the
right, With all
his kindling beams
strangely transversed. Of
this dream the
diviners gave the
following interpretation Dreams
are in general
reflex images Of
things that men
in waking hours
have known; But
sometimes dreams of
loftier character Rise in
the tranced soul,
inspired by Jove,
Prophetic of the
future. Then beware Of
him, whom thou
dost think as
stupid as The
ram thou dreamest
of. For in
his breast Dwells
manliest wisdom. He may
yet expel Thee
from thy kingdom. Mark
the prophecy: That
change in the
sun's course thou
didst behold, Betoken'd
revolution in the
state, And as
the sun did
turn from left
to right, we
predict So shall
that revolution meet
success. Let us
again return to
foreign events. Heraclides
of Pontus, an
intelligent man, who
was one of
Plato's disciples and
followers, writes that
the mother of
Phalaris fancied that
she saw in
a drearn the
statues of the
gods whom Phalaris
had consecrated in
his house. Among
them it appeared
to her that
Mercury held a
cup in his
right hand, from
which he poured
blood, which as
soon as it
touched the earth
gushed forth like
a fresh fountain,
and filled the
house with streaming
gore. The dream
of the mother
was too fatally
realized by the
cruelty of the
son. Why need
I also relate, out
of the history
of Persia by
Dinon, the interpretations which
the Magi gave
to the cele
brated prince, Cyrus?
For he dreamed
that beholding the
sun at his
feet, he thrice
endeavoured to grasp
it in his
hands, but the
sun rolled away
and departed, and
escaped from him.
The Magi (who were
accounted sages and
teachers in Persia)
thus interpreted the
dream, saying, that
the three attempts
of Cyrus to
catch the sun in his
hands, signified that
he would reign
thirty years ; and
what they predicted
really came to
pass ; for he
was forty years
old when he
began to reign,
and he reached
the age of
seventy. Among all
barbarous nations, indeed,
we meet with
proof that they
likewise possess the
gift of divination
and presentiment. The
Indian Calanus, when
led to execution,
said, while ascending
the funeral pile, 0
what a glorious
departure from life !
when, as happened
to Hercules, after
niy body has
been consumed by
fire, my soul
shall depart to
a world of
light. And when
Alexander asked him
if he had
anything to say
to him; Yes, replied
he, .we shall
soon meet again;
and this prophecy
was soon fulfilled,
for a few
days afterwards Alexander
died in Babylon. I
will quit the
subject of dreams
for awhile, and
return to them
presently. On the
very night that
Olympias was delivered
of Alexander, the
temple of Diana
of the Ephesiaus
was burned ; and
when the morning
dawned, the Magi
declared that the
ruin and destroyer
of Asia had
been born that
night. So much
for the Magi
and the Indians.
Now let us
return to dreams.
Ccelius relates that
Hannibal, wishing to
remove a golden
column from the
temple of Juno
Lacinia, and not
knowing whether it
was solid gold
or merely gilt,
bored a hole
in it ; and as he
had found it
solid, he determined
to take it
away. But the
following night Juno
appeai-ed to him
in a dream,
and warned him
against doing so,
and threatened him
that if he
did, she would
take care that
he should lose
an eye with
which he could
see well. He
was too prudent
a man to
neglect this threat ;
and therefore, of
the gold which
had been abstracted
from the column
in boring it,
he made a
little heifer, which
he fixed on
the capital. And
the same story
is told in the Grecian
history of Silenus,
whom Ccelius follows.
And he was
an author who
was particularly diligent
in relating the
exploits of Hannibal.
He says that
when Hannibal had
taken Saguntum, he
dreamed in his
sleep that he
was summoned to
a council of
the gods, and
that when he
arrived at it,
Jupiter commanded him
to carry the
war into Italy,
and one of
the deities in
council was appointed
to be his
conductor in the
enterprise. He therefore
began his march
under the direction
of this divine
protector, who enjoined
him not to
look behind him .
Hannibal, however, could
not long keep
in his obedience,
but yielded to
a great desire
to look back,
when he immediately
beheld a huge
and terrible monster,
surrounded with ser
pents, which, wherever
it advanced, destroyed
all the trees,
and shrubs, and
buildings. He then,
marvelling at this,
inquired of the
god what this
monster might mean;
and the god
replied, that it signified the
desolation of Italy ;
and com manded
him to advance
without delay, and
not to concern
himself with the
evils that lay
behind him and
in his rear.
In the history
of Agathocles it
is said, that
Hamilcar the Carthaginian,
when he was
besieging Syracuse, dreamed
that he heard
a voice announcing
to him, that
he -should sup on
the succeeding day
in Syracuse. When
the morning dawned
a great sedition
arose in his
camp between the
Carthaginian and Sicilian
soldiers. And when
the Syracusans found
this out, they made
a vigorous sally
and attacked the
camp un expectedly,
and succeeded in
making Hamilcar prisoner
while alive, and
thus his dream
was verified. All
history is full
of similar accounts;
and the experience
of real life
is equally rich
in them. That
illustrious man, Publius
Decius, the son
of Quintus Decius,
the first of the Decii
who was a
consul, being a
military tribune in the consulship
of Marcus Valerius
and Aulus Cornelius,
when our army
was sorely pressed
by the Samnites,
and being accustomed
to expose himself
to great personal
danger in battle,
was warned to
take greater care
of himself; on
which he replied
(as our annals
report), that he
had had a
dream, which informed
him that he
should die with
the greatest glory,
while engaged in
the midst of
the enemy. For
that time he
succeeded in happily
rescuing our army
from the perils
that surrounded it.
But three years
after, when he
was consul, he
devoted himself to
death for his
country, and threw
himself armed among
the ranks of
the Latins; by
which gallant action the Latins were defeated and destroyed: and his
death was so glorious that his son desired a similar fate.But let us now come,
if you please, to the dreams of philosophers. We read in Plato that
Socrates, when he was in
the public prison
at Athens, said
to his friend
Crito that he
should die in
three day, for
that he had
seen in a
dream a woman
of extreme beauty
who called him
by his name,
and quoted in
his presence this
verse of HomerOn
the third day
you'll reach the
fruitful Phthia. 1
And it is
said that it
happened just as
it had been
foretold. Again, what a man,
and how great
a man, is
Xenophon the pupil
of Socrates! He,
too, in his
account of that
war in which
he accompanied the
younger Cyrus, relates
the dreams which
he sawthe accomplishment of
which was marvellous.
Shall we then
say that Xenophon
was a liar
or dotard? What
shall we say,
too, of Aristotle,
a man of
singular and almost
divine genius? Was
he deceived himself,
or does he
wish others to
be deceived, when
he informs us
that Eudemus of
Cyprus, his own
intimate friend, on
his way to
Macedonia, came to
Pherae, a celebrated
city of Thessaly,
1 Horn. :Hfjari Kfv
rpirdrca $0ii)v tpi$ta\ov
IKO(U.TIV. which was
then under the
cruel sway of
the tyrant Alexander.
In that town
he was seized
with a severe
illness, so that
he was given
over by all
the physicians, when
he beheld in
a dream a
young man of
extreme beauty, who
informed him that
in a short
time he should
recover, and also
the tyrant Alexander
would die in
a few days; and that
Eudemus himself would,
after five years'
absence, at length
return home. Aristotle
relates that the
first two predictions
of this dream
were immediately accomplished;
for Eudemus speedily
recovered, and the
tyrant perished at
the hands of
his wife's brother;
and that towards
the end of
the fifth year,
when, in consequence
of that dream,
there was a
hope that he would return
into Cyprus from
Sicily, they heard
that he had
been slain in
a battle near
Syracuse; from which
it appeared that
his dream was
susceptible of being
interpreted as meaning,
that when the
soul of Eudemus
had quitted his
body, it would
then appear to
have signified the
return home. To
the philosophers we
may add the
testimony of Scpho-
cles, a most
learned man, and
as a poet
quite divine, who,
when a golden
goblet of great
weight had been
stolen from the
temple of Hercules,
saw in a
dream the god
himself appearing to
him, and declaring
who was the
robber. Sopho cles
paid no attention
to this vision,
though it was
repeated more than
once. When it
had presented itself
to him several
times, he proceeded
up to the
court of Areopagus,
and laid the
matter before them.
On this, the
judges issued an
order for the
arrest of the
offender nominated by
Sophocles. On the
application of the
torture the criminal
confessed his guilt,
and restored the goblet; from
which event this temple of Hercules was afterwards called the temple of
Hercules the Indicate. But why do I continue to cite the Greeks? when, somehow
or other, I feel more interest in the examples of my ellowcountrymen. All our
historians,the Fabii, the
Gellii, and, more
recently, Ccelius, bear
witness to similar
facts. In the
Latin war, when
they first celebrated
the votive games
in honour of
the gods, the
city was suddenly
roused to arms,
and the games
being thus interrupted,
it was necessary
to appoint new
ones Before their commencemen,however,
just as the
people had taken
their places in
the circus, a
slave who had
been beaten with
rods was led
through the circus,
bearing a gibbet.
After this event,
a certain Roman
rustic had a
dream, in which
an apparition informed
him that he
had been displeased
with the president
of the games,
and the rustic
was ordered to
apprise the senate
of that fact.
He, however, did
not dare to
do so; on
which the apparition
appeared a second
time, and warned
him not to
provoke him to
exert his power.
Even then he
could not summon
courage to obey,
and presently his
son died. After
this, the same
admonition was repeated in his dreams for the third time. Then the
peasant himself became extremely ill, and related the cause of his trouble to
his friends, by whose advice he was carried on a litter to the
senatehouse; and as
soon as he
had related his
dreams to the
senate, he recovered
his health and
strength, and returned
home on foot
perfectly cured. Thereupon,
the truth of
his dreams being
admitted by the
senate, it is
related that these
games were repeated
a second time.
It is recorded
in the history
of the same
Crelius, that Caius
Gracchus informed many
persons that during
the time that
he was soliciting
the qusestorship, his
brother Tiberius Gracchus
appeared to him
in a dream,
and said to
him, that he
might delay as
much as he
pleased, but that
nevertheless he was
fated to die
by the same
death which e
himself had suffered.
Coclius asserts that
he heard this
fact, and related
it to many
persons, before Caius
Gracchus had become
tribune of the
people. And what
can be more
certain than such
a dream as
this 1 Who, again,
can despise those
two dreams, which
are so frequently
dwelt upon by
the Stoics?one concerning
Simonides, who, having
found the dead
body of a man who
was a stranger
to him lying
in the road,
buried it. Having
performed this office,
he was about
to embark in
a ship, when
the man whom
he had buried
appeared to him
in a dream
at night, and
warned him not
to undertake the
voyage, for that if he did he would perish by shipwreck. Therefore, he
returned home again, but
all the other
people who sailed
in that vessel were lost. The
other dream, which is a very celebrated one, is related in the following
manner:Two Arcadians, who
were in timate
friends, were travelling
together, and arriving
at Megara, one
of them took
up his quarters
at an inn,
the other at
a friend's house.
After supper, when
they had both
gone to bed,
the Arcadian, who
was staying at
his friend's house,
saw an apparition
of his fellowtraveller at
the inn, who
prayed him to
come to his assistance immediately,
as the innkeeper
was going to
murder him. Alarmed
at this intimation,
he started from
his sleep; but
on recollection, thinking
it nothing but an idle
dream, he lay
down again. Presently,
the apparition appeared
to him again
in his sleep,
and entreated him,
though he would
not come to
his as sistance
while yet alive,
at least not
to leave his
death unavenged. He
told him further,
that the innkeeper
had first murdered
him, and then
cast him into
a dungcart, where
he lay covered
with filth; and
begged him to
go early to
the gate of
the town, before
any cart could
leave the town.
Much excited by
this second vision,
he went early
next morning to the gate
of the town,
and met with
the driver of the cart,
and asked him
what he had
in his waggon.
The driver, upon
this question, ran
away in a
fright. The dead
body was then
discovered, and the
innkeeper, the evidence
being clear against
him, was brought
to punishment. What can
be more akin
to divination than
such a dream
as this? But
why do I
relate any more
ancient instances of
similar things, when
such dreams have
occurred to ourselves?
for I have
often told you
mine, and I
have as often
heard you talk
of yours. When
I was proconsul
in Asia, it
appeared to me
as I slept,
that I saw
you riding on
horseback till you
reached the banks
of a great
river, and that
you were suddenly
thrown off and
precipitated into the
waters, and so
disappeared. At this
I trembled exceedingly,
being overcome with
fear and apprehension.
But suddenly you
reappeared before me
with a joyful
countenance, and, with
the same horse,
ascended the opposite
bank, and then
we embraced each
other. It is
easy to conjecture
the signification of
such a dream
as this; and
hence the learned
inten <reters of
Asia predicted to
me that those
events would take
place which afterwards
did come to
pass. I now
come to your
own dream, which
I have sometimes
heard from yourself,
but more often
from our friend
Sallust. He used
to say, that
in that flight
and exile of
yours, which was
so glorious for
you, so calamitous
for our country,
you stayed awhile
in a certain
villa of the
territory of Atina,
when, having sat
up a great
part of the
night, you fell
into a deep
and heavy slumber
towards the morning.
And from this
slumber your attendants
would not awake
you, as you
had given orders
that you were
not to be
disturbed, though your journey was sufficiently urgent. When at length
you awoke about the second hour of the day, you related to Sallust the
following dream:That it had
seemed to you
that, as you
were wandering sorrowfully
through some solitary
district, Caius Marius
appeared to you
with his fasces
covered with laurel,
and that he
asked you why
you were afflicted.
And when you
informed him that
you had been
driven from your
country by the
violence of the
disaffected, he seized
your right hand,
and urged you
to be of
good cheer, and
ordered the lictor
nearest to him
to lead you
to his monument,
saying, that there
you should find
security. Sallust told
me, that upon
hearing this dream,
he himself exclaimed
at once that
your return would
be speedy and
glorious; and that
you also appeared
to be de
lighted with your
dream. A short
time afterwards I
was informed, as
you well know,
that it was
in the monument
of Marius that,
on the instance
of that excellent
and famous consul
Lentulus, that most
honourable decree of
the senate was
passed for your
recal, which was
applauded with shouts
of incredible exultation
in a very
full assembly; so
that, as you
yourself observed, no
dream could have
a higher character
of divination than
this which occurred
to you at
Atina. But you will
say that there
are likewise many
false dreams. No
doubt there are
some which are
perhaps obscure to
us; but, even
allow that there
are some which
are actually false, what argument
is that against those which are true ?of
which, indeed, there
would be a
great many more
if we went
to bed in
perfect health; but
as it is,
from our being
over charged with
wine and luxuries,
all our perceptions
become troubled and
confused. Consider what
Socrates, in the
Republic of Plato,
says on this
subject. When, says he, that
part of the
soul which is
capable of intelligence
and reason is
subdued and reduced
to languor, then that part in
which there is a species of
ferocity and uncivilized savageness
being excited by
immoderate eating and
drinking, exults in
our sleep and
wantons about unre
strainedly; and therefore
all kinds of
visions present them
selves to it,
such as are
destitute of all
sense or reason,
in which we
appear to be
giving ourselves up
to incest and
all kinds of
bestiality, or to
be committing bloody
murders, and massacres,
and all kinds
of execrable deeds,
with a triumphant
defiance of all
prudence and decency.
But in the
case of a
man who is
accustomed to a
sober and regular
life, when he
commits himself to
sleep, then that
part of his
soul which is
the seat of
intellect and reason
is still active
and awake, being
replenished with a
banquet of virtuous
thoughts; and that
portion which is nourished
by pleasure, is
neither destroyed by
exhaustion nor swollen
by satiety, either
of which is
accustomed to impair
the vigour of
the soul, whether
nature is deficient
in anything, or
super abundant or
overstocked; and that
third division also,
ill which the
vehemence of anger
is situated, is
lulled and restrained;
so, consequently, it
happens, that owing
to the due
regulation of the
two more violent
portions of the
soul, the third,
or intellectual part,
shines forth conspicuously, and is fresh
and active for
the admission of
dreams; and therefore
the visions of
sleep which present
themselves before it are tranquil
and true. Such
are the very
words of Plato.
Shall we, then,
prefer listening to
the doctrine of
Epicurus on this
point? As for
Carneades, he sometimes
says one thing
and sometimes another,
from his mere
fondness for discussion.
And yet, what
are the sentiments
which he utters?
At all events,
they are never
expressed either with
elegance or propriety.
And will you
prefer such a
man as this to Plato
and Socrates 1
men who, even
if they were
to give no
reason for their
tenets, should, by
the mere authority
of their names,
outweigh these minute
philosophers. Plato then
asserts that we
should bring our
bodies into such
a disposition before
we go to
sleep as to
leave nothing which
may occasion error
or perturbation in
our dreams. For
this reason, perhaps,
Pythagoras laid it
down as a
rule, that his
disciples should not
eat beans, because
this food is
very flatulent, and
contrary to that
tranquillity of mind
which a truthseeking
spirit should possess.
When, therefore, the
mind is thus
separated from the
society and contagion
of the body,
it recollects things
past, examines things
present, and anticipates
things to come.
For the body
of one who
is asleep lies
like that of
one who is
dead, while the spirit is full of
vitality and vigour.
And it will
be yet more
so after death,
when it will
have got rid
of the body
altogether; and therefore
we _see that
even on the
approach of death
it becomes much
more divine. For
it often happens
that those who
are attacked by a severe
and mortal malady,
foresee that their
death is at hand.
And in this
state they often
behold ghosts and
phantoms of the
dead. Then they
are more than
ever anxious about
their reputations; and
they who have
lived otherwise than
as they ought,
then most especially
repent of their
sins. And that
the dying are
often possessed of
the gift of
divi nation, Posidonius
confirms by that
notorious example of a certain
Rhodian who, being
on his deathbed,
named six of
his contemporaries, saying
which of them
would die first,
which second, which,
next to him,
and so on.
There are, he
imagines, besides this,
three ways in
which men dream
under the immediate
impulse of the
Gods: one, when
the mind intuitively
perceives things by
the relation which
it bears to
the Gods; the
second, arising from
the fact of
the air being
full of immortal
spirits, in whom
all the signs
of truth are,
as it were,
stamped and visible;
the third, when
the Gods themselves converse with sleepers,and that,
as I have
said before, takes
place more especially
at the approach
of death, enabling
the minds of
the dying to
anti cipate future
events. An instance
of this is
the prediction of
Calanus, of whom
I have already spoken. Another is that of Hector, in
Homer, who, when dying
himself, foretels the
approaching death of
Achilles. If there were
no such thing
as divination, Plautus
would not have
been so much
applauded for the
following line: My mind
presaged (prcesagibat), when I first
went out, That
I was going
on a fruitless
journey: for the verb sagio
means, to feel
shrewdly. Hence old
women are sometimes
called sagce (witches), because they
are ambi tious
of knowing many
things; and dogs
are called sagacioiis.
Whoever, therefore, say
it (knows) before
the event has
come to pass,
is said prcesagire
(to have the
power of knowing
the future beforehand).
There exists, therefore,
in the mind
a presentiment, which
strikes the soul
from without, and
which is enclosed
in the soul
by divine operation. If
this becomes very
vivid, it is
termed frenzy, as
happens when the
soul, being abstracted
from the body,
is stirred up
by a divine
inspiration. What sudden transport
fires my virgin
soul ! Jly mother,
oh, my mother! dearest
name Of all
dear names! But oh,
my breast is
full Of divination
and impending fates,
While dread Apollo
with his mighty
impulse Urges me
onward. Sisters, my
sweet sisters! I
grieve to anticipate
the coming fate
Of our most
royal parents. You
are all More
filial and more
dutiful than I.
I only am enjoin'd
this cruel task, To
utter imminent ruin.
You do serve
them; I injure
them ; and your
obedience Shines well,
set-off by my
disloyal rage.1 0
what a tender,
moral, and delicate
poem ! though the
beauty of it
does not affect
the question. What
I wish to
prove is, that
that frenzy often
predicts what is
true and real.
I see the
blazing torch of
Troy's last doom,
Fire, and massacre,
and death. Arm,
citizens! Bring aid
and quench the
flames. In the
following lines, it
is not so
much Cassandra who
speaks, as the Deity
enclosed in human
form:Already is the
fleet prepared to
sail; It bears
destruction rapidly it
speeds: A dreadful
army traverses the
shores, Destined to
slaughter. 1 seem
to be doing
nothing but quoting
tragedies and fables. I
would mention a
story I have
heard from your
self, and that
not an imaginary,
but a real
circumstance, and closely
related to our
present discussion. Caius
Coponius, a skilful
general, and a
man of the
highest character for
learn ing and
wisdom, who commanded
the fleet of
the Rhodians, with
the appointment of
praetor, came to
you at Dyrrha-
chium, and informed,
you that a
certain sailor in
a Khodiau galley
had predicted that,
in less than
a month, Greece
would 1 This
is a quotation
from Pacuvius's play
of Hercules ; the
speaker is Cassandra. be
deluged with blood,
that Dyrrhachium would
be pillaged, and
that the people
would flee and
take to their
ships; that, looking
back in their
flight, they would
see a terrible
con flagration. He
added, moreover, that
the fleet of
the lihodians would
soon return, and
retire to Rhodes.
You told me
that you yourself
were surprised at
this intelligence, and
that Marcus Varro
and Marcus Cato,
both men of
great learning, who
were with you,
were exceedingly alarmed.
A few days
afterwards, Labienus, having
escaped from the
battle of Phar-
salia, arrived and
brought an account
of the defeat
of the army:
and the rest
of the prediction
was soon accomplished;
for the corn
was dragged out
of the granaries,
and strewed about
all the streets
and alleys, and
destroyed. Yoxi all
embarked on board
the ships in
haste and alarm;
and at night,
when you looked
back towai-ds the
town, you beheld
the barges on
fire, which were
burned by the
soldiers because they
would not follow.
At last you
were deserted by the fleet
of the Rhodians,
and then you
found that the
prophet had been
a true one.
I have explained
as concisely as
possible the fore
warnings of dreams
and frenzy, with
which I said
that art had
nothing to do;
for both these
kinds of prediction
arise from the
same cause, which
our friend Cratippus
adopts as the
true explana tion namely, that
the souls of men are
partly inspired and
agitated from without.
By which he
meant to say,
that there is
in the exterior
world a sort
of divine soul,
whence the human
soul is derived;
and that that
portion of the
human soul which
is the fountain
of sensation, motion,
and appetite, is
not separate from
the action of
the body; but
that portion which
partakes of reason
and intelligence is
then most ener
getic, when it is most
completely abstracted from
the body. Therefore,
after having recounted
veritable instances of
presentiments and dreams,
Cratippus used to sum up
his conclusions in
this manner: If, he
would say, the
exist ence of
the eyes is
necessary to the
existence and operation
of the function
of sight, though
the eyes may
not be always
exercising that function,
still he who
has once made
use of his
eyes so as
to see correctly,
is possessed of
eyes capable of the sensation
of correct sight:
just so if
the function and
gift of divination
cannot exist without
the exercise of
divination, and yet
a man who
has this gift
may sometimes err
in its exercise, and
not foresee correctly;
then it is
sufficient to prove
the existence of
divination, that some
event should have
been once so
correctly divined that
none of its
circum stances appear
to have happened
fortuitously. And as
a multitude of
such events have
occurred, the existence
of divination ought
not to be
doubted.But as to
those divinations which
are explained by
conjecture, or by
the observation of
events; these, as
I have said
before, are not
of the natural,
but artificial order;
in which artificial
class are the
haruspices, and augurs,
and interpreters. These
are discredited by
the Peripatetics, and
defended by IL PORTICO.
Some of them
are established by
certain monuments and
systems, as is
evident from the
ritual books of
the ancient Etruscans
respecting electrical interpre
tation of the
omens conveyed by
the entrails of
victims and by
lightning, and by
our own books
on the discipline
of the augurs
Other divinations are
explained at once
by con jecture,
without reference to
any written authorities;
such as the
prophecy of Calchas
in Homer, who,
by a certain
num ber of
flying sparrows, predicted
the number of
years which would
be occupied in
the siege of
Troy; and as
an event which
we read recorded
in the history
of Sylla, which
hap pened under
your own eyes.
For when Sylla
was in the
territory of Nola,
and was sacrificing
in front of
his tent, a
serpent suddenly glided
out from beneath
the altar; and
when, upon this,
the soothsayer Posthumius
exhorted him to
give orders for the
immediate march of
the army, Sylla
obeyed the injunction,
and entirely defeated
the Samnites, who
lay before Nola,
and took possession
of their richly-
provided camp. It
was by this
kind of conjectural
divination that the
fortune of the
tyrant Dionysius was
announced a little
before the commencement
of his reign;
for when he
was travelling through
the territory of
Leontini, he dismounted
and drove his
horse into a
river; but the horse was
carried away by the current,
and Dionysius, not
being able with
all his efforts
to extricate him,
departed, as Philistus
reports, lamenting his
loss. Some time
afterwards, as he
was journeying further
down the river,
he suddenly heard
a neighing, and
to his great
joy found his
horse in very
comfortable condition, with
a swarm of
bees hanging on
his mane. And
this prodigy intimated the
event which took
place a few
days after this,
when Dionysius was
called to the
throne. Need I
say more 1
Ho\v many intimations
were given to
the Lacedaemonians a
short time before
the disaster of
Leuctra, when arms
rattled in the
temple of Hercules,
and his statue
streamed with profuse
sweat! At the
same time, at
Thebes (as Callisthenes
relates), the foldingdoors
in the temple
of Hercules, which
were closed with
bars, opened of
their own accord,
and the armour
which was suspended
on the walls
was found fallen
to the ground. And
at the same
period, at Lebadia,
where divine rites
were being performed
in honour of
Trophonius, all the
cocks in the
neighbourhood began to
crow so incessantly
as never to
leave off at
all; and the
Boeotian augurs affirmed
that this was
a sign of
victory to the
Thebans. because these
birds crow only
on occasions of
victory, and maintain
silence in case
of defeat. Many other
signs, at this
time, announced to
the Spartans the
calamities of the
battle of Leuctra;
for, at Delphi,
on the head
of the statue
of Lysander, who
was the most
famous of the
Lacedaemonians, there suddenly
appeared a garland
of wild prickly
herbs. And the
golden stars which
the Lacedae monians
had set up
as symbols of
Castor and Pollux,
in the temple
of Delphi, after
the famous naval
victory of Lysander,
in which the
power of Athens
was broken, because
those divinities were
reported to have
appeared in the
Lacedaj- monian fleet
during that engagement,
fell down, and
were seen no
more. And the
greatest of all
the prodigies which
were sent as
warnings to those
same Lacedaemonians, happened
when they sent
to consult the
oracle of Jupiter
at Dodona on
the success of
the combat; and
when the ambassadors
had cast their
questions into the
urn from which
the responses were
to be drawn,
an ape, whom
the king of
Molossus kept as
a pet, dis
turbed and confounded
all the lots,
and everything else
which had been
prepared for the
purpose of giving
a reply in
due form. Upon
which the priestess
who presided at
the oracular rites,
declared that the
Lacedaemonians must rather
look to their
safety than expect
a victory. Must I
say more 1
In the second
Punic war, when
Flaminius, being consul
for the second
time, despised the
signs of future
events, did he
not by such
conduct occasion great
disasters to the
state? For when,
after, having reviewed
the troops, he
was moving his
camp towards Arezzo,
and leading his
legions against Hannibal,
his horse suddenly
fell with him
before the statue
of Jupiter Stator,
without any apparent
cause. But though
those who were
skilful in divina
tion declared it
was an evident
sign from the
Gods that he
should not engage
in battle, he
paid no attention
to it. After
wards, when it
was proposed to
consult the auspices
by the consecrated
chickens, the augur
indicated the propriety
of deferring the
battle. Flaminius asked
him what was
to be done
the next day,
if the chickens
still refused to
feed? He replied
that in that
case he must
still rest quiet.
Fine auspices,
indeed, replied Flaminius, if
we may only
fight when the
chickens are hungry,
but must do
nothing if they
are full. And
so he commanded
the standards to
be moved forward,
and the army
to follow him;
on which occasion,
the standard-bearer of
the first battalion
could not extricate
his standard from
the ground in
which it was
pitched, and several
soldiers who endeavoured
to assist him
were foiled in
the attempt. Flaminius,
to whom they
related this incident,
despised the warning,
as was usual
with him; and
in the course
of three hours
from that time,
the whole of
his army was
routed, and he
himself slain. And
it is a
wonderful story, too,
that is told
by Coelius, as
having happened at
this very time,
that such great
earth quakes took
place in Liguria,
Gallia, and many
of the islands,
and throughout all
Italy, that many
cities were destrojred,
and the earth
was broken into
chasms in many
places, and rivers
rolled backwards, while
the waters of
the sea rushed
into their channels. Skilful diviners
can certainly derive
correct pre sentiments
from slight circumstances. When
Midas, who be
came king of
Phrygia, was yet an infant,
some ants crammed
some grains of
wheat into his
mouth while he
was sleep ing.
On this the
diviners predicted that
he would become
exceedingly rich, as indeed
afterwards happened. While
Plato was an
infant in his
cradle, a swarm
of bees settled
on his lips
during his slumbers;
and the diviners
answered that he would
become extremely eloquent;
and this prediction
of his future
eloquence was made
before he even
knew how to
speak. Why should
I speak of
your dear and
delightful friend, Roscius
1 Did he
tell lies himself,
or did the
whole city of
Lanuvium tell lies
for him? When
he was in his cradle at Solonium,
where he was
being brought up, (a
place which belongs
to the Lanuvian
territory.) the story goes,
that one night,
there being a
light in the
room, his nurse
arose and found
a serpent coiled
around him, and
in her alarm
at this sight
she made a
great outcry. The
father of Roscius
related the circumstance
to the soothsayers,
and they answered
that the child
would become preeminently
distinguished and illus
trious. This adventure
was afterwards engraved
by Praxiteles in
silver, and our
friend Archias celebrated
it in verse.
What, then, are
we waiting for
1 Are we
to wait till
the Gods are
conversant with us
and our affairs,
while we are
in the forum,
and on our
journeys, and when
we are at
home? yet though
they do not
openly discover themselves
to us, they
diffuse their divine
influence far and
wide an influence
which they not
only inclose in
the caverns of
the earth, but
sometimes extend to
the constitutions of
men. For it
was this divine
influence of the
earth which inspired
the Pythia at
Delphi, while the
Sibyl received her
power of divination
from nature. Why
should we wonder
at this 1
Do we not
see how various
are the species
and specific properties
of earths 1
of which some
parts are injurious,
as the earth
of Amp- sanctus
in Hirpinum, and
the Plutonian land
in Asia: and
some portions of the
soil of the
fields are pestilential,
others salubrious; some
spots produce acute
capacities, others heavy
characters. All which
things depend on
the varieties of
atmosphere, and are
inequalities of the
exhalations of the
different soils. It
likewise often happens
that minds are
affected more or
less powerfully by
certain expressions of
countenance, and certain
tones of voice
and modulations, often
also by fits
of anxiety and
terror a condition
indicated in these
lines of the
poet : Madden'd in
heart, and weeping
like as one
By the mysterious
rites of Bacchus
wrought Into wild
ecstasy, she wanders
lone Amid the
tombs, and mourns
her Teucer lost. And
this state of
excitement also proves
that there is
a divine energy
in human souls.
And so Democritus asserts, that
without something of
this ecstasy no
man can become
a great poet ;
and Plato utters
the same sentiment :
and he may
call this poetic
inspiration an ecstasy
or madness as
much as he
pleases, so long
as he eulogizes
it as eloquently
as he does
in his Phecdon.
What is your
art of oratory
in pleading causes
1 What is
your action? Can
it be forcible,
commanding, and copious,
unless your mind
and heart are
in some degree
animated by a
kind of inspiration
1 I have
often beheld in
yourself, and, to
descend to a
less dignified example,
even in your
friend ufEsop, such
fire and splendour
of expression and
action, that it
seemed as if
some potent inspiration
had altogether ab
stracted him from
all present sensation
and thought. Besides
this, forms often
come across us
which have no
real existence, but
which nevertheless have a distinct
appear ance. Such
an apparition is
said to have
occurred to Bren-
ims, and to
his Gallic troops,
when he was
waging an impious
war upon the
temple of Apollo
at Delphi. For
on that occa
sion it is
reported that the
Pythian priestess pronounced
these words:I and
the white virgins
will provide for
the future. In
accordance with which,
it happened that
the Gauls fancied
that they saw
white virgins bearing
arms against them,
and that their
entire army was
overwhelmed in the
snow. Aristotle thinks
that those who
become ecstatic or furious through some disease, especially
melancholy persons, possess
a divine gift
of presentiment in
their minds. But I
know not whether
it is right
to attribute anything
of this kind
to men with
diseases of the
stomach, or to
persons in a
frenzy, for time
divination rather appertains
to a
sound mind than
to a sick body. The
Stoics attempt to
prove the reality
of divination in
this way: If
there are Gods,
and they do
not intimate future
events to men,
they either do
not love men,
or they are
ignorant of the
future; or else
they conceive that
know ledge of
the future can
be of no
service to men;
or they con
ceive that it
does not become
their majesty to
condescend to intimate
beforehand what must
be hereafter; or
lastly, we must
say that even
the Gods themselves
cannot tell how
to forewarn us
of them. But
it is not
true that the
Gods do not
love men, for
they are essentially benevolent
and philanthropic; and
they cannot be
ignorant of those
events which take
place by their
own direction and
appointment. Again, it
cannot be a
matter of indifference
to us to
be apprised of
what is about
to happen, for
we shall become
more cautious if
we do know
such things. Nor
do they think
it beneath their
dignity to give
such inti mations,
for nothing is
more excellent than
beneficence. And lastly,
the Gods cannot
be ignorant of
future events. There
fore there are
no Gods, and
they do not
give intimations of
the future. But
there are Gods:
so therefore they
do give such
intimations; and if
they do give
such intimations, they
must have given
us the means
of understanding them,
or else they
would give their
information to no
purpose. And if
they do give
us such means,
divination must needs
exist; therefore divination
does exist. Such
is the argument
in favour of
divination by which
Chrysippus, Diogenes, and
Antipater endeavour to
demonstrate their side
of the question.
Why, then, should
any doubt be
entertained that the
arguments that I
have advanced are
entirely true? If
both reason and
fact are on
my side, if whole
nations and peoples,
Greeks and barbarians, and our
own ancestors also,
confirm all my
assertions, if also
it has always
been maintained by
the greatest philosophers
and poets, and
by the wisest
legislators who have
framed constitutions and
founded cities, must
we wait till
the very animals
give their verdict?
and may not
we be content
with the unanimous
authority of all
mankind1? Nor indeed
is any other
argument brought forward
to prove that
all these kinds
of divination which
I uphold have
no existe nce,
than that it
appears difficult to
explain what are
the different principles
and causes of
each kind of
divination. For what
reason can the
soothsayer allege why
an injury in
the lungs of
otherwise favourable entrails
should compel us
to alter a
day previously appointed,
and defer au
enterprise? How can
an augur ex
plain why the
croak of a
raven on the right hand,
and a crow
on the left,
should be reckoned
a good omen?
What can an
astrologer say by way
of
explaining why a
conjunction of the
planet Jupiter or
Venus with the
moon is propitious
at the birth
of a child,
and why the
conjunction of Saturn
or Mars is
injurious? or why
God should warn
us during sleep,
and neglect us
when we are
awake? or lastly,
what is the
reason why the frantic
Cassandra could foresee
future events, while
the sage Priam
remained ignorant of
them? Do you
ask why everything
takes place as
it does? Very
right; but that
is not the
question now; what
we are trying
to find out
is whether such
is the case
or not. As,
if I were to assert
that the magnet
is a kind
of stone which
attracts and draws
iron to itself,
but were unable
to give the
reason why that
is the case,
would you deny
the fact altogether?
And you treat
the subject of
divination in the
same way, though
we see it,
and hear of
it, and read
of it, and
have received it
as a tradition
from our ancestors.
Nor did the
world in general
ever doubt of
it before the
introduction of that
philosophy which has
recently been invented,
and even since
the appearance of
philosophy, no philosopher
who was of
any authority at
all has been
of a contrary
opinion. I have
already quoted in
its favour Pythagoras,
Democritus, and Socrates.
There is no
exception but Xenophanes
among the ancients.
I have likewise
added the old
Academicians, the Peripatetics,
and the Stoics:
all supported divination;
Epi curus alone
was of the
opposite opinion. But
what can be
more shameless than
such a man
as he, who
asserted that there
was no gratuitous
and disinterested virtue
in the world?
XL. But what
man is there
who is not
moved by the
testi mony and
declarations of antiquity?
Homer writes that
Cal- chas was
a most excellent
augur, and that
he conducted the
fleet of the
Greeks to Troy,
more, I imagine,
by his know
ledge of the
auspices than of
the country. Amphilochus
and Mopsus were
kings of the
Argives, and also
augurs, and built
the Greek cities
on the coast
of Cilicia. And
before them lived
Amphiaraus and Tiresias,
men of no lowly rank or
ob scure fame,
not like those
men of whom
Ennius says They hire
out their prophecies
for gold: no;
they were renowned
and first rate
men, who predicted
the future by
means of the
knowledge which they
derived from birds
and omens; and
Homer, speaking of
the latter even
in the infernal
regions, says that
he alone was
con sistently wise,
while others were
wandering about like
shadows. As to
Amphiaraus, he was
so honoured by
the general praise
of all Greece,
that he was
accounted a god,
and oracles were
established at the
spot where he
was buried. Why
need I speak
of Priam king
of Asia? had
not he two
children possessed of
this gift of
divination, namely a son named
Helenus, and a
daughter named Cassandra,
who both prophesied,
one by means
of auspices, the
other through an
excited state of
mind and divine
inspiration1? of which
de scription likewise
were two brothers
of the noble
family of the
Marcii, who are
recorded as having
lived in the
days of our
ancestors. Does not
Homer inform us,
too, that Polyidus
the Corinthian predicted
the various fates
of many persons,
and the death
of his son
when he was
going to the
siege of Troy?
And as a
general rule, among
the ancients, those
who were possessed
of authority \asually
also possessed the
know ledge of
auguries; for, as
they thought wisdom
a regal attri
bute, so also
did they esteem
divination. And of
this our state
of Rome is an
instance, in which
several of our
kings were also
augurs, and afterwards
even private persons,
endued with the
same sacerdotal office,
ruled the commonwealth
by the authority
of religion. And this
kind of divination
has not been
neglected even by
barbarous nations; for
the Druids in
Gaul are diviners,
among whom I
myself have been
acquainted with Divitiacus
vEduus, your own
friend and panegyrist,
who pretends to the science
of nature which
the Greeks call
physiology, and who
asserts that, partly
by auguries and
partly by conjecture,
he foresees future
events. Among the
Persians they have
augurs and diviners,
called magi, who
at certain seasons
all assemble in
a temple for
mutual conference and
consultation; as your
college also used
once to do
on the nones
of the month.
And no man
can become a
king of Persia
who is not
previously initiated in the doctrine
of the magi.
There are even
whole families and
nations devoted to
divina tion. The
entire city of
Telmessus in Caria
is such. Likewise
in Elis, a city of
Peloponnesus, there are
two families, called
lamidse and ClutidoD,
distinguished for their
proficiency in divination.
And in Syria
the Chaldeans have
become famous for
their astrological predictions,
and the subtlety
of their genius.
Etruria is especially
famous for possessing
an inti mate acquaintance with
omens connected with
thunderbolts and things
of that kind,
and the art
of explaining the
signi fication of
prodigies and portents.
This is the
reason why our
ancestors, during the
flourishing days of
the empire, enacted that
six of the
children of the
principal senators should
be sent, one
to each of
the Etrurian tribes,
to be instructed
in the divination
of the Etrurians,
in order that
this science of
divination, so intimately
connected with reli
gion, might not,
owing to the
poverty of its
professors, be cultivated
for merely mercenary
motives, and falsified
by bribery. The
Phrygians, the Pisidians,
the Cilicians, and
Arabians are accustomed
to regulate many
of their affairs
by the omens
which they derive
from birds. And
the Umbrians do
the same, according
to report. It
appears to me
that the different
characteristics of divination
have originated in
the nature of
the localities themselves
in which they
have been cultivated.
For as the
Egyptians and Babylonians,
who reside in
vast plains, where
no mountains obstruct
their view of the entire
hemisphere, have applied
themselves principally to
that kind of
divination called astrology,
the Etrurians, on
the other hand,
because they, as
men more devoted
to the rites
of religion, were
used to sacrifice
victims with more
zeal and frequency,
have espe cially
applied themselves to
the examination of
the entrails of
animals; and as,
from the character
of their climate
and the denseness
of their atmosphere,
they are accustomed
to witness many
meteorological phenomena, and
because for the
same reason many
singular prodigies take
place among them,
arising alike from
heaven or from
earth, and even
from the concep
tions or offspring
of men or
cattle, they have
become won derfully
skilful in the
interpretation of such
curiosities, the force
of which, as
you often say,
is clearly declared
by the very
names given to
them by our
ancestors, for because
they point out
(ostendunt}, portend, show
(monstrant), and predict,
they are called
ostents, portents, monsters,
and prodigies. Again,
the Arabians, the
Phrygians, and Cilicians,
because they rear
large herds of
cattle, and, both
in summer and
winter, traverse the
plains and mountainous
districts, have on
that account taken
especial notice of
the songs and
flight of birds.
The Pisidians, and in our
country the Umbrians,
have applied themselves
to the same
art for the
same reason. The
whole nation of
the Carians, and
most especially the
Telmessians, who reside
in the most
productive and fertile
plains, in which
the exuberance of
nature gives birth
to many extraordinary productions, have
been very careful
in the observation
of prodigies. But
who can shut
his eyes to
the fact that
in every well
constituted state auspices,
and other kinds
of divination, have
been much esteemed?
What monarch or
what people has
ever neglected to
make use of
them in the
trans actions of
peace, and still
more especially in
time of war,
when the safety
or welfare of the commonwealth
is implicated in a greater
degree? I do
not speak merely
of our own countrymen, who
have never undertaken
any martial enter
prise without inspection
of the entrails,
and who never
con duct the
affairs of the
city without consulting
the auspices, I
rather allude to
foreign nations. The
Athenians, for ex
ample, always consulted
certain divining priests,
(whom they called
yaavrei?,) when they
convoked their public
assemblies. The Spartans
always appointed an
augur as the
assessor of their
king, and also
they ordained that
an augur should
be present at
the council of
their Elders, which
was the name
they gave to
their public council;
and in every
important transaction they
invariably consulted the
oracle of Apollo
at Delphi, or
that of Jupiter
Harnmon, or that
of Dodona. Lycurgus,
who formed the
Lacedaemonian commonwealth, desired
that his code
of laws should
receive confirmation from
the authority of
Apollo at Delphi;
and when Lysander
sought to change
them, the same
authority forbade his
innovations. Moreovei', the
Spartan magistrates, not
content with a
careful superintendence of
the state affairs,
went occasionally to
spend a night
in the temple
of Pasiphae, which
is in the
country in the
neighbourhood of their
city, for the
sake of dreaming
there, because they
considered the oracles
received in sleep
to be true.
But I return
to the divination
of the Eomans.
How often has
our senate enjoined
the decemvirs to
consult the books
of the Sibyls!
For instance, when
two suns had
been seen, or
when three moons
had appeared, and
when flames of
fire were noticed
in the sky;
or on that
other occasion, when
the sun was
beheld in the
night, when noises
were heard in the sky,
and the heaven
itself seemed to
burst open, and
strange globes were
remarked in it.
Again, information was
laid before the
senate, that a portion of
the territory of
Privernum had been
swallowed up, and
that the land
had sunk down
to an incredible depth,
and that Apulia
had been convulsed
by terrific earthquakes;
which portentous events
announced to the
Romans terrible wars
and disastrous seditions.
On all these
occasions the diviners
and their auspices
were in perfect
accordance with the
prophetic verses of
the Sibyl. Again, when
the statue of
Apollo at Cuma
was covered with
a miraculous sweat,
and that of
Victory was found
in the same
condition at Capua,
and when the
hermaphrodite was born, were
not these things
significant of horrible
dis asters? Or
again, when the
Tiber was discoloured
writh blood, or
when, as has
often happened, showers
of stones, or
sometimes of blood,
or of mud,
or of milk,
have fallen, when
the thunder bolt
fell on the
Centaur of the
Capitol, and struck
the gates of
Mount Aventine, and
slew some of
the inhabitants; or
again, when it
struck the temple
of Castor and
Pollux at Tusculum,
and the temple
of Piety at
Rome, did not
the soothsayers in
reply announce the
events which subsequently
took place, and
were not similar
predictions found in
the Sibylline volumes'?
How often has
the senate commanded
the decemvirs to
consult the Sibylline
books! In what
important affairs, and
how often has
it not been
guided wholly by
the answers of
the soothsayers! In
the Marsic war,
not long ago,
the temple of
Juno the Protectress
was restored by
the senate, which
was excited to
this holy act
by a dream
of Csccilia, the
daughter of Quintus
Metellus. But after
Sisenna, who men
tions this dream,
had related the
wonderful correspondence of
the event with
the prediction, he
nevertheless (being influ
enced, I suppose,
by some Epicurean)
proceeded to argue
that dreams should
never be trusted:
however, he states
nothing against the
credit of the
prodigies wrhich took
place, and which
he reports, at the
beginning of the
Marsic war1, when
the images of
the gods were
seen to sweat,
and blood flowed
in the streams,
and the heavens
opened, and voices
were heard from
secret places, which
foretold the dangers
of the combat;
and at Lanuvium
the sacred bucklers
were found to
have been gnawed
by mice, which
appeared to the
augurs the worst
presage of all.
Shall I add
further what we
read recorded in
our annals, thnt
in the war
against the Veientes,
when the Alban
lake had risen
enormously, one of
their most distinguished
nobles came over to
us and said,
that it \vas
predicted in the
sacred books concerning
the destinies of
the Veientes, which
they had in
their own possession,
that their city
could never be
captured while the
lake remained full;
and that if,
when the lake
was opened, its
waters were allowed to
run into the
sea, the .Romans
would suffer loss, if,
on the contrary,
they were so
drawn off that
they did not
reach the sea,
then we should
have good success?
And from this
circumstance arose the
series of immense
labours, subsequently undertaken
by our ancestors
in conducting away
the waters of
the Alban lake.
But when the
Veientes, being weary
of war, sent
ambassadors to the
Roman senate, one
of them exclaimed
that that de
serter had not
ventured to tell
them all he
knew, for that
in those same
sacred books it
was predicted that Rome
should soon be
ravaged by the
Gauls, an event
which happened six
years after the
city of Veii
surrendered. The cry of
the fauns, too,
has often been
heard in battle;
and prophetic voices
have often sounded
from secret places
in periods of
trouble ; of which,
among others, we
have two notable
examples, for shortly
before the capture
of Rome a
voice was heard
which proceeded from
the grove of
Vesta, which skirts
the new road
at the foot
of the Palatine
Hill, exhorting the
citizens to repair
the walls and
gates, for that
if they were
not taken care
of the city
would be taken.
The injunction was
neglected till it
was too late,
and it after
wards was awfully
confirmed by the
fact. After the
disaster had occurred,
our citizens erected
an altar to
Aius the Speaker,
which we may
still see carefully
fenced round, opposite
the spot where
the warning was
uttered. Many authors
have reported that
once, after a
great earthquake had
happened, they heard
a voice from
the temple of
Juno, commanding that
expiation should be
made by the
sacrifice of a
pregnant sow, and
hence it was
afterwards called the
temple of Juno
the Admonitress. Shall
we then despise
these oracular inti
mations, which the
Gods themselves vouchsafed
us, and which
our ancestors have
confirmed by their
testimony? The Pythagoreans
had not only
high reverence for
the voice of
the Gods, but
they likewise respected
the warnings of men (hominum),
which they call
omina. And our
ancestors were persuaded
that much virtue
resides in certain
words, and therefore
prefaced their various
enterprises with certain auspicious phrases,
such as, May
good and prosperous
and happy fortune
attend. They commenced
all the public
ceremonies of religion
with these words, Keep
silence; and
when they announced
any holidays, they
commanded that all
lawsuits and quarrels
should be suspended.
Likewise, wheu the
chief who forms
a colony makes
a lustration and
review of it,
or when a
general musters an
arm, or a
censor the people,
they always choose
those who have
lucky names to
prepare the sacrifices.
The consuls in
their military enrol
ments likewise take
care that the
first soldier enrolled
shall be one
with a fortunate
name; and you
know that you
your self were
very attentive to
these ceremonial observances
when you were
consul and imperator.
Our ancestors have
likewise enjoined that
the name of
the tribe which
had the precedence
should be regarded
as the presage
of a legitimate
assembly of the
Comitia. And of
presages of this
kind I can
relate to you
several celebi'ated examples.
Under the second
consulship of Lucius
Paulus, when the
charge of making
war against the
king Perses had
been allotted to
him, it happened
that on the
evening of that
very same day,
when he returned
home and kissed
his little daughter
Tertia, he noticed
that she was
very sorrowful. What
is the matter,
my Tertia, said
he, why
are you so
sad? My
father, replied she, Perses
has perished. Upon
which he caught
her in his
arms, and caressing
her, exclaimed, I
embrace the omen,
my daughter. But
the real truth
was, that her
dog, who happened
to be called
Perses, had died.
I have heard
Lucius Flaccus, a
priest of Mars,
say, that Csecilia,
the daughter of
Metellus, intending to
make a matri
monial engagement for
her sister's daughter,
went to a
certain temple, in
order to procure
an omen, according
to the ancient
custom. Here the
maiden stood, and
Ctecilia sat for
a long time
without hearing any
sound, till the
girl, who grew
tired of standing,
begged her aunt
to allow her
to occupy her
seat for a
short period, in
order to rest
herself. Csecilia replied,
Yes, my child,
I willingly resign
my seat to
you. And this
reply of hers
was an omen,
confirmed by the
event, for Ceecilia
died soon after,
and her niece
married her aunt's
husband. I know
that men may
despise such stories,
or even laugh
at them, but
such conduct amounts
to a disbelief in the existence of
the Gods themselves,
and to a
contempt of their
revealed will. Why need
I speak of
the augurs 1 that
part of the
qxiestion concerns you.
The defence of the auguries,
I say, belongs
peculiarly to you.
When you were
a consul, Publius
Claudius, who was
one of the
augurs, announced to
you, when the
augury of the
Goddess Salus was
doubted, that a
disas trous domestic
and civil war
would take place,
which happened a
few months afterwards,
but was suppressed
by your exer
tions in still
fewer days. And
I highly approve
of this augur,
who alone for
a long period
remained constant to
the study of
divination, without making
a parade of
his auguries, while
his colleagues and
yours persisted in
laughing at him,
sometimes terming him
an augur of
Pisidia or Sora
by way of
ridicule. Those who
assert that neither
auguries nor auspices
can give us
any insight into
or foreknowledge of
the future, say
that they are
mere superstitious practices,
wisely invented to
impose on the
ignorant; which, however,
is far from
being the case:
for our pastoral
ancestors under ROMOLO are
not, nor indeed
is ROMOLO himself, so crafty
and cunning as
to in vent
religious impositions for
the purpose of
deceiving the mul
titude. But the
difficulty of acquiring
a thorough knowledge
of the auspices
renders many who
are indifferent to
them eloquent in
their disparagement, for
they would rather
deny that there
is anything in
the auspices than
take the pains
of studying what
there really is.
What can be
more divine than
that prediction, which
you cite in
your poem of
Marius, that I
may quote your
owrn authority in
favour of my
argument? Jove's eagle,
wounded by a
serpent's bite, In
his strong talons
caught the writhing
snake, And with
his goring beak
tortured his foe
And slaked his
vengeance in his
blood. At last
He let, the
venomous reptile from
on high Fall
in the whelming
flood, then wing'd
his flight To
the far east.
Marius beheld, and
mark'd The augury
divine, and inly
smiled To view
the presage of
his coming fame;
Meanwhile the thunder
sounded on the
left, And thus
confirm'd the omen.
Moreover, the augurial
system of Romulus
was a pastoral rather
than a civic
institution. Nor was
it framed to
suit the opinions
of the ignorant,
but derived from
men of approved
skill, and so
handed down to
posterity by tradition.
Therefore Romulus was
himself an augur
as well as
his brother Remus,
if we may
trust the authority
of Ennius. Both wish'd
to reign, arid
both agreed to
abide The fair
decision of the
augury Here Remus
sat alone, and
watch 'd for signs
Of fav'ring omen,
while fair Eomulus
On the Aventine
summit raised his
eyes To see
what lofty flying
birds should pass.
A goodly contest
which should rule,
and which With
his own name
should stamp the
future city. Now
like spectators in
the circus, till
The consul's signal
looses from the
goal The eager
chariots, so the obedient crowd
Awaited the strife's
victor and their
king. The golden
sun departed into
night, And the
pale moon shone
with reflected ray,
When on the left a joyful
bird appear'd, And
golden Sol brought
back the radiant
day. Twelve holy
forms of Jove-directed
birds Wing'd their
propitious flight. Great
Romulus The omen
hail'd, for now
to him was given The
power to found
and name th
eternal city. Now,
however, let us
return to the
original point from
which we have
been digressing. Though
I cannot give
you a reason
for all these
separate facts, and
can only distinctly
assert that those
things which I
have spoken of
did really happen,
yet have I
not sufficiently answered
Epicurus and Carneades
by proving the
facts themselves'? Why
may I not
admit, that though
it may be
easy to find
principles on which
to explain artificial
presages, the subject
of divine intimations
is more obscure?
for the presages
which we deduce
from an examination
of a victim's
entrailsfrom thunder and
lightning, from prodigies,
and from the
stars, are founded
on the accurate
observation of many
centuries. Now it
is certain, that
a long course
of careful observation,
thus carefully conducted
for a series
of ages, usually
brings with it an
incredible accuracy of
knowledge; and this
can exist even
without the inspiration
of the Gods,
when it has
been once ascertained
by constant obser
vation what follows
after each omen,
and what is
indicated by each
prodigy. The other
kind of divination
is natural, as
I have said before,
and may by
physical subtlety of
reasoning appeal- referable
to the nature
of the Gods,
from which, as
the wisest men
acknowledge, we derive
and enjoy the
energies of our
souls; and as
everything is filled
and pervaded by
a divine intelligence
and eternal sense,
it follows of
necessity that the
soul of man
must be influenced
by its kindred
wTith the soul
of the Deity.
But when we are not
asleep, our faculties
are employed on
the necessary affairs
of life, and
so are hindered
from communication with
the Deity by
the bondage of
the body. There
are, however, a
small number of
persons, who, as
it were, detach
their souls from
the body, and
addict themselves, with
the utmost anxiety
and diligence, to
the study of
the nature of
the Gods. The
presentiments of men
like these are
derived not from
divine inspiration, but
from human reason ;
for from a
contemplation of nature,
they anticipate things
to come, as
deluges of water,
and the future
deflagration, at some
time or other,
of heaven and
earth. There are
others who, being
concerned in the
government of states,
as we have
heard of the
Athenian Solon, foresee
the rise of
new tyrannies. Such
we usually term
prudent men ; like
Thales the Milesian,
who, wishing to
convict his slanderers,
and to show
that even a
philosopher could make
money, if he
should be so
inclined, bought up all
the
olive-trees in Miletus
before they were
in flower; for
he had probably,
by some knowledge
of his own,
calculated that there
would be a
heavy crop of
olives. And Thales
is said to
have been the
first man by
whom an eclipse
of the sun
was ever predicted,
which happened under
the reign of
Astyages. Physicians, pilots,
and husbandmen have
likewise pre sentiments
of many events :
but I do
not choose to
call this divination ;
as neither do
I call that
warning which was
given by the
natural philosopher Anaximander
to the Lacedae
monians, when he
forewarned them to
quit their city
and their homes,
and to spend
the whole night
in arms on
the plain, because
he foresaw the
approach of a
great earthquake, which
took place that
very night, and
demolished the whole
town; and even
the lower part
of Mount Taygetus
was torn away
from the rest,
like the stern
of a ship
might be. In
the same way,
it is not
so much as
a diviner, as
a natural philosopher
that we should
esteem Pherecydes, the
master of Pythagoras who, when
he beheld the
water exhausted in
a running spring,
predicted that an
earthquake was nigh
at hand. The
mind of man,
however, never exerts
the power of
natural divination, unless
when it is
so free and disengaged as
to be wholly
disentangled from the
body, as happens
ia the case
of prophets and
sleepers. Therefore, as
I have said
before, Diceearchus and
our friend Cratippus
approve of these
two sorts of
divination, as long
as it is
understood that, inasmuch
as they proceed
from nature, though
they may be
the highest, they
are not the
only kind. But
if they deny
that there is
any force in
observation, then by
such denial they
exclude many things
which are connected
with the common
experience and institutions
of mankind. However,
since they grant
us some, and
those not insignifi
cant things, namely,
prophecies and dreams,
there is no
reason why we
should consider these
as very formidable
antagonists, especially when
there are some
who deny the
existence of divination
altogether. Those, therefore,
whose minds, as
it were, despising
their bodies, fly
forth, and wander
freely through the
universe, being inspired
and influenced by
a certain divine
ardour, doubtless perceive
those things which
those who prophecy
predict. And spirits
like these are
excited by many
influ ences that
have no connexion
with the body,
as those which
are excited by
certain intonations of
voice, and by
Phrygian melodies, or
by the silence
of groves and
forests, or the
murmur of torrents,
or the roar
of the sea.
Such are the
minds which are
susceptible of ecstasies,
and which long
beforehand foresee the
events of futurity;
to which the
following lines refer: Ah,
see you not
the vengeance apt
to come, Because
a mortal has
presumed to judge
Between three rival
goddesses'? he's doom'd
To fall a
victim to the
Spartan dame, More
dreadful than all
furies. Many things
have in the
same way been
predicted by pro
phets, and not
only in ordinary
language, but also
In verses which
the fauns of
olden times And
white-hair'd prophets chanted.
It was thus
that the diviners;
Marcius and Publicius,
are said to
have sung their
predictions. The mysterious
responses of Apollo
were of the
same nature. I
believe also that
there were certain
exhalations of certain
earths, by which
gifted minds were inspired
to utter oracles.
These, then, are
the views which
we must entertain
of prophets. Divinations by
dreams are of
a similar order,
because presentiments which
happen to diviners
when awake, happen
to ourselves during
sleep. For in
sleep the soul
is vigorous, and
free from the
senses, and the
obstruction of the
cares of the
body, which lies
prostrate and deathlike;
and, since the
soul has lived
from all eternity,
and is engaged
with spirits innumerable,
it therefore beholds
all things in
the universe, if
it only preserves
a watchful attitude,
unencumbered by excess
of food or
drinking, so that
the mind is
awake during the
slumber of the
body, this
is the divination
of dreamers. Here,
then, comes in an important,
and far from
natural, but a
very artificial interpretation of
dreams by Antiphon:
and he interprets
oracles and prophecies
in the same
way; for there
are explainers of
these things just
as grammarians are
expounders of poets.
For, as it
would have been
in vain for
nature to have
produced gold, silver,
iron, and copper,
if she had
not taught us
the means of
extracting them from
her bosom for
our use and
benefit; and as
it would have
been in vain
for her to
have bestowed seeds
and fruits upon
men, if she
had not taught
them to distinguish
and cultivate them, for
what use would
any materials whatsoever
be to us, if we
had no means
of working them
up? thus with every
useful thing which
the Gods have
bestowed on us,
they have vouchsafed
us the sagacity
by which its
utility may be
appre ciated; and
so, because in
dreams, oracles, and
prophecies there are
many things necessarily
obscure and ambiguous,
some have received
the gift of
interpretation of them.
But by what
means prophets and
sleepers behold those
things, which do
not at the
time exist in
sensible reality, is
a great question.
But when we
have once cleared
up those points
which ought to
be investigated first,
then the other
subjects of our
examination will be
easier. For the
discussion about the
Nature of the
Gods, which you
have so clearly
ex plained in
your second book
on that subject,
embraces the whole
question; for if
we grant that
there are Gods,
and that their
providence governs the
universe, and that
they consult for
the best management
of all human
affairs, and that
not only in
general, but in
particular, if we
grant this, which
indeed appears to
me to be
undeniable, then we
must hold it as
a necessary consequence
that these Gods
have bestowed on
men the signs
and indications of
futurity. The mode, however,
by which the
Gods endue us
with the gift
and power of
divination requires some
notice. The Porch
will not allow
that the Deity
can be in
terested in each
cleft in entrails,
or in the
chirping of birds.
They affirm that
such interference is
altogether indecorous unworthy
of the majesty
of the Gods,
and an incredible
im possibility. They
maintain that from
the beginning of
the world it
has been ordained
that certain signs
must needs precede
certain events, some
of which are
drawn from the
entrails of animals,
some from the
note and flight
of birds, some
from the sight
of lightning, some
from prodigies, some
from stars, some
from visions of
dreamers, and some
from exclamations of men in
frenzy: and those
who have a
clear perception of
these things are
not often deceived.
Bad con jectures
and incorrect interpretations are
false, not because
of any imposture
in the signs
themselves, but because
of the ignorance
of their expounders.
It being, therefore,
granted and conceded
that there exists
a certain divine
energy, by which
human life is
supported and surrounded,
it is not
hard to conceive
how all that
hap pens to
men may happen
by the direction
of heaven; for
this divine and
sentient energy, which
expands throughout the
universe, may select
a victim for
sacrifice, and may,
by exterior agency,
effect any change
in the condition
of its entrails
at the period
of its immolation:
so that any
given characteristic may
be found excessive
or defective in
the animal's body.
For by very
trifling exertions nature
can alter, or
new-model, or diminish
many things. And
the prodigies which
happened a little
before Caesar's death
are of great
weight in preventing
iis from doubting
this, when on
that very day
on which he
first sat on the golden
throne and went
forth clad in
a purple robe,
when he was
sacrificing, no heart
was found in
the intestines of
the fat ox.
Do you then
suppose that any
warm-blooded animal, unless
by divine interference,
can live an
instant without a
heart 1 He
was himself surprised
at the novelty
of the phenomenon;
on which Spuriuna
observed that he
had reason to
fear that he
would lose both
sense and life,
since both of
these proceed from
the heart. The
next day the
liver of the
victim was found defective
in the upper
extremity. Doubtless the im mortal
Gods vouchsafed Ceesar
these signs to
apprize him of
his approaching death,
though not to
enable him to
guard against it.
When, therefore, we
cannot discover in
the entrails of
the victim those
organs without which
the animal cannot
live, we must
necessarily suppose that
they have been
annihilated by a
superintending Providence at
the very instant
that the sacrifice
is offered. And
the same divine
influence may likewise
be the cause
why birds fly
in different directions
on different occa
sions, why they
hide themselves sometimes
in one place
and sometimes in
anothei', and why
they sing on
the right hand
or on the
left. For if
every animal according
to its own
will can direct
the motions of
its body, so
as to stoop,
to look on
one side, or
to look up,
and can bend,
twist, contract, or
extend its limbs
as it pleases,
and does those
things almost before
think ing of
doing them, how
much more easy
is it for
a God to
do so, whose
deity governs and
regulates all things.
It is the
Deity, too, which
presents various signs
to us, many
of which history
has recorded for
us; as for
instance, we find
it stated that
if the moon
was eclipsed a
little before sunrise
in the sign
of Leo, it
was a sign
that Darius should
be slain and
the Persians be
defeated by Alexander
and the Macedonians.
And if a
girl was born
with two heads,
it was a
sign that there
was to be
a sedition among
the people and
corruption and adultery
at home. If
a woman should
dream that she
was delivered of
a lion, the
country in which
such an occurrence
took place would
soon be subjected
to foreign domination.
Of the same
kind is the
fact mentioned by
Herodotus, that the
son of Croesus
spoke, though the
gift of speech
was by nature
denied him; which
prodigy was au
indication that his
father's kingdom and
family would be
utterly destroyed. And
all our histories
relate that the
head of Servius
Tullius while sleeping
appeared to be
on fire, which
was a sign
of the extraordinary
events which followed.
As, therefore, a
man who falls
asleep while his
mind is full
of pure meditations,
and all circumstances
around him adapted
to tranquillity, will
experience in his
dreams true and
certain presentiments; so
also the chaste
and pure mind
of a waking
man is better
suited to the
observation of the
course of the
stars, or the
flight of birds,
and the intima
tions of the truth to
be collected from
entrails. And connected
with this principle
is the tradition
which we have
received concerning Socrates,
which is often
affirmed by himself
in the books
of his disciples that he
possessed a certain
divinity, which he
called a demon,
and to which
he was always
obedient, a genius
which never com
pelled him to
action, but often
deterred him from
it. The same
Socrates (and where
can we find
a better authority?)
being consulted by
Xenophon, whether he
should follow Cyrus
to the wars,
gave him his
counsel, and then
added these words, The
advice I give
you is merely
human: in such
obscure and uncertain
cases, it is
best to consult
the oracle of
Apollo, to whom
the Athenians have
always pub licly
appealed in questions
of importance. It
is likewise written
of Socrates, that
having once seen
his friend Crito
with his eye
bandaged, and having
asked him what
was the matter
with it, he
received for answer,
that as he
was walking in
the fields, a
branch of a tree he
had attempted to
bend sprang back,
and hit him in the
eye. Upon this,
Socrates replied, This
is the consequence
of your not
having obeyed me
when I recalled
you, following the
divine presentiment, according
to my custom.
Another remarkable story
is told of
Socrates. After the
battle in which
the Athenians were
defeated at Delium,
under the command
of Laches, he
was obliged to
fly with that
unfortunate general. At
length reaching a
spot where three
ways met, he
refused to pursue
the same track
as the rest.
When they inquired
the cause of his behaviour,
he said that
he was restrained
by a God.
The others, who
left Socrates, fell
in with the
enemy's cavalry. Antipater
has collected many
other instances of
the admi rable
divination of Socrates,
which I omit,
for they are
quite familiar to
you, and I
need not further
enumerate them. I
cannot, however, avoid
mentioning one fact
in the history
of this philosopher,
which strikes me
as magnificent, and
almost divine; namely,
that when he
had been condemned
by the sentence
of impious men,
he said, he
was prepared to
die with the
most perfect equanimity;
because the God
within him had
not suffered him
to be afflicted
with any idea
of o2 impending
evil, either when
he left his
home, or when
he appeared before
the court. I think,
therefore, that true
divination exists, although
those men are
often deceived who
appear to proceed
on con jecture,
or on artificial
rule?. For men
are fallible in
all arts, and
we cannot suppose
tliey are infallible
here. It may
happen that some
sign, which has
an AMBIGUOUS SIGNIFICATION, is
received in a
certain one. It
may happen that
some par ticular
has escaped the
notice of the
inquirer, or is
purposely concealed by
him, because opposed
to his interest.
I should, however,
consider my plea
for divination suffi
ciently established, if
only a few well-authenticated cases
of presentiment and
prophecies could be
discovered; whereas, in
truth, there are
many. I will
even declare without
hesi tation, that
a single instance
of presage and
prediction, all the
points of which
are borne out
by subsequent events
and that definitely
and regularly, not
casually and fortuitously
would suffice
to compel an
admission of the
reality of divi
nation from all
reasonable minds. It
appears to me,
moreover, that we
should refer all
the virtue and
power of divination
to the Divinity,
as Posi- donius
has done, as
before observed; in
the next place
to Fate, and
afterwards to the
nature of things.
For reason compels
us to admit
that by Fate
all things take
place. By Fate
I mean that
which the Greeks
call ei/mp^e'i'^, that
is, a certain
order and series
of causes for
cause linked to
caiise produces all
things : and in
this connexion of
cause consists the
constant truth which
flows through all
eternity. From whence
it follows that
nothing happens which
is not pre
destined to happen;
and in the
same way nothing
is predes tined
to happen, the
nature of which
does not contain
the efficient causes
of its happening.
From which it
must be understood
that fate is
not a mere
superstitious imagination, but
is what is
called, in the
lan guage of
natural philosophy, the
eternal cause of
things; the cause
why past things
have happened, why
present things do
happen, and why
future things will
happen. And thus
we are taught
by exact observation,
what consequences are
usually produced, by
what causes, though
not invariably.. And
thus the causes
of future events
may truly be
discerned by those
who behold them
in states of
ecstasy or quiet.
Since, then, all
things happen by
a certain fate,
(as will be
shown in another
place.) if any
man could exist
who could comprehend
this succession of
causes in his
intellectual view, such
a man would
be infallible. For
being in possession
of a knowledge
of the causes
of all events,
he would neces
sarily foresee how
and when all
events would take
place. But as
no being except
the Deity alone
can do this,
man can attain
no more than
a kind of
presentiment of futurity,
by observing the
events which are
the usual consequences
of certain signs.
For those events
that are to
happen in future
do not start
into existence on
a sudden. But
the regular course
of time resembles
the untwisting of
a cable, producing
nothing absolutely new,
but all things
in a grand
concatena tion or
series of repetitions.
And this has
been observed by
those who possess
the gift of
natural divination, and
by those who
study the regular
successions of certain
things. For though
they do not
always apprehend the
causes, yet they
clearly discern the
signs and marks
of the causes.
And by diligently
investi gating and
committing to memory
all such signs,
and the traditions
of our ancestors
concerning them, they
produce an elaborate
system of that
divination which is
termed technical respecting
the entrails of
victims, thunder and
lightning, prodigies, and
celestial phenomena. We
must not, therefore,
be astonished that
those who addict
themselves to divination
foresee many events
which have no
place of existence.
For all things
do even now
exist, though they
are removed in
point of time.
And as the
vital embryo of
all vegetation exists
in seeds, from
which they afterwards
germinate, so are
all things even
now hidden in
their causes, and
perceived as hereafter
to happen by
the mind when
it is thrown
into an ecstasy,
or relaxed in
sleep, and cool
reason and calculation
is often granted
a presenti ment
of them. And
as the astrologers
who watch the
risings, settings, and
various courses of
the sun, moon,
and other stars,
can predict long
before all their
revolutions and phenomena;
so those who
have noted the
series and conse
quence of events,
with constant and
indefatigable atten tion,
during a very
long period, do
generally, or (if
that is too
difficult) at least
occasionally, foresee with
certainty the things
that are to
come to pass.
Such are some
of the arguments
derived from the
nature of fate,
by which the
reality of divination
may be proved.
Another powerful plea
in favour of
divination, may be
drawn from Nature
herself, which teaches
us how great
is the energy
of the mind
when abstracted from
the bodily senses,
as it is
most especially in
ecstasy and sleep.
For even as
the Gods know
what passes in
our minds without
the aid of
eyes, ears or
tongues, (on which
divine omniscience is
founded the feeling
of men, that
when they wish
in silence for,
or offer up
a prayer for
anything, the Gods
hear them,) so
when the soul
of man is
disengaged from corporeal
impe diments, and
set at freedom,
either from being
relaxed in sleep,
or in a
state of mental
excitement, it beholds
those wonders which,
when entangled beneath
the veil of
the flesh, it
is unable to
see. It may
be difficult, perhaps,
to connect this
piinciple of nature
with that kind
of divination which
we have stated
to result from
study and art.
Posidonius, however, thinks
that there are
in nature certain
signs and symbols
of future events.
We are informed
that the inhabitants
of Cea, according
to the report
of Heraclides of
Pontus, are accus
tomed carefully to
observe the circumstances
attending the rising
of the Dog
Star, in order
to know the
character of the
ensuing season, and
how far it
will prove salubrious
or pestilential. For if the
star rose with
an obscure and
dim appearance, it
proved that the
atmosphere was gross
and foggy, and
its respiration would
be heavy and
unwhole some. But
if it appeared
bright and lucid,
then that was
a sign that
the air was
light and pure,
and therefore healthful.
Democritus believed that
the ancients had
wisely enjoined the
inspection of the
entrails of animals
which had been
sacrificed, because by
their condition and
colour it is
possible to determine
the salubrity or
pestilential state of
the atmo sphere,
and sometimes even
what is likely
to be the
fertility or sterility
of the earth.
And if careful
observation and practice
recognise these rules
as proceeding from
nature, then every
day might bring
us many examples
which might deserve
notice and remark;
so that the
natural philosopher whom
Pacuvius introduces in
his Chryses, seems
to me very
ignorant of the
nature of things,
wlien he says, All
those who understand
the speech of
birds And hearts
of victims better
than their own,
May be just
listen'd to, but
not obey'd. Why
should he make
such a remark
here, when a
little after he
speaks thus plainly
in a contrary
sense 1 Whatever
God may be,
'tis he who
forms, Preserves and
nurtures all. Unto
himself Ho back
absorbs all beings,
evermore The universal
Sire, at once the
source And end
of nature. Why,
then, since the
universe is the
sole and common
home of all
creatures, and since
the minds of
men always have
existed, and will
exist, why, I
say, should they
not be able
to perceive the
consequences, and what
is the result
indicated by each
sign, and what
events each sign
foreshows r( These
are the arguments
which I had
to bring forward
on the subject
of divination. For
the rest, I in
nowise believe in
those who predict
by lots, or
those who tell
fortunes for the
sake of gain,
nor those necromancers
who evoke the
manes, whom your
friend Appius consulted.
Of little service
are the Morsian
prophet, The Haruspi
of the village,
the astrologer Of
the throng'd circus,
or the priest
of Isis, Or
the imposturous interpreter
Of dreams. All
these are but
false conjurors, Who
have no skill
to read futurity,
They are but
hypocrites, urged on by hunger ;
Ignorant of themselves,
they would teach
others, To whom
they promise boundless
wealth, and beg
A penny in
return, paid in
advance. Such is the style
in which Ennius
speaks of those
pre tenders of
divination; and a
few verses before,
he lias affirmed
that though the
Gods exist, they
take no care
of the human
race. I am
of a contrary
opinion, and approve
01 divination, because
I believe that
the Gods do
watch over men,
and admonish them,
and presignify many
things to them,
all levity, vanity,
and malice being
excluded. And when
Quintus had said
this, You are,
indeed, said I,
admirably prepared. When I have
been considering, as
I frequentlj7 have,
vnth deep and
prolonged cogitation, by
what means I
might serve as
many persons as
possible, so as
never to cease
from doing service
to my country,
no better method
has occurred to
me than that
of instructing my
fellow-citizens in the
noblest arts. And
this I natter
myself thai I
have already in
some degree effected
in the numerous
works which I have written.
In the treatise
which I have
entitled Hortensius,
I have earnestly
recommended them to
the study of
philoso phy; and
in the four
books of Academic
Questions, I have
laid open that
species of philosophy
which I think
the least arrogant,
and at the
same time the
most consistent and
elegant. Again, as
the foundation of
all philosophy is
the knowledge of
the chief good
and evil which
we should seek
or shun, I
have thoroughly discussed
these topics in
five books, in
order to explain
the different arguments
and objections of the various
schools in relation
thereto.1 In five
other books of
Tusculan Questions, I
have explained what
most conduces to
render life happy.
In the first,
I treat of the contempt
of death ; in
the second, of
the endurance of
pain and sorrow ;
in the third,
of mitigating melancholy;
in the fourth,
of the other
perturbations of the
mind; and in
the fifth, I
elaborate that most
glorious of all
philosophic doctrines the
all-sufficiency of virtue ;
and prove that
virtue can secure
our perpetual bliss
without foreign appliances
and assistances. When
these works were
completed, I wrote
three books on
the Nature of
the Gods. I have
discussed all the
different bearings and topics
of that subject,
and now I
proceed in the
composition of a
treatise on Divination,
in order to
give 1 He
is here referring
to the treatise
De Finibus. that
subject the amplest
development. And if,
when this is
finished, I add
another on Fate,
I shall have
abundantly examined the
whole of that
question. To this
catalogue of my
writings, I must
likewise add my
six books on
the Republic, which
I composed when I was
directing the government
of the State.
A grand subject,
indeed, and peculiarly
connected with philosophy,
and one which
has been richly
elaborated by Plato,
Aristotle, Theo- phrastus,
and the whole
tribe of the
Peripatetics. I must
not forget to
mention my Essay
on Consolation, which
afforded me myself
no inconsiderable comfort,
and will, I
trust, be of
some benefit to
others. Besides this,
I lately wrote
a work on
Old Age, which
I addressed to
Atticus ; and since
it is owing
to philosophy that
our friend Cato
is the good
and brave man
that he is,
he is well
entitled to an
honourable place in
the list of
my writings. Moreover,
as Aristotle and
Theophrastus, two authors
emi nently distinguished
both for the
penetration and fertility
of their genius,
have united with
their philosophy precepts
like wise for
eloquence, so I
think that I
too may class
among my philosophical
writings my treatise
on the Oratorical
Art. So there
are three books
on Oratory, a
fourth Essay entitled
Brutus, and a
fifth named the
Orator. Such are the
works I have
already written, and
I am girding
myself up to
what remains, with
the desire (if
I am not
hindered by weightier
business) of leaving
no philosophical topic
otherwise than fully
explained and illustrated
in the Latin
language. For what
greater or better
service can we
render to our
country, than by
thus educating and
instructing the rising
generation, especially in
times like these,
and in the
present state of
morality, when society
has fallen into
such disorders as
to require every
one to use
his best exertions
to check and
restrain it? Not
that I expect
to succeed (for
that, indeed, cannot
be even hoped)
in winning all
the young to
the study of
philo sophy. I
shall be glad
to gain even
a few, the
fruits of whose
industry may have
an extended effect
on the republic.
Indeed, I already
begin to gather
some fruit of
my labour, from
those of more
advanced years, who
are pleased with
my various books.
By their eagerness
for reading what
I write, my
ambition for writing
is from day
to day more
vehemently excited. And
indeed such individuals
are far more
numerous than I
could have imagined.
A magnificent thing-
it will be,
and glorious indeed
for the Romans,
when they shall
no longer find
it necessary to
resort to the
Greeks for philosophical
literature. And this
desideratum I shall
cer tainly effect
for them, if
I do but
succeed in accomplishing
my design. To
the undertaking of
explaining philosophy I
was origi nally
prompted by disastrous
circumstances of the
state. For during
the civil wars
I could not
defend the common
wealth by professional
exertions; while at
the same time
I could not
remain inactive. And
yet I could
not find anything
worthy of myself
for me to
undertake. My fellow-citizens, therefore,
will pardon me,
or rather will
thank me; because
when Rome had
become the property
of one man.
I neither concealed
myself, nor deserted
them, nor yielded
to grief, nor
conducted myself like
a politician indignant
at either an
individual or the
times, nor played
the part of
a flatterer of,
or courtier to,
the power of
another, so as
to be ashamed
of myself. For
from Plato and
philosophy I had
learnt this lesson,
that certain revolutions
are natural to
all republics, which
alternately come under
the power of
monarchs, and democracies,
and aiistocracies. And
when this fate
had befallen our
own Commonwealth, then,
being deprived of
my customary employments,
I applied myself
anew to the
study of philosophy,
doing so both
to alleviate my
own sorrow for
the calamities of the state,
and also in
the hope of
serving my fellow-countrymen by
rny writings. And
thus in my
books I continued
to plead and
to harangue, and
took the same
care to advance
the interests of
philosophy as I
had before to
promote the cause
of the Republic.
Now, however, since
I am again
engaged in the
affairs of government,
I must devote
my attention to
the state, or
I should rather
say, all my
labours and cares
must be occupied
about that ; and
I shall only
be able to
give to philosophy
whatever little leisure
I can steal
from public business
and public employments.
Of these matters,
however, I shall
find a better
occasion to speak;
let me now
return to the
subject of divination.
For when my
brother Quintus had
concluded his arguments
on the subject
of divination, con tained in
the preceding book,
and we had
walked enough to satisfy
us, we sat
down in my
library, which, as
I before noticed,
is in my
Lyceum. Then I
said, Quintus, you
have defended the
doctrine of the
Stoics, respecting divination,
with great accuracy,
and on the
strictest Stoical principles.
And what particularly
pleased me was,
that you supported
your cause chiefly
by authorities, and
those, too, of
great force and
dignity, borrowed from
our own countrymen.
It is now
my part to
notice what you
have advanced. But
I shall do
so without offering
anything absolutely on
one side or
the other, examining
all your argu
ments, often expressing
doubts and distrusting
myself. For if
I assumed anything
I could say
on this subject
as certain, I
should play the
part of a diviner even
while denying divination.
I am, no
doubt, greatly influenced
by that preliminary
question which Carneades
used to raise, namely,
What is the
subject matter of
divination 1 Is it things
perceived by the
senses, or not
1 Such things
we see, or
hear, or taste,
or smell, or
touch. Is there,
then, among such,
anything which we
perceive more by
some foreseeing power,
or agitation of the mind,
than through nature
herself] Or could
a diviner, if
he were blind
as Tiresias, somehow
or other distinguish
between white and
black 1 or
if he were
deaf, could he distinguish
between the articulations
and modulations of
voices? Divi nation,
therefore, cannot be
applied to those
objects which come
under the cognisance
of the senses.
Nor is it
of much use,
even in matters
of art and
science. In medicine
for instance, if
a person is
sick we do
not call in
the diviner or
the conjuror, but
the physician ; and in music,
if we wish
to learn the
flute or the
harp, we do
not take lessons
from the soothsayer,
but from the
musician. It is
the same in
literature, and in
all those sciences
which are matters
of education and
discipline. Do you
think that those
who addict themselves
to the art
of divination can
thereby inform us
whether the sun
is larger than
the earth or
of the same
size as it
appears, or whether
the moon shines
by her own
light or by
a radiance borrowed
from the sun,
or what are
the laws of
motion obeyed by
these orbs, or by those
other five stars
which are termed
the planets [None of
those who pass
for diviners pretend
to be able
to instruct mankind
in these matters,
nor can they
prove the truth or
falsehood of the
problems of geometry. Such mat
ters belong to
the mathematician, not
to conjurors. And in
those questions which
are agitated in
moral philosophy, is
there any one
with respect to
which any diviner
ever gives an
answer, or is
ever consulted as
to what is
good, bad, or
indifferent? For such
topics properly belong
to philosophers. As
to duties, who
ever consulted a
diviner how to
regulate his behaviour
to his parents,
his brethren, or
his friends 1
or in what
light he should
regard wealth, and
honour, and authority?
These things are
referred to sages,
not diviners. Again,
as to the
subjects which belong
to dialecticians, or
natural philosophers. What
diviner can tell
whether there is
one world or
more than one
1 what are
the principles of
things from which
all things derive
their being1? That
is the science
of the natural
philosopher. Or who
asks a diviner
how to solve
the difficulty of a fallacy,
or disentangle the
perplexity of a
sorites, which we
may render by
the Latin word
acervalem (an accumulation), though
it is unnecessary;
for just as
the word philosophy,
and many other
Grecian terms, have
become naturalized in our language,
so this word
sorites is already
sufficiently familiar among
us. These subjects
belong to the
logician, not to
the diviner. Again,
if the question
be, which is
the best form
of govern ment,
what are the
relative advantages or
disadvantages of such
and such laws
and moral regulations,
should we dream
of advising with
a soothsayer from
Etruria, or with
princes and chosen
men experienced in
political matters 1
Now, if divination
regards neither those
things which are
perceived by the
senses, nor those
which are taught
by art, nor
those which are
discussed by philosophy,
nor those which
affect the politics
of the state,
I scarcely understand
what can be
its object. It
must either bear
upon all topics,
or else some
particular one must
be allotted to
it in which
it may be
exercised. Now common
sense certifies us
that it does
not bear on
all topics, and
we are at
a loss to
discover what particular
topic, or subject
matter, it can
embrace. It follows,
therefore, that divination
does not exist.
V. There is
a common Greek
proverb to this
effect : The wisest
prophet 's he who
guesses best. Will,
then, a soothsayer
conjecture what sort
of weather is coming
better than a
pilot? or will
he divine the
character of an
illness more acutely
than a doctor?
or the proper
way to carry
on a war
better than a
general '? But I
observe, 0 Quintus,
that you have
pnidently dis tinguished
the topics of
divination from those
matters which lie
within the sphere
of art and
skill, and from
those which are
perceived by the
observation of the
senses, or by
any system. You
have denned it
thus: Divination is
the pre sentiment
and power of
foretelling or predicting
those things which
axe fortuitous. But,
in the first
place, you are
only arguing in
a circle. For
does not a
pilot, or a
physician, or a
general foresee the
probabilities of things
fortuitous as well
as your diviner?
Can, then, any
augur whatsoever, or
sooth sayer, or
diviner, conjecture better
whether a patient
will escape from
sickness, or a
ship from peril,
or the army
from the manoeuvres
of the enemy,
than a physician,
or pilot, or
general? But you
said that these
matters did not
belong to the
diviner; but that
men could foresee
impending winds or
showers by certain
signs ; and to
confirm this argument,
you have cited
certain verses of
my translation of
Ai-atus. And yet
these atmospheric phenomena
are fortuitous ; for
they only happen
occasionally, and not
always. What, then,
is this presentiment
of things fortuitous,
which you call
divina tion, and
to what can
it be applied?
For those things
of which we
can have a
previous notion by
some art or
reason, you speak
of as belonging
not to diviners,
but to men
of skill in
them. Thus you
have left divination
nothing but the
power of predicting
those fortuitous things
which cannot be
foreseen by any
art or any
prudence. If, for
example, any one
had, many years
before, predicted that
Marcus Marcellus, who
was thrice consul,
was to perish
by a shipwreck,
he would, doubtless,
have been a
true diviner, because
such a fact
could not have
been foreseen by
any other means
than that of
divination. Divination, there
fore, is a
foreknowledge of events
which depend on
fortune. But can
there be a
just presentiment of
those things which
do not admit
of any rational
conjecture to explain
why they will
happen? For what
do we mean
when we say
a thing happens
by chance, or
fortune, or hazard,
or accident, but
that something has
happened or taken
place wnich might never
have happened or
taken place at
all, or -which
might have happened
or taken place
in a different
manner? Now how
can that be
fairly foreseen or
predicted which thus
takes place by
chance, and the
mere caprice of
fortune? It is
by reason that
the physician foresees
that a malady
will increase, a
pilot that a
tempest will descend,
and a general
that the enemy
will make certain
diversions. And yet
these men, who
have generally good
reasons on which
their opinions respecting
relative probabilities are
founded, are themselves
often deceived. As when
the husbandman sees
his olive-trees in
blossom, he ventures
to expect that
they will also
bear fruit; nevertheless,
he is sometimes
mistaken. Now, if
those who never
assert anything but
from some probable
conjecture founded on
reason, are often
mistaken, what are
we to think
of the conjectures
of those men
who derive their
presages of futurity
from the entrails
of victims, or
birds, or prodigies,
or oracles, or
dreams. I have
not as yet
come to show
how utterly null
and vain such
signs are, as
the cleft of
a liver, the
note of a
crow, the flight
of an eagle,
the shooting of
a star, the
voices of people
in frenzy, lots
and dreams, of
each of which
I shall speak
in its turn ;
at present I
dwell only on
the general argument.
How can it
be fore seen
that anything will
happen which has
neither any as
signable cause, or
mark, to show
why it will
happen The eclipses of
the sun and
moon are predicted
for a series
of many years
before they happen,
by those who
make regular calculations
of the courses
and motions of
the stars. They
only foretell that
which the invariable
order of natuie
will necessarily bring
about. For they
perceive that in
the un- deviating
course of the
moon's motions, she
will arrive at
a given period
at a point
opposite the sun,
and become so
exactly under the shadow of
the earth, which
is the boundary
of night, that
she must be
eclipsed. They likewise
know, that when
the same moon
comes between the
earth and the
sun, the latter
must appear eclipsed
to the eyes
of men. They
know in what
sign each of
the wandering stars
will be at
a future pariod,
and when each
sign will rise
and set on
any specific day.
So that you
know on what
principles those men
proceed who predict
these things. But what
rational rule can
guide those men
who predict the
discovery of a
treasure, or the
accession to an
estate 1 And
by what series
of cause and
effect are the
approach of events
of this kind
indicated 1 If
these events, and
others of the
same kind, happen
by any kind
of neces sity,
then what is
there that we
can suppose to be brought
about by chance
or fortune For nothing
is so opposite
to regularity and
reason as this
same fortune ; so
that it seems
to me that
God himself cannot
foreknow absolutely those
things which are
to happen by
chance and fortune.
For if he
knows it. ilien
it will certainly
happen; and if
it will certainly
happen, there is no chance
in the matter.
But there is
chance; therefore there
is no such
thing as a pre sentiment
of the future.
If, however, you
maintain that there
is no such
thing as fortune,
and that all
things which happen,
and which are
about to happen,
are determined by
fate from all
eternity, then you
must change your
definition of divination,
which you have
termed the presentiment
of thing's fortuitous.
For if nothing
can happen, or
come to pass,
or take place,
unless it has
been determined from
all eternity that
it shall happen
at a certain
time what, chance
can there be in anything
1 And if
there is no
such thing as
chance, what becomes
of your definition
of divination, which
you have called
a pre sentiment
of fortuitous events'?
although you said
that everything which
happened, or which
was about to
happen, depended on
fate. [Nevertheless, a
great deal is
said on this
subject of fate
by the Stoics.
But of this
elsewhere. To return
to the question
at issue. If
all things happen
by fate, what
is the use
of divination. For that
which he who
divines predicts, will
truly come to
pass ; so that
I do not
know what character
to affix to
that circumstance of an eagle
making our friend
King Deiotaris renounce
his journey; when,
if he had
not turned back,
he would have
slept in a
chamber which fell
down in the
ensuing night, and
have been crushed
to death in
the ruins. For
if his death
had been decreed
by fate, he
could not have
avoided it by
divination ; and if
it was not
decreed by fate,
he could not
have experienced it.
What, then, is
the use of
divination, or what
reason is there
why I should
be moved by
lots, or entrails,
or any kind
of prediction 1
For if in
the first Punic
war it had
beesettled by fate,
that one of
the Roman fleets,
commanded by the
consuls Lucius Junius
and Publius Clodius,
should perish by
a tempest, and
that the other
should be defeated
by the Carthaginians, then
even if the
chickens had eaten
ever so greedily,
still the fleets
must have been
lost. But if
the fleets would
not have perished,
if the auspices
had been obeyed,
then they were
not destroyed by
fate. But you
say that everything
is owing to
fate; therefore there
is no such
thing as divination.
If fate had
determined, that in
the second Punic
war the army
of the Komans
should be defeated
near the lake
Thra- simenus, then
could this event
have been avoided,
even if Flaminius
the consul had
been obedient to
those signs f
and those auspices
which forbade him
to engage in
battle'? Cer tainly
it might. Either,
then, the army
did not perish
by fate for
the fates cannot
be changed, or
if it did
perish by fate
(as you are
bound to assert),
then, even if
Flaminius had obeyed
the auspices, he
must still have
been defeated. Where,
then, is the
divination of the
Stoics 1 which
is of no
use to us
whatever to warn
us to be
more prudent, if
all things happen
by destiny. For
do what we
will, that which
is fated to
happen, must happen.
On the other
hand, what ever
event may be
averted is not
fated. There is, there fore,
no divination, since
this appertains to
things which are
certain to happen;
and nothing is
certain to happen,
which may by
any means be
frustrated. Moreover, I
do not even
think that the
knowledge of futurity
would be useful
to us. How
miserable would have
been the life
of King Priam
if from his
youth he could
have foreseen the
calamities which awaited
his old age!
Let us, however,
leave alone fables,
arid come to
facts that are
more near to us. I
have recounted, in
my essay entitled
Conso lation,
the misfortunes which
have happened to
the greatest men
of our commonwealth.
Omitting, therefore, the
ancients, do you
think that it
would have been
any advantage to
Marcus Crassus, when
he was flourishing
with the amplest
riches and gifts
of fortune, to
have foreknown that
he should behold
his son Publius
slain, his forces
defeated, and lose
his own life
beyond the Euphrates
with ignominy and
disgrace? Or do
you think that
Pompey would have
experienced much satisfaction
in being thrice
made consxil, and
having received three
triumphs, and having
attained the summit
of glory by
his heroic actions,
if he could
have foreseen that
he should be
assassinated in the
deserts of Egypt
after the defeat
of his army,
and that after
his death those
disasters should happen
which we cannot
mention without tears?
What do we
think of Caesar
1 Would it
have been any
pleasure to Caesar
to have anticipated
by divination, that
one day, in
the midst of
the throng of
senators whom he
himself had elected,
in the temple
of Victory built
by Pompey, and
before that general's
statue, and before
the eyes of
so many of
his own centurions,
he should be
slain by the
noblest citizens, some
of whom were
indebted to him
for their digni
ties, aye, slain under
such circumstances that
not one of
his friends, or
even of his
servants, would venture
to approach him?
Could he have
foreseen all this,
in what wretchedness
would he have
passed his life
1 It is,
therefore, certainly more
advantageous for man
to be ignorant
of future evils
than to know
them. For it
cannot be said,
at least not
by the Stoics,
that Pornpey would
not have taken
up arms, nor
Crassus passed the
Euphrates, nor Csesar
engaged in the
civil war, if
they had foreseen the
future; therefore the
end which they
met with was not in
evitably ordained by
fate. For you
insist upon it
that all things
happen by fate,
therefore divination would
have availed them
nothing. It would
even have deprived
them of all
enjoy ment in
the earlier part
of their lives;
for what gratification
could they have
enjoyed if they
had been always
thinking of their
end I Therefore,
to whatever argument
the Stoics resort
in defence of
divination, their ingenuity
is always baffled.
For if that
which is to
happen may happen
in different mode;,
then, indeed, fortune
may have great power;
but that which
is fortuitous cannot
be certain. If,
on the other
hand, every event
is absolutely determined
by fate, and
the time and
cir cumstance in
connexion with which
it is to
take place, what
service can diviners
render us by
informing us that
very sad events
arc portended for
us. They add, moreover,
that when we
are duly attentive
to religious ceremonies,
all things will
fall more lightly
on us. But
if everything happens
by fate, no
religioxis ceremonies cau
lighten the event.
Homer acknowledges this,
when he introduces Jupiter
uttering complaints that
he cannot save
the life of
his son Sarpedon
against the order
of fate; and
the same sentiment
is expressed in
the Greek verse
Great Destiny o'ermaster's
Jove himself. It
appears to me
that such a
fate as this
is justly ridiculed
by the Atellane
plays; but on
such a serious
subject we must
not allow ourselves
to be facetious.
I therefore conclude
with this observation.
If we cannot
foresee anything which
happens by chance,
since that thing
is necessarily uncertain,
therefore there is
no divination; and
if, on the
contrary, things that
are to happen
can be foreseen
because they happen
by an infallible
fatality, there is
no divination, because
you say divination
only relates to for tuitous
events. But what
I have hitherto
said respecting divination may be
looked upon as
a mere slight
skirmishing of oratory.
I must now
enter on the
contest in good
earnest, and prepare
to encounter the
most formidable arguments
of your cause. For
you say that
there exist two
kinds of divination,
one artificial,
the other natural.
The artificial consists
partly in conjecture,
partly in continued
observation. The natural,
on the other
hand, is what
the mind lays
hold of or
receives externally from
the divinity, from
which we all
derive the origin,
and fashioning, and
preservation of our
minds. Under the
artificial divination you
enumerate several varieties
of divination connected
with the inspection
of entrails, the
observation of thunderstorms
and prodigies, and
the auguries of
those who deal
in signs and
omens. And under
this artificial class
you include all
kindsof conjectural divination.
As to the
natural species of
divination, it appears
to be sent
forth and to
issue either from
a certain ecstasy
of the spirit,
or to be
conceived by the
mind when disengaged
from the senses
and from cares
by sleep. But
you suppose that
all divination is
derived from three
things God, Fate, and
Nature. But as
you could give
no sound explanation,
you laboured to
confirm it by
a wonderful multitude
of imaginary examples,
concerning which you
must permit me
to say, that
a philosopher ought
not to use
evidences which may
be true through
accident, or false
and fictitious through
malice. It behoves
you to show,
by reason and
argument, why each
circtimstance happens as
it does, rather
than by the
events, especially when
they are such
as I am
quite unable to
give credit to. To
begin then with
the Soothsayers, whose
science I believe
that the interest
of Religion and
the State requires
to be upheld.
But as we
are alone, it
behoves us, and
myself more especially,
to examine the
truth without partiality,
since I am
in doubt on
many points. Let
us proceed, if
you please, first
to consider the
inspec tion of the entrails
of victims. Can
you then persuade
any man in
his senses, that
those events which
are said to be SIGNIFIED by
the entrails, are
known by the
augurs in con
sequence of a
long series of
observations [How long, I
wonder! For what
period of time
can such observations
have been continued
1 What conferences
must the augurs
hold among themselves
to determine which
part of the
victim's entrails represents
the enemy, and
which the people ;
what sort of
cleft in the
liver denoted danger,
and what sort
presaged advantage? Have
the augurs of
the Etrurians, the
Eleans, the Egyptians,
and the Carthaginians
arranged these matters
with one another?
But that, besides
that it is
quite impossi ble,
cannot be imagined.
For we see
that some interpret
the auspices in one way,
and some in
another, and no
common rule of
discipline is acknowledged
among the professors
of the art;
and certainly if
some secret virtue
existed in the
victim's entrails which
clearly declared the
future, it must
either belong to
the universal nature
of things, or
be connected in
some way or
other with the Deity
himself. But what
com munication can
there exist between
so great and
so divine a
natuz-e of things,
one so beautiful,
and so admirably
diffused throughout every
part and motion,
and (I will
not say) the
gall of the
cock, (though that,
indeed, is said
by many to
be the most
significant of all
signs,) but the
liver, or heart,
or lungs of
a fat bullock
1 Can such
things possibly teach
us the hidden
mysteries of futurity?
Democritus, speaking as
a natural philosopher,
than which no
class of men
are more arrogant,
on this subject,
trifles ingeniously enough.
Man, who knows
not the common
facts of earth,
Must waste his
time in star-gazing.
He remarks, that
the colour and
condition of the
victim's entrails may
indicate the nature
of the pasturage,
and the abundance or
scarcity of those
things which the
earth brings forth.
He even supposes
they may guide
our opinions respecting
the wholesonieness or
pestilential state of
the atmosphere. 0
happy man! such
a person can
certainly never want
amusement. The idea
of any one
being so enchanted
with such trifling,
as not to
see that this
theory might be
plausible, if, indeed,
the entrails of all animals
assumed the same
appearance and colour
at one and
the same time!
But if we
discover that the
liver of one
animal is sound
and healthy, and
that of another
withered and diseased
at the same
moment, what indication
can we draw
from the state
and colour of
the entrails'? Does
this at all
resemble the indications
from which that
Pherecydes, in a
case which you
have cited, predicted
the approach of
an earthquake from
the drying up
of a spring?
It required a
little confidence, I
think, after the earthquake had
taken place, to
presume to say
what power had
produced it ; [but]
could they even
foresee that it
would take place
at all from
the appearance of
a running spring?
Many such stories
are recounted in the schools,
but we are
not obliged to
believe the whole
of them. But
even supposing that
what Democritus says
is true, when
do we seek
to know the
general phenomena of
nature by an
examination of entrails;
or when did soothsayers ever
tell us anything
of the sort
from such an
inspection? They warn
us of danger
from fire or
water. Sometimes they
predict that inheritances
will be added
to our fortunes,
and .sometimes that
we shall lose
what we already
possess. They regard
the cleft in
the lungs as
a matter of
vital importance to
our property and
our very life ;
they in vestigate
the top of
the liver on
all sides with
the most scrupulous
exactness, and if
by any chance
they cannot dis
cover it, they
affirm that nothing
more disastrous could
have happened. It is
impossible, as I
have before observed,
that such a
system of observation
can have any
certainty about it;
such divination as
this nourished not
among the ancients;
it is the
invention of mere
art, if, indeed,
there can be
any art, properly
so called, of
things unknown. But
what connexion has
it with the
nature of things?
And even if
it were united
and joined therewith,
so as to
form one harmonious
whole, which I
see is the opinion of
the natural philosophers, Ulo
and especially of
those who say
that all things
that exist are
but one whole ;
still what correspondence can
there be between
the order of
the universe and
the discovery of a treasure?
For if an
increase of my
wealth is indicated
by the entrails
of a victim,
and this fact
is a necessary
link in the
chain of nature,
then it follows,
in the first
place, that we
must suppose that
the entrails themselves
form other links;
and secondly, that
my private gain
is connected with
the nature of
things. Are not
the natural philosophers
ashamed to say
such things as
these? For, although
there may be some connexion in the nature of things, which I admit to be possible, (for
the Stoics have
collected many cases
which they think
confirm the notion,
as when they
assert that the
little livers of
little mice increase
in winter, and
that dry pennyroyal
flourishes in the
coldest weather, and
that the distended
vesicles, in which
the seeds of
its berries are
contained, then burst
asunder; that the
chords of a
stringed instrument at
times give notes
different from their
usual ones; that
oysters and other
shell-fish increase and
decrease with the
growth and waning
of the moon ;
and that trees
lose their vitality
as the moon
declines, just as
they dry up
in winter, and
that this is
the time to\cut
them. Why need
I speak of
the seas, and
the tides of
the ocean, the
flow and ebb of which
are said to
be governed by
the moon? and
many other examples
might be related
to prove that
some natural connexion
subsists between objects
appa rently remote
and incongruous. Let us
grant this, for
it does not
in the least
make against our
argument ;) granting, I
say, that there
is a cleft
of some kind
in a liver,
does that indicate
gain to any
one? By what
natural affinity, by
what harmony, by
what secret accord
of nature, or,
to use the
Greek term, by
what sympathy can
you discern a
necessary relation between
a cleft liver
and my gain,
or between my
gain and heaven
and earth, and
the universal nature
of things? I
may even grant
you this, though
I shall be
greatly damaging my
argument if I
allow that there
is any connexion
between nature and
entrails. But suppose
I make this
concession, how does
it happen that
he who would
obtain some benefit
from the Gods
can discover, just
when he wishes,
a victim exactly
adapted to his
purpose? I had
thought this objection
was unanswerable, but
see how cleverly
you get over
it. I do
not blame you
for this, I
rather commend your
memory. But I
am ashamed of
Antipater, Chrysippus, and
Posidonius, who all
assert the same
proposition namely, that
the divine and
sentient energy which
extends through the
universe, directs us
even in the
choice of the
victim by whose
entrails we are to frame
our divinations. And to improve
upon this theory,
you agree with
them in asserting
that at the
very instant that
the sacrifice is
offered, a certain
appropriate change takes
place in the
victim's entrails, so
that we can
therein discover some
sig nificant addition
or deficiency, since
all things are
obedient to the
will of the Gods. Believe
me, there is not an
old woman in
the world so
superstitious as gravely
to believe these
things. Can you
imagine that the
same bullock, if
chosen by one
man, will have
the head of the liver,
and if chosen
by another will
not have it 1 Can
this same head
come and go
at the instant
just to accommodate
the individual who
offers the sacrifice
1 Do you
not perceive that
there must be
considerable chance in
the choice of
the victim 1
and in fact
the thing speaks
for itself, that
this must be
the case. For
when one ill-omened
victim is discovered
to have had
no head to
its liver, it
often happens that
the one which
is offered immediately
afterwards has the
most perfect entrails
imaginable. What then
becomes of the
menaces of the
first victim's entrails,
or how have
the Gods been
so suddenly appeased? But
you will say,
that in the
entrails of the
fat bull which
Caesar offered, there
was no heart,
and since it
was not possible
that this animal
could have lived
without a heart,
we must suppose
that the heart
was annihilated at the instant
of immolation. How is it
that you think
it impossi ble
that an animal
can live without
a heart, and
yet do not
think it impossible
that t its heart
could vanish so
suddenly, nobody knows whither?
For myself, I
know not how
much vigour in a heart
is necessary to
carry on the
vital function, and
suspect that if
afflicted by any
disease, the heart
of a victim
may be found
so withered, and
wasted, and small,
as to be
quite unlike a
heart. But on
what argument can
you build an
opinion that the
heart of this
same fat bullock,
if it existed
in him before,
disappeared at the
instant of immola-lion?
Did the bullock
behold Ceesar in
a heartless condition
even while arrayed
in the purple,
and thus lose
its own heart
by mere force
of sympathy? Believe
me, you are
betraying the city
of philosophy while
defending its castles.
In trying to
prove the truth
of the auguries,
you are overturning
the whole system
of physics. A
victim has a
heart, and head
of the liver :
the moment that
you sprinkle him
with meal and
wine they depart,
some God carries
them off, some
power destroys or
consumes them. It
is not nature
alone, therefore, which
causes the decay
and destruction of
everything; and there
are some things
which arise out
of nothing, and
some which suddenly
perish and become
nothing. What natural
philosopher ever said
such a thing
as this? The
soothsayers affirm it.
Do you then
think that you
are to believe
them rather than
the natural philosophers? Again, when
you sacrifice to several Gods
at the same
time, how is
it that the sacrifice is
favourably received by
some, and is
rejected by others?
And what inconsistency
must there be
among the Gods,
if they threaten
by the first
entrails, and promise
good fortune by
the second ! Or
is there such
strong dissension among
the Deities, even
when they are
nearly related to
each other, that
certain entrails bode
good when offered
to Apollo, and
evil when offered
to his sister
Diana? It is
clear that since
the victims are
brought by chance,
the entrails must
in the case
of each sacrificer
depend upon what
victim falls to
his share, and
that very thing
requires some divination
to know what
victim falls to
each person's share,
as, in the
case of lots,
what is drawn
by each person. Then
you will speak
of lots, though
you are not
strengthen ing the
authority of sacrifices
by comparing them
to lots, but
weakening that of
lots by comparing
them to sacrifices.
Do you think,
when we send
a messenger to
^Equime- lium to
bring us a
lamb to sacrifice,
and the lamb
which is brought
to me possesses
entrails peculiarly accommodated
to the circumstances
of the case,
that the messenger
has been guided
to him not
by chance, but
by divine direction?
For if you
wish to SIGNIFY THAT [GRICE: MEAN
THAT] in this case
chance interferes, as
being some lot
connected with the
will of the
Gods, I am
sony that your
friends the Stoics
should give the
Epicureans such occasion to
ridicule them, for
you know well
how they deride
oil such ideas.
And, indeed, it
is no hard
matter to be
facetious on such
an idea. Epicurus,
in order to
show his wit
on the subject,
introduced transparent airy
deities, residing, as
it were, be
tween the two
worlds as between
two groves, that
they may avoid
destruction from the
fall of either.
These deities, it
seems, possess bodies
like ourselves, though
I cannot find
that they make
any use of
them. Epicurus therefore, who, by
a roundabout argument
of this kind,
takes away the
Gods, naturally feels
no hesitation in
taking away divination
also. But though
he is consistent
with himself, the
Stoics are not ;
for as the
God of Epicurus
never troubles himself
with any business,
either regarding himself
or others; he,
therefore, cannot grant
divination to men.
On the other
hand, the God
of the Stoics,
even though lie
does not grant
divination, must still regulate the
affairs of the
universe and take
care of mankind.
Why, then, do
you involve yourself
in these dilemmas
which you can
never disentangle? For
this is the
way in which,
when they are in a
hurry, they usually
sum up the
matter- a If
there are Gods,
there must be
divination; but there
are gods, therefore
there is divination.
It would be
much more plausible
to say There
is no divination,
there fore there
are no Gods.
Observe how imprudently
the Stoics make
this assertion, that
if there is
no divination, there
are no Gods ;
for divination is
plainly discarded, and
yet we must
retain a belief
in Gods. After having
thus destroyed divination
by the in
spection of entrails,
all the rest
of the science
of the sooth
sayers is at
an end ; for prodigies and
lightning follow in the same
category. With respect
to the latter,
their predictions are
founded on a
long series of
observations, while the
interpretation of prodigies
proceeds chiefly on
inference and conjecture.
What observations, then,,
have been made
about lightning? The
Etrurians, forsooth, have
divided heaven into
sixteen parts; for
it was not
very difficult to
double the four
quarters, which we
recognise, into eight,
and then to
repeat the process,
so as by
that means to say from
what direc tion
the lightning had
come. But in
the first place,
what difference does it
make? Secondly, what
does such a
thing intimate Is
it not plain
from the astonishment
which was at
first excited in
men's minds, because
they feared the
thunder and the
hurling of the
thunderbolt, that they
believed that they
were the immediate
manifestations brought about
by the all-powerful
ruler of all
things, Jupiter? This
is the reason
of the enactment
in the public
registers, that the
comitia of the
people shall not
be held when
Jupiter thunders and
lightens. It was
enacted, perhaps with a view
to the interest
of the state,
for our ancestors
wished to have
pretexts for not
holding the comitia.
Therefore, in the
case of the
comitia, lightning is
the only vitiating
irregularity. But in
all other matters
it is a
most favourable auspice
if it comes
on the left
hand. But we
will speak of
the auspices hereafter ;
at present we
will confine ourselves
to lightning. What can
be less proper
for natural philosophers
to say, than
that anything certain
is indicated by
things which are
uncertain 1 I
cannot believe that
you are one
of those who
imagine that there
were Cyclopes in
mount ^Etna who
forged Jove's thunderbolt,
for it would
be wonderful indeed
if Jupiter should
so often throw
it away when
he had but
one. Nor would
he warn men
by his thunderbolts
what they should
do or what
thoy should avoid.
For the opinion
of the Stoics
on this point
is, that the
exhalations of the
earth which are
cold, when they
begin to flow
abroad, become winds ;
and when they
form themselves into
clouds, and begin
to divide and
break up their
fine particles by
repeated and vehement
gusts, then thunder
and lightning ensue ;
and that when
by the conflict
of the clouds
the heat is
squeezed out so
as to emit
itself, then there
is lightning. Can
we, then, look
for any intimation
of futurity in a thing
which we see
brought about by
the mere force
of nature, without
any regularity or
any determined pei'iods
1 If Jupiter
wished that we
should form divinations
by lightnings, would
he throw away
so many flashes
in vain ]
For what good
does he do
when he throws
a thunderbolt into
the middle of
the sea, or
upon lofty mountains,
which is very
common, or upon
deserts, or in
the countries of
those nations among
which no meteorological observations
are made ] Oh
! but
a head was
discovered in the
Tybcr. As if I affirmed that
those soothsayers had no skill !
What I deny
is only their
divination. For the
distribution of the
firma ment, which
we have just
mentioned, and their
various observations, enable
them to note
the direction from
which the lightning
has proceeded, and
where it falls.
But no reason
can inform us
of its signification. You will,
however, urge against
me my own
verses The father
of the Gods
who reigns supreme
On high Olympus,
smote his proper
fane, And hurl'd
his lightnings through
the heart of
Rome. At the same
time the statue
of Natta and
the images of
the Gods, and
Romulus and Remus,
with that of
the beast who
was nursing them,
were struck by
the thunderbolt and
thrown down ; and
the answers of
the soothsayers, with
reference to these
prodigies, were found
perfectly correct. That
also was a
surprising thing, that
the statue of
Jupiter was placed
in the Capitol,
two years later
than it had
been contracted for,
at the very
time that information
of the conspiracy
was being laid
before the senate.
Will you, then,
(for this is
the way you
are used to
argue with me,)
bring yourself to
uphold that side
of the question
in opposition to
your own actions
and writings? You
are my brother,
and all you
say is entitled
to my respect.
Yet what is
there here that
offends you? Is
it the thing
itself, which is
of such and
such a character,
or I myself,
who only wish
to get at
the truth? I
therefore say nothing
upon it for
the sake of contradiction, and
only seek from
you yourself information
respecting all the
prin ciples of
the art of
soothsaying. But you
have involved yourself
in an inextricable
dilemma; for foreseeing
that you would
be hard pressed,
when I should
urge you to
explain the cause
of every divination,
you made many
excuses to show
why, when you
were sure of
the fact, you
did not inquire
into its principles
and causes, that
the question was,
what was done,
and not why it was
done; as if
I granted that
it was done
at all, or
as if it
were not the
duty of a
philosopher to inquire
into the reason
why every thing
takes place. At
the same time
you quoted my
prog nostics, and
spoke of the
scammony, the aristoloch,
and other herbs,
whose virtues were
evident to you
from their effects,
though the law
of their operation
was unknown to
you. All this is,
however, beside the
main question. For
the Stoic Boethus,
whose name you
have cited, and
even our friend
Posidonius have investigated
the causes of
prognostics, and though
it is not
easy to discover
the cause of
such occult mysteries,
yet the facts
themselves may be
observed and animadverted
upon. But as
to the statue
of Natta and
the tables of
the law which
were struck by
lightning, what observations
were made, or
what was there
ancient connected with
the matter 1
The Pinarii Nattse
are noble, therefore
danger was to be feared
from the nobility.
This was a
very cunning device
of Jupiter! Romulus,
represented by the
sculptor as sucking
a she-wolf, was
likewise smitten by
the lightning. Hence,
according to you,
some danger to
the city of
Rome was threatened.
How cleverly does
Jupiter make us
acquainted with future
events by such
signs as these!
Again, his statue
was being erected
at the very
same time that
the conspiracy was
being discovered in
the senate, and
you conceive this
coincidence happened rather
by the providence
of God than
by any chance
of fortune. And
you think that
the statuary who
had contracted for
the making of
that column with
Torquatus and Cotta,
was not so
long delayed in
accomplishing his work
by idleness or
poverty, but by
the special interposition
of the immortal
Gods. Now I
do not absolutely
deny that such
might possibly be
the case; but
I do not
know that it
was, and wish
to be instructed
by you. For
when some things
appeared to me
to have happened
by chance in
the way in
which the sooth
sayers had predicted,
you launched out
into a long
discourse on the
doctrine of chances,
saying that four
dice thrown at
hazard may produce
Venus by accident,
but that four
hundred dice cannot
produce a hundred
Venuses. In the
first place, I
know no reason
in the nature
of things why
they should not
do even this ;
but I will
not argue that
point, for you
have plenty of
similar examples, and
talk about a
chance dashing of
colours, the snout
of a pig,
and many other
similar instances. You
say that Carneades
argued in the
same way about
the head of
a little Pan;
as if that
might not have
happened by chance,
and as if
there must not
be in all
marble the raw
material of even
such a head
as Praxiteles would
have made. For
a perfect head
is only formed
by cutting away. Praxiteles
adds nothing to
the marble, but
when much that
was superfluous is
removed, and the
features are arrived
at, then you
learn that that
which is now
polished up was
always contained within.
Such a figure,
therefore, may have
spontaneously existed in
the quarries of
Chios. But grant
that this is
a fiction, have
you never fancied
that you could
discover in the
clouds the figures
of lions and
centaurs 1 Accident
may, therefore, some
times imitate nature,
though you denied
that just now.
But as we
have sufficiently discussed
divination by entrails
and lightning, we
must now consider
portents and prodigies,
in order that
we may leave
no branch of the system
of the soothsayers
untouched. You have
mentioned a wonderful
story of a
mule that was
delivered of a
colt; a strange
event, because of its extreme
rarity. But if
such a thing
were impossible, it
would never happen
at all; and
this may be
said against all
sorts of pro
digies, that those
things which are
impossible never happened
at all; and
if they are
possible, it need
not surprise us
that they happen
occasionally. Besides, in
extraordinary events, ignorance
of their causes
produces astonishment; but
in ordinary events
such igno rance
occasions no such
result. The man
who is astonished
if a mule
brings forth a
colt, does not
know how it
is that a
mare brings forth
a foal, or
indeed how, in
any case, nature
effects the birth
of a living
animal; but he
is not surprised
at what he
sees frequently, even
if he does
not know why
it happens; but if that
which he never
beheld before happens,
then he calls
it a prodigy.
In this case,
is it a
prodigy when the
mule conceives, or
when she brings
forth 1 Perhaps
the conception may
have been contrary
to nature, but
after that her
delivery is almost
necessary. But we
have spoken enough
on this topic:
let us examine
the origin of
the establishment of
soothsayers. For when
we are acquainted
with it, we
shall be better
able to judge
what degree of
credit it is
entitled to. They
tell us that
as a labourer
one day was
ploughing in a
field in the
territory of Tarquinium,
and his ploughshare
made a deeper
furrow than usual,
all of a
sudden there sprung
out of this
same furrow a
certain Tages, who,
as it is
recorded in the
books of the
Etrurians, possessed the visage
of a child,
but the prudence
of a sage.
When the labourer
was surprised at
seeing him, and in his
astonishment made a
great outcry, a
number of people
assembled round him,
and before long
all the Etrurians
came together at
the spot. Tages
then discoursed in
the presence of an immense
crowd, who treasured
up his words
with the greatest
care, and after
wards committed them
to writing. The
information they derived
from this Tages
was the foundation
of the science
of the soothsayers,
and was subsequently
improved by the
accession of many
new facts, all
of which confirmed
the same principles.
Here is the
story that the
Etrurians give out
to the world.
This record is
preserved in their
sacred books, and
from it their
augurial discipline is
deduced. Now do
you imagine that
we need a
Carneades or Epicurus
to refute such a fable
as this1? Lives
there any one
so absurd as
to believe that
this (shall I
say god, or
man 1) was
thus ploughed up
out of the
earth 1 If
he was a god, why
did he conceal
himself under the
earth against the
order of nature,
so as not
to behold the
light till he
was ploughed up]
Could not that
same god have
instructed mankind from
a station somewhat
more elevated? And
if this Tages
was a man,
how could he
have lived thus
buried and smothered
in the earth
1 and how
could he have
learnt the wonders
he taught to
others? But I
am even more
foolish than those
who believe such
nonsense, for thus
wasting so much
time in refxiting
them. There is an
old saying of
Cato, familiar enough
to everybody, that he
wondered that when
one soothsayer met
another, he could
help laughing. For
of all the
events pre dicted
by them, how
very few actually
happen? And when
one of them
does take place,
where is the
proof that it
does not take
place by mere
accident 1 When
Hannibal fled to
king Prusias, and
was eager to
wage war with
the enemy, that
monarch replied that
he dared not
do so, because
the entrails of
the sacrifice wore
an unfavourable aspect.
Would you,
then, said Hannibal,
rather trust a
bit of calf's
flesh than a
veteran general? And
as to Caesar,
when he was
warned by the
chief sooth sayer
not to venture
into Africa before
the winter, did
he not cross?
If he had
not done so,
all the forces
of the enemy
would have assembled
in one place.
Why need I
enumeratethe responses of
the soothsayers, of
which I could
cite an infinite
number, which have
either received no
accomplishment at all,
or an accomplishment exactly
the reverse of
the prediction 1
In this last
Civil War, for
instance good Heavens! how
often were their
responses utterly falsified
by the result !
How many false
prophecies were sent
to us from
Rome into Gi'eece!
How many oracles
in favour of
Pompey! For that
general was not
a little affected
by entrails and
prodigies. I have
no wish to
recount these things
to you, nor
indeed is it
necessary, for you
were present. But
you see that
nearly all the
events took place
in the manner
exactly contrary to
the predictions. So
much for responses.
Let us now
say a word
or two on
prodigies. You have
mentioned several things
on this topic
which I wrote
during my consulship. You
have brought up
many of those
anecdotes collected by
Sisenna before the
Mar- sian War,
and many recorded
by Callisthenes before
the un fortunate
battle of the
Spartans at Leuctra,
of each of
which I will
speak separately, as
far as seems
necessary; but at
present we must
discuss of prodigies
in general. For
what is the
meaning of this
kind of divination this
dreadful denouncing of
impending calamities derived
from the Gods
1 In the
first place, what
is the object
of the Gods,
in giving us
prodigies and signs
which we cannot
understand without interpreters,
and in advertising
us of disasters
which we cannot
avoid 1 But
even honest men
do not act
thus, giving notice
to their friends
of impending misfortune
which they cannot
possibly avoid; and
physicians, though they
are often aware
of the fact,
yet never tell
their patients that they must
needs die of
the complaint from
which they are
suffering. For the
prediction of an
evil is only
beneficial when we
can point out
some means of
avoiding it or
miti gating it.
What good, then,
did these prodigies,
or their interpreters,
do to the
Spartans, or more
recently to the
Romans 1 If
they are to
be considered as
the signs of
the Gods, why
were they so
obscure? For if
they were sent
in order that
we might understand what
was about to
happen, then it
ought to have
been, declared intelligibly;
and if we
were not intended
to know, then
they should not
have been given
even obscurely. As for
all conjectures on
which this kind
of divination depends,
the opinions of men differ
so much from
each other that
they often make
very opposite deductions
from the same
thing. For as
in legal suits,
the plea of
the plaintiff is
contrary to that
of the defendant,
and yet both
are within the
limits of credibility, so
in all those
affairs which only
admit of conjectural
interpretation, the reasoning
must be extremely
uncertain. And as
for those things
which are caused
at times by
nature, and at
others by chance,
(some times, too,
likeness gives rise
to mistakes,) it
is very foolish
to attribute all
these things to the interpositions of
the Gods, without
examining their proximate
causes. You believe
that the Boeotian
diviners of Lebadia
foreknew by the
crowing of the
cocks that the
victory belonged to the Thebans,
because these birds
only crow when
they are vic
torious, and hold
their peace when
they are beaten.
Did, then, Jupiter
give a signal
to so important
a city by the means
of hens 1
But do cocks
only crow when
they are vic
torious 1 At
that time they
were crowing, and
they had not
conquered. You say
that this was
a prodigy. It
would have been a prodigy,
and a very
great one, if
the crowing had
pro ceeded from fishes instead of birds. But what hour
is there of day, or of night, when cocks do not crow 1
and if they
are sometimes excited
to crow by
their joy in
victory, they may
likewise be excited
to do the
same by some
other kind of
joy. Democritus, indeed, states a
very good reason why cocks crow before the dawn; for,
as the food is then driven out of their stomachs, and distributed
over their whole
body and digested,
THEY UTTER A CROWING, being
satiated with rest.
But in the
silence of the
night, says ENNIO (si veda), they
indulge their throats,
which are hoarse
with crowing, and
give their wings
repose. As, then,
this animal is so much
inclined to crow of its
own accord, what
made it occur
to Callisthenes to
assert that THE GODS
had given the
cocks a signal
to crow; since either
NATURE [H. P. Grice,Natural meaning, and non-natural meaning] or chance
might have done it?
It is announced
to the senate
that it had RAINS
BLOOD, that the
river has become blackened
with blood, and
that the statues
of the immortal
gods are covered with
sweat. Do you
imagine that Thales
or Anaxagoras, or
any other natural
philosopher, would have
given credence to
such news? Blood
and sweat only
proceed from the
animal body. There might
have been some
discoloration caused by
some ox contagion of
earth very LIKE BLOOD,
and some moisture
may have fallen
on the statues
from without, resembling
perspiration, as we see
sometimes in plaster
during the prevalence
of a south
wind. And in time
of war such
phenomena appeal more
numerous and more
important than usual,
as men are
then in a
state of alarm,
while they are
not noticed in
peace. Besides, in such periods
of fear and
peril, such stories
are more easily
believed, and invented
with more impunity. We
are, however, so
silly and inconsiderate, that
if mice, which
are always at
that work, happen
to gnaw anything,
we immediately regard
it as a
prodigy. So because, a
little before the
Marsian war, THE MICE GNAWED the shields
at Lanuvium, the
soothsayers declares it
to be a
most important prodigy;
as if it may make
any difference whether
mice, who day
and night are
gnawing something, had
gnawed bucklers or
sieves. For if
we are to
be guided by
such things, I
ought to tremble
for the safety
of the commonwealth,
because the mice
lately gnawed Plato's
Republic in my
library; and if
they had eaten
the book of
Epicurus on Pleasure,
I ought to
have expected that
corn would rise
in the market. Are
we, then, alarmed
if at any
time any unnatural
productions are reported
as having proceeded
from man or
beast? One of
which occurrences, to be
brief, may be
accounted for on
one principle. Whatever
is born, of
whatever kind it
may be, must
have some cause
in nature, so
that even though
it may be
contrary to custom,
IT CANNOT POSSIBLY BE CONTRARY TO NATURE. Investigate, if
you can, the
natural cause of
every novel and
extraordinary circumstance. Even if
you cannot discover
the cause, still
you may 'feel sure
that nothing can
have taken place
without a cause;
and, by the
principles of nature,
drive away that
terror which the
novelty of the
thing may have
occasioned you. Then
neither earthquakes, nor
thunderstorms, nor showers
of blood and
stones, nor shooting
stars, nor glancing
torches will alarm
you any more.
If you ask
Chrysippus to explain
the laws hat
govern these phenomena,
though he is
a great defender
of divina tion,
he will never
tell you that
they have happened
by chance, but he
will give you
a natural explanation
of all of
them. For, as
it has been
before stated, nothing
can happen without
a cause, and
nothing happens which
is impossible; iior,
if that has
happened which could
happen, ought it
to be regarded
as a prodigy.
Therefore there are
no such things
as prodigies. For
if we place
in the rank
of prodigies every
rare occurrence, it
follows that a
wise man is
one of the
greatest prodigies. For I believe
there are fewer
instances of wise
men in the world, than
of mules which
have brought forth
young. So this
principle concludes that
that which cannot
take place in
the nature of
things never does
take place; and
that that which
can take place
in the nature
of things, is
not a prodigy,
and therefore there
are no prodigies
at all. Therefore
a diviner and
interpreter of prodigies
being con sulted
by a man
who informed him, as a
great prodigy, that
he had discovered
in his house
a serpent coiled
around a bar,
answered very discreetly,
that there was
nothing very wonderful
in this, but
if he had
found the bar
coiled around the
serpent, this would
have been a
prodigy indeed. By
this reply, he
plainly indicated that
nothing can be
a prodigy which
is consistent with
the nature of
things. Caius Gracchus wrote
to Marcus Pomponius,
that his father
having caught two
serpents in his
house, sent to
consult the soothsayers.
Why were two
serpents entitled to
such an honour
more than two
lizards or two
mice 1 Because
these are every
day occurrences, you
would reply, while
ser pents were
comparatively rare; as
if it signified
how often a
thing which was
possible took place.
But I marvel,
if the release
of the female
snake caused the
death of Tiberius
Gracchus, and that
of the male
was to be
fatal to Cornelia,
why he let
either of them
escape. For he
does not record
that the soothsayers
had told him
what would happen
if he let
neither of the
snakes escape. But
it seems T.
Gracchus died soon
after, doubtless of
some natural malady
which destroyed his
constitution, and not
because he had
saved the life
of a viper.
Not that the
infelicity of the
haruspices is so
great that their
predictions are never
fulfilled by any
chance whatever. And, I must
confess, if I
could but believe
it, I should
exceedingly wonder at
the story which
you have cited
from Homer respecting
the prediction of
Calchas, who, from
observing the number
of a flock
of sparrows, foretold
the number of
years that would
be expended in
the siege of
Troy. DE NAT.
ETC. Q 2-6
ON Of which conjecture
Homer makes Agamemnon1
speak thus, if
I may repeat
you a translation
of the passage
which. I made
in a leisure
hour Not for
their grief the
Grecian host I
blame; But vanqui.sh'd!
baffled! oh, eternal
shame! Expect the
time to Troy's
destruction giv'n, And
try the faith
of Calchas and
of heav'n. What
pass'd at Aulis,
Greece can witness
bear, And all
who live to
breathe this Phrygian
air, Beside a
fountain's sacred brink
was raised Our
verdant altars, and
the victims blazed;
('Twas where the
plane-tree spreads its
shades around) The
altars heaved; and
from the crumbling
ground A mighty
dragon shot, of
dire portent; From
Jove himself the
dreadful sign was
sent. Straight to
the tree his
sanguine spires he
roll'd, And curl'd
around in many
a winding fold.
The topmost branch
a mother-bird possest ;
Eight callow infants
fill'd the mossy
nest; Herself the
ninth: the serpent
as he hung,
Stretch'd his black
jaws, and crush'd
the crying young;
While hov'ring near,
with miserable moan,
The drooping mother
wail'd her children
gone. The mother
last, as round
the nest she
flew, Seized by
the beating wing,
the monster slew ;
Nor long survived,
to marble turn'd
he stands A
lasting prodigy on
Aulis' sands. Such
was the will
of Jove ; and
hence we dare
Trust in his
omen and support
the war. For
while around we
gazed with wond'ring
eyes, And trembling
sought the Pow'rs
with sacrifice, Full
of his god,
the rev'rend Calchas
cried : Ye Grecian
warriors, lay your
fears aside, This
wondrous signal Jove
himself displays, Of
long, long labours,
but eternal praise.
As many birds
as by the
snake were slain,
So many years
the toils of
Greece remain; But
wait the tenth,
for llion's fall
decreed. Thus spoke
the prophet, thus
the fates succeed.
Now is not
this a curious
mode of augury1? to
conjecture by the
number of sparrows
eaten by a serpent,
the number of
years expended in
the Trojan war.
Why years rather
than months or
days? And how
-was it that
Calchas selected sparrows,
in which there
is nothing supernatural,
for the signs
of his prophecy
1 while he
is silent about
the serpent, which
1 This is
a mistake of
Cicero's. It is
Ulysses who speaks.
The pas sage
occurs in Iliad . JTU
changed, as it
is said, into stone (an
event which is
im possible). Lastly,
what analogy or
relatkfe can subsist
between the sparrows
seen and the
years predicted 1
As to what
you have said
respecting the serpent
which appeared to
Sylla while he
was sacrificing, I
recollect the whole
circumstance; and remember
that just as
Sylla was about
to attack the
enemy at Nola,
he made a
sacrifice, and that
at the moment
the victim was
offered, a serpent
issued from beneath
the altar, and
that the same
day a glorious
victoiy was gained,
not l;wing
to the advice
of the soothsayers,
but to the
skill of the
general. And prodigies of
this kind have
nothing miracu lous
in them ; which,
when they have
taken place, are
brought under conjecture
by some particular
interpretation, as in
the case of
the grain of
wheat found in
the mouth of
Midas while an
infant, or that
of the bees,
which are said
to have settled
on the lips
of the infant
Plato. Such things
are less admirable
for themselves than
for the conjectures
they gave rise
to ; for they
may either not
have taken place
at the time
specified, or have
been fulfilled by
mere accident. I
likewise suspect the
truth of the
report which you
have related respecting
Roscius namely, that
a serpent was
found coiled round
him when he
was in his
cradle. But even
if it be
a fact that
a serpent was
thus in the
cradle, it is not very
wonderful, especially in
Solonium, where snakes
are in the
habit of basking
before the fire.
As to the
interpretation which the
soothsayers gave of the circumstance,
that the child
would become most
illustrious and most
celebrated, I. am
astonished that the
immortal Gods should
have announced such
great glory to
a comedian, and
preserved such an
obsti nate silence
respecting Scipio Africanus.
You have related
several prodigies whicli
happened to Flaminiusj
for instance, that
his horse suddenly
fell with him, there
is surely nothing
very astonishing in
that. Also, that
the standard of
the first centurion
could not easily
be pulled out
of the earth.
Perhaps the standard-bearer was
pulling but timidly
at the stick
which he had
fixed in the
ground with confident
resolution. What is the wonder
in the horse
of Dionysius having
escaped out of the river,
and in his
afterwards having had
a swarm of
bees cluster on
his mane? But
because Dionvsius happened
to ascend the throne
of Syracuse soon
after this event,
what had happened
by chance was
regarded as an
extraordinary prodigy and
prognostic. You go
on to say,
that at Lacedsemon,
the armour in
the temple of
Hercules rattled. At
Thebes the closed
gates of the
temple of the
same God suddenly
burst open of
their own accord,
and the bucklers
which had been
suspended on the
walls fell to
the ground. Certainly
nothing of this kind
could have happened
without some motion
or impulse ; but
why need we
impute such motion
to the Gods
rather than call
it an accident1?
At Delphi, you
say, that a
chaplet of wild
herbs suddenly appeared
growing on the
head of Lysander's
statue. Do you
think then that
the chaplet of
herbs existed before
any seed was
ripened 1 These
seeds were probably
carried there by
birds, not by
human agency, and
whatever is on
a head may seem to
resemble a crown.
And as to
the circum stance
which you add,
that about the
same time the
golden stars of
Castor and Pollux,
placed in the
temple of Delphi,
suddenly vanished, and
could nowhere be
discovei'ed ; this seems
to me not
so much the
work of the
Gods, as the
sacrilege of thieves.
I certainly do
wonder at the
roguery of the
Ape of Dodona
being recorded in
the Greek histories.
For what is
less strange than
that a most
mischievous animal should
have upset the
urn, and scattered
the oracular lots?
The his torians,
however, deny that
this prodigy was
followed by any
disastrous event occurring
among the Lacedaemonians. Now
to come to
what you have
reported respecting the
citizen of Veii,
who declared to
the Senate that
if the. Lake
Albanus overflowed, and
ran into the
sea, Rome would
perish, and that
if its course
were diverted elsewhere,
Veii must fall.
Accordingly the water
of the Alban
lake was subsequently
drained away by new channels,
not for the
safety of the
citadel and the
city, but solely
for the benefit
of the suburban
district. A short
time afterwards, a
voice was heard,
warning cer tain
individuals to beware
lest Rome should
be taken by
the Gauls; and
upon this they
consecrated an altar
on the New
Road, to Aius
the Speaker. What,
then, did this
Aius the Speaker
speak and talk,
and derive his
name from that
circumstance, when no
one knew him ;
and has he
been silent ever
since he has
had an habitation,
an altar, and a name
1 And the
same remark will
apply to Juno
the Admonitress; for
what warning has
she ever given
us, except the
one respecting the
full sow 1
XXXIII. This is
enough to say
about prodigies. Let
me now speak
of auspices and
of lots those,
I mean, which
are thrown at
hazard, not those
which are announced
by vati cination,
which we more
properly call oracles,
and which we
shall discuss when
we investigate divination
of the natural
order; and after
this we will
consider the astrology
of the Chaldeans.
But first let
us consider the
question of auspices.
It is a
very delicate matter
for an augur
to speak against
them. Yes, to a
Marsian perhaps, but
not to a Roman. For
we are not
like those who
attempt to predict
the future by
the flight of
birds, and the
observation of other
signs ; and yet
I believe that
Romulus, who founded
our city by
the auspices, considered
the augural science
of great utility
in foreseeing matters. For
antiquity was deceived
in many things,
which time, custom,
and enlarged experience
have corrected. And
the custom of
reverence for, and
discipline and rights
of, the augurs,
and the authority
of the college,
are still retained
for the sake
of their influence
on the minds
of the common
people. And certainly
the consuls P.
Claudius and L.
Junius de served
severe punishment, who
set sail in
defiance of the
auspices ; for they
ought to have
been obedient to
the esta blished
religion, and not to have
rejected so obstinately
the national ceremonials.
Justly, therefore, was
one of them
condemned by the
judgment of the
people, while the
other perished by
his own hand.
Flaminius, likewise, was
not duly submissive
to the auspices;
and that was
the reason, you
say, why he
was defeated. But,
the year afterwards,
Paullus was guided
by them. Did
he the less
for that perish
with his army
in the battle
of Cannes 1
Even allowing the
existence of auspices,
which I do
not, certainly those
at present in
use, whether by
means of birds
or celestial signs,
are but mere
semblances of auspices,
and not real
ones. Quintus
Fabius, I pray
thee, assist me
in the auspices.
He answers, I
have heard. The augurial
officer among our
forefathers was a
skilful and learned
man ; now they
take the first
that offers. For
a man must
needs be skilful
and learned who
understands the meaning
of silence. For
in auspices we
call that silence
which is free
from all Irregularity.
To understand this,
belongs to a
perfect augur. It
sometimes happens, however,
that when he
who wishes to
consult the auspices
has said to
the augur whom
he has chosen
to assist him, Say,
if silence is
observed, the augur,
without looking above
or around him,
answers immediately, Silence
appears to be
observed. On this
the consulter rejoins,
Tell me
whether the chickens
are eating. The
augur replies, They
are eating. But
when the consulter
fur ther demands,
What kind
of fowls are
they, and whence
do they come?
the augur answers,
The chickens were
brought in a
cage by a
person who is
termed a poulterer.
Such, then, are
the illustrious birds
whom we call,
forsooth, the messengers
of Jupiter ; and
whether they eat
or not, what
does it signify?
Certainly nothing to
the auspices. But
since, if they
eat at all,
some portion of
food must inevitably
fall on the
ground and strike
(pavire) the earth,
this was at
first called terripavium,
then terripudium, and is now
called tripudium. When,
therefore, the chicken
lets fall from
its beak a
particle of its
food, the augur
declares that the
tripu dium solistimum
is consummated. What true
divination can there
be in an
auspice of this nature,
so artificially forced
and tortured? which,
we have a
proof, was not
used among the
most ancient augurs;
for we have
an ancient decree
of the college
of augurs, that
any bird may
make the tripudium.
So that, then,
there would be
an auspice if
the bird was
free to show
itself, and the
bird might appear
to be the
messenger and interpreter
of Jupiter. But
when a miserable
bird is kept
in a cage,
and ready to
die of hunger, if
such an one,
when pecking up
its food, happens
to let some
particle fall, can
you think this
an auspice, or
do you believe
that Romulus consulted
the gods in
this manner? Do
you imagine that
those who pretend
to augury apply
themselves at the
present day to
discern the signs
of heaven 1 No
; they
give their orders
to the poulterer.
He makes his
report. It has
been reckoned an
excellent auspice on all occasions, among the
Romans, when it
thunders on the
left hand, except
in reference to
the Comitia ; and
this exception was
doubtless contrived for
the benefit of
the commonwealth, in
order that the chiefs of
the state might
be the interpreters
of the Comitia
in whatever concerns
the judgments of
the people, the
rights of the
laws, and the
creation of the
magistrates. But,
you argue, in consequence
of the letters
of Ti berius
Gracchus, Scipio Nasica
and Caius Martins
Figulus resigned the
consulship, because the
augurs determined that
they had been
irregularly created. Well,
who denies that
there is a
school of Augurs
1 What I
deny is, that
there is any
such thing as
divination. But
the soothsayers are
diviners ; and after
Tiberius Gracchus had
introduced them into
the senate, on
account of the
sudden death of
the individual whose
office it was
to report the
order of the
elections, they said
that the Comitia
had not been
legally constituted. Now,
in reference to
this case, observe
that they could
not speak by
authority of the
summoner of the
president of the
centuries, for he
was dead; and
conjecture without divination
could say that.
Or perhaps what
they said was
no better than
the result of
chance, which prevails
to a considerable
extent in all
affairs of this
nature. For what
could the sooth
sayers of Etruria
know as to
whether the tent
they observed was
as it should
be, and whether
the regulations of
the pomoerium, or
circumvallation, were exactly
obeyed. For myself,
I agree with
the sentiments of
Caius Marcellus rather
than with those
of Appius Claudius,
who were both
of them my
colleagues ; and I
think that, although
the college and
law of augurs
were first instituted
on account of
the reverence entertained
for divination in
ancient times, they
were afterwards maintained
and preserved for the sake
of the state. Of
this, however, more
elsewhere. At present,
let us examine
the auguries of
other nations who
have evinced therein
more superstition than
art. They make
use of all
kinds of birds
for their auspices;
we confine ourselves
to few: and
one set of
omens are reckoned
unfavourable by them,
and a different
set by us.
King Deiotarus often
asked me for
an account of
our discipline and
system of divination,
and I asked him for
information aoout nis.
Good heavens ! how
different were the
two methods, in
some instances, so
much so as
to be downright
contradictory to one
another. And he
had re course
to augurs on
all occasions ; but
how very seldom
do we apply
to them unless
the auspices are
required by the
people! Our ancestors
were unwilling to
wage any war
without consulting the
auspices. But how
many years have
elapsed since this
ceremony has been
neglected by our
proconsuls and propraetors?
They never take
auspices ; they do
not pass over
rivers by the
encouragement of omens ;
nor do they
wait for the
intimation of the
sacred chickens. As
to that divination
which consists in
observing the flight
of birds from
some elevated spot once
considered of so
much consequence in
military expeditions, MARCO MARCELLO, who
was consul five
times, as well
as imperator and
chief augur too,
omitted it altogether.
What is become,
then, of divina
tion by birds,
which (as wars
are carried on
by people who
take no care
about any auspices)
seems to be
retained by the
city magistrates, while
it is renounced
by our military
com manders? So
much did Marcellus
despise auspices, that
when he was
proceeding on any
enterprise, he was
accustomed to travel
in a closed
litter, that he
might not be
liable to be
hindered by them.
And we augurs
now-a-days act much
in the same
way, when, for
fear of what
is called a
joint auspice, we
order the sacrificial
cattle to be
separated from each
other. Not that
I commend conduct
like this ; for
to make these
contrivances, either that
an auspice should
not happen at
all, or that
if it happens
it should not
be seen, what
is it but
an attempt to
avoid the admonitions
of Jupiter? It
is ridiculous enough
for you to
assert that this
king Deiotarus did
not repent of
having believed the
auspices which he
experienced when he
went in search
of Pompey, because
he had, by
doing his duty,
thus secured the
fidelity and friendship
of the Romans ;
for that praise
and glory were
dearer to him
than his kingdom
and possessions. I
dare say they
were ; but this
has nothing to
do with the
auspices. Surely no
crow could inform
him that it
was a piece
of magnanimity to
defend the liberty
of the Roman
people. It was
he himself who
felt spontaneously what
he did feel;
and birds can do
no more than
signify bare events,
be they for
tunate or disastrous.
Thus, I conceive
that Deiotarus in
this affair followed
no other auspices
than those of
conscience, which taught
him to prefer
his duty to
his interest. But
if the birds
showed him that
the result would
be prosperous, they
certainly deceived him;
for he fled
from the battle,
together with Pompey,
and a grievous
time it was
for him. From
this general he was compelled
to separate another
affliction; and, to
crown his troubles,
he soon had
Csesar quartered upon
him, both as
a guest and
an enemy. What
could be more
painful than this?
Lastly, Csesar, after
having deprived him
of the tetrarchy
of the Trogini,
and bestowed it
on a certain
Pergamenian of his
train, after having
likewise deprived him
of Armenia, which
had been granted
him by the
senate, after having
been entertained by
him with most
princely hospitality, left
his entertainer the
king wholly stripped
of his possessions.
It is needless
to add more.
I will return
to my original
subject. If we
seek to know
events by those
auspices which are
sought from birds,
it appears by
this argument that
no birds could
truly have predicted
prosperity to king
Deiotarus. If we
want to know our duty,
that is not
to be sought
from augury, but
from virtue. I say nothing,
then, of the
augural staff of
Romulus, which you
declare to have
remained unconsumed by
fire in the
midst of a
general conflagration ; and
pass over the
razor of Attius
Navius, which is
reported to have
cut through a
whetstone. Such fables
as these should
not be admitted
into philosophical discussions.
What a philosopher
has to do
is, first, to
examine the nature
of the augural
science, to investigate
its origin, and
to pursue its
history. But how
pitiful is the
nature of a science which
pretends that the
eccentric motions of
birds are full
of ominous import,
and that all
manner of things
must be done,
or left undone,
as their flights
and songs may
indicate ! How can
their inclinations to
the right or
left determine the
power of auspices?
and how, when,
and by wrhom
were such absurd
regulations as these
invented? The Etrurian
soothsayers hold as
the author of
their dis cipline
a child whom
a ploughshare suddenly
dug up from
a clod of
the earth. Whom
do we Romans
look upon as the
author of ours?
Is it Attius
Navius? But Romulus
and Remus lived
several years before
him, and they
were both augurs,
as we are
informed. Shall we
call our system
the invention of
the Pisidians, the
Cilicians, or the
Phrygians 1 Shall
we, by speaking
thus, call men
devoid of all
civilization the authors
of divination? But, you
say, all
kings, people, and
nations use auspices ; as
if there was
anything in the
world so very
common as error
is, or as if you
yourself, in judging,
were guided by
the opinion of
the multitude. How
few, for instance,
are there who
deny that pleasure
is a good:
most people even
think it the
chief good. But
is the Stoic
frightened from his
creed by their
numbers? or does
the multitude follow
their authority in
many things 1
What wonder is
there, then, if
in respect of
auspices, and all
kinds of divinations,
weak spirits are
affected by those
popular superstitions, though
they cannot overturn
the truth 1
And what uniformity
or settled agreement
exists between augurs [The
poet Ennius, referring
to our Roman
augurs, says When
on the left
it thunders, all
goes well. In
Homer, on the
contrary, Ajax,1 making
some complaint or
other to Achilles
about the ferocity
of the Trojans,
speaks in this
manner For them
the father of
the Gods declares,
His omens on
the right, his
thunder theirs. So
that omens on
the left appear
fortunate to us,
while the Greeks
and barbarians prefer
those on the
right. Although I
am not unaware
that our Romans
call prosperous signs
sinistra, even if
they are in
fact dextra. But
certainly our countrymen
used the term
sinistra, and foreigners
the word dextra,
because that usually
appeared the best.
How great, however,
is this contrariety !
Why need I
stop to mention
that they use
different birds and
different signs from
our selves? they
take their observations
in a different
way, and give
answers in a
different way; and
it is superfluous
to admit that
some of these
modes are adopted
through error, some
through superstition, and
that they often
mislead. To this catalogue
of superstitions you
have not hesi-
1 This is
another piece of forge
tfulness on the
part of CICERONE (si veda). See Iliad.
tated to add
a number of
omens and presages.
For instance, you
have quoted the
words which ./Emilia
addressed to Paulus,
that Perses had
perished; which Paulus
received as an
omen of success.
You quote likewise
the speech that
Cecilia made to
her sister's daughter I yield
my place to
you. Nor is
this all : you
cite the phrase,
favete linguis (keep
silence); and you
extol the prerogative
presage derived from
the name of
the person who
takes precedence in
the elections of the comitia.
I call this
being ingenious and
eloquent against yourself;
for how, if
you attend to
things like these,
can your mind
be free and
calm enough to
follow, not supersti
tion, but reason,
as your guide
in action 1
Is it not so? If
any one, while
speaking on his
own affairs, in the course
of his common
conversation, drops a
word that may
seem to you
to bear on
anything which you
are thinking or
doing, shall that
circumstance inspire you
with either fear
or energy? When
Marcus Crassus was
embarking his army
at Brundu- sium,
a. certain itinerant
vender of figs
from Caunus cried
out in the
harbour, Will
you buy any
cauneas / Let
us say, if
you please, that
this was an
omen against Crassus's
expedition ; for that
it was as
much as to
say, Cave ne
eas (Beware how
you go), and
that if Crassus
had obeyed the
omen he would
not have perished.
But if we
regard such omens
as these, we
shall have to
take notice of
sneezes, the breaking
of a shoe-tie,
or the tripping
over a pebble
in walking. It
now remains for
us to speak
of the lots,
and the Chal
dean astrologers, vaticinations, and
dreams. And first
let us speak
of lots. What,
now, is a lot? Much
the same as
the game of
mora, or dice, !
and other games
of chance, in
which luck and
fortune are all
in all, and
reason and skill
avail nothing. These
games are full
of trick and
deceit, invented for
the object of
gain, superstition, or
error. But let
us examine the
imputed origin of
the lots, as
we did that
of the system
of the soothsayers.
We read in the records
of the Prsenestines,
that Numeriua Sufnicius,
a man of
high reputation and
rank, had often
been commanded by
dreams (which at
last became very
threaten- ! The Latin
has quod talos
jacere, quod tesseras, tali
being dice with
four flat and
two round sides,
and tesserce dice
with six flat
sides. ing) to
cut a flint-stone
in two, at
a particular spot.
Being extremely alarmed
at the vision,
he began to
act in obedience
to it, in
spite of the
derision of his
fellow-citizens; and he
had no sooner
divided the stone,
than he found
therein certain lots,
engraved in ancient
characters on oak.
The spot in
•which this discovery
took place is
now religiously guarded,
being consecrated to
the infant Jupiter,
who is represented
with Juno as
sitting in the
lap of Fortune,
and sucking her
breasts, and is
most chastely worshipped
by all mothers.
At the same
time and place
in which the
Temple of For
tune is now
situated, they report
that honey flowed
out of an
olive. Upon this
the augurs declared
that the lots
there instituted would
be held in
the highest honour;
and, at their
command, a chest
was forthwith made
out of this
same olive- tree,
and therein those
lots are kept
by which the
oracles of Fortune
are still delivered.
But how can
there be the
least degree of
sure and certain
information in lots
like these, which,
under Fortune's direction,
are shuffled and
drawn by the
hands of a child? How
were the lots
conveyed to this
particular spot, and
who cut and
carved the oak
of which they
are composed 1 Oh, say
they, there
is nothing which
God cannot do.
I wish that
he had made
these Stoical sages
a little less
inclined to believe
every idle tale,
out of a
superstitious and miserable
solicitude. The common
sense of men
in real life
has happily succeeded
in exploding this
kind of divination.
It is only
the antiquity and
beauty of the
Temple of Fortune
that any longer
pre serves the
Prsenestine lots from
contempt even among
the vulgar. For
what magistrate, or
man of any
reputation, ever resorts
to them now?
And in all
other places they
are wholly disregarded;
so that Clitomachus
informs us, that
with refe rence
to this, Carneades
was wont to say that
he had never
been so fortunate
as when he saw Fortune
at Prseneste. So we
will say no
more on this
topic. Let us now consider
the prodigies of the Chaldeans.
Eudoxus, who was a disciple
of Plato, and,
in the judgment
of the greatest
men, the first
astronomer of his
time, formed the
opinion, and committed
it to writing,
that no credence
should be given
to the predictions
of the Chaldeans
in their calculation
of a man's
life from the
day of his
nativity. Paneetius, who is almost
the only member of THE PORTICO who
rejects astro logical
prophecies, says that
Archelaus and Cassander,
the two principal
astronomers of the
age in which
he himself lived,
set no value
on judicial astrology,
though they were
very celebrated for
their learning in
other parts of astronomy.
Scylax of Halicarnassus, a
great friend of
Pansetius, and a
first-rate astronomer, and
chief magistrate of
his own city,
likewise rejected all
the predictions of
the Chaldeans. But
to proceed merely
on reason, omitting
for the present
the testimony of
these witnesses. Those
who put faith
in the Chaldeans,
and their calcu
lations of nativities,
and their various
predictions, argue in
this manner: they
affirm that in
that circle of
constellations which the
Greeks term the
Zodiac there resides
a ceiiain energy,
of such a
character that each
portion of its
circum ference influences
and modifies the
surrounding heavens ac
cording to what
stars are in
those and the
neighbouring parts at
each season ; and
that this energy
is variously affected
by those wandering
stars which we
call planets. But
when they come
into that portion
of the circle
in which is
situated the rise
of that star
which appears anew,
or into that
which has anything
in conjunction or
harmony with it,
they term it
the true or
quadrate aspect. And
moreover, as there
happen at every
season of the
year several astronomical
revolutions, owing to
approximations and retirements
of the stars
which we see,
which are affected
by the power
of the sun, they
think it not
merely probable, but
true, that according
to the temperature
of the atmosphere
at the time
must be the
animation and formation
of children from
their mother's womb;
and that their
genius, disposition, temper,
constitution, behaviour, fortune,
and destiny through
life depend upon
that. What an incredible
insanity is this !
for every error
does not deserve
the mere name
of folly. The
Stoic Diogenes grants,
that the Chaldeans
possess the power
of foreseeing certain
events ; to the
limit, that is,
of predicting what
a child's disposition
and his particular
talent and ability
are likely to
be. But he denies that
the other things
which they profess
can possibly be
known. For instance ;
two twins may
re semble each
other in appearance,
and yet their
lives and fortunes
may be entirely
dissimilar. Procles and
Eurysthenes, kings of
the Laceduemonians, were
twin-brethren. But they
did not live
the same number
of years ; for
Procles died a
year before his
brother, and much
excelled him in
the glory of
his actions. But
I question whether
even that portion
of prophetic power
which the worthy
Diogenes concedes to
the Chaldeans, by
a sort of
prevarication in argument,
can be fairly
ascribed to them.
For, as according
to them the
birth of infants
is regulated by
the moon, and
as the Chaldeans
observe and take
notice of the
natal stars with
which the moon
happens to be
in conjunction at
the moment of
a nativity, they
are founding their
judgment on the
most fallacious evidence
of their eyes,
as to matters
which they ought
to behold by
reason and intellect.
For the science
of Mathematics, with
which they ought
to be acquainted,
should teach them
the comparative proximity
of the moon
to the earth,
and its re
lative remoteness from
the planets Venus
and Mercury, and
especially from the
sun, whose light
it is supposed
to borrow. And
the other three
intervals, those, namely,
which separate the
sun from Mars
and from Jupiter
and from Saturn,
and the distance
also between that
and the heaven,
which is the
bound and limit
of our universe,
are infinite and
immense. What influence,
then, can such
distant orbs ti'ansmit
to the moon,
or rather to
the earth? Moreover,
when these astrologers
maintain, as they
are bound to
maintain, that all
children that are
born on the
earth under the
same planet and
constellation, having the
same signs of nativity, must
experience the same
destinies, they make
an assertion which
evinces the greatest
ignorance of astronomy.
For those circles
which divide the
heaven into hemispheres circles
which the Greeks
call horizons, and
the Latins finientes perpetually
vary according to the spot
from which they
are drawn ; and,
therefore, the risings
and settings of
the stars appear
to take place
at different seasons
to dif ferent
races of men.
If, then, the
condition of the
atmosphere is affected
by the energy
and virtue of
the stars, sometimes
in one way
and sometimes in
another, how can
those children who
are born at
the same time
in different climates
be subject to
the same starry
influences in various
quarters of the
globe 1 For
instance, in the
country which we
Romans inhabit, the
dog-star rises some
days after the
summer solstice, while
among the Troglodytes,
a people of
Africa, it is
said to rise
before it. So
that if I
were to grant
that the heavenly
influences have an
effect upon all
the children who
are born upon
the earth, it
would follow, that
all who are
born at the
same time in
different regions of
the earth, must
be born not
with the same
but with different
inclinations according to
the different conditions
of climate; which,
however, they by
no means admit.
For they persist
in maintaining that
all chil dren
who are born
at the same
period, have at
their nativity the
same astrologicl destinies
allotted to them,
whatever their native
country may be. But
what folly is
it to imagine,
that while attending
to the swift
motions and revolutions
of heaven, we
should take no
notice of the
changes of the
atmosphere immediately around
us, its weather,
its winds, and
rains when weather
differs so much
even in places
which are nearest
to one another,
that there is
often one weather
at Tusculum and
another at Rome;
as is especially
remarked by sailors,
who, after having
doubled a cape,
often find the
greatest possible change
in the wind.
When the calmness
or disturbed state
of the weather
is so variable,
is it the
part of a
man in his
senses to say
that these circumstances
have no effect
on the births
of children happen
ing at that
moment, (as, indeed,
they have not,)
and yet to
affirm, that that
subtle and indefinable
thing, which cannot
be felt at
all, and can
scarcely be comprehended, namely, the
conjuncture which arises
from the moon
and other stars,
does affect the
birth of children
1 What? is
it a slight
error, not to
understand that by
this system that
energy of seminal
principles which is
of so much
influence in begetting
and procreating the
child is utterly
put out of
sight? for who
can help observing
that the parents
impress on their
children, to a
great extent, their
own forms, manners,
features, and gestures.
Now this could
hardly happen if
it were not
the power and
nature of the
parents which was
the efficient cause,
but the condition
of the moon
and the temperature
of the heavens.
Why need I
press the argument
that those who
are born at
one and the
same moment, are
dissimilar in their
nature, their lives,
and their circumstances? Besides,
is there any
doubt that many
persons, though they
were born with
great bodily defects,
are never theless
afterwards cured of
them, and set
right by the
self- corrective power
of their nature,
or by the
attention of their
nui-ses, or the
skill of their
physicians? or that
many chil dren
have been born
so tongue-tied that
they could not
speak, and yet
have been cured
by the application
of the knife'?
Many likewise by
meditation or exercise
have removed their
natural infirmities. Thus
Phalereus records that
Demos thenes when
young could not
pronounce the letter
R; but afterwards
by constant practice
he learnt to
articulate it perfectly.
Now, if such
defects had been
occasioned by the
influence of the
stars, nothing could
have altered them.
Need I say
more? Does not
difference of situation
make races of
men different 1 It is
easy enough to
give a list
of such instances;
and to point
out what differences
exist be tween
the Indians and
Persians, the ^Ethiopians
and Syrians, in
respect both of
their persons and
characters, so as to present
an incredible variety
and dissimilarity. And
this fact proves,
that the climate
influences the nativities
of men far
more than the
aspect of the
moon and stars.
For though some
pretend that the
Chaldean astrologers have
verified the nativities
of children by
calculations and experi
ments in the
cases of all
the children who
have been born
for 470,000 years,
this is a
mistake. For had
they been in
the habit of
doing so, they
would never have
given up the
practice. But. as
it is, no
author remains who
knows of such
a thing being
done now, or
ever having been
done. You see that
I am not
using the arguments
of Carneades, but
those rather of Pantetius, the
chief of the
Stoics But answer
me now this
question. Were all
those persons who
were slain in
the battle of
Cannae born under
the same constellation, as
they met with
one and the
same end? Again,
have those men
who are singular
in their genius
and courage, a
separate, some peculiar
star of their
own too 1
For what moment
is there in
which a multitude
of persons are
not born? and
yet no one
has ever been
like Homer. And
if the aspect
of the stars
and the state
of the firma
ment influenced the
birth of every
being, it should,
by parity of
reasoning, influence inanimate
substances; yet what
can be more
absurd than such
an idea? I
grant, indeed, that
Lucius Tarutius of
Firma, my own
personal friend, and
a man particularly
well acquainted with
the Chaldean astrology,
traced back the
nativity of our
own city, Rome,
to those equinoctial
days of the
feast of Pales
in which Romulus
is reported to
have begun its
foundations, and asserted
that the moon
was at that
period in Libra,
and on this
discovery, he hesitated
not to pronounce
the destinies of
Rome. Oh, the
mighty power of
delusion ! Is even
the b'irth-day of
a city subject
to the influence
of the stars
and moon'? Granting
even that the
condition of the
heavens, when he
draws his first
breath, may influence
the life of a
child, does it
follow that it
can have any
effect on brick
or cement, of
which a city
is composed? Why
need I say
more? Such ideas
as these are
refuted every day.
How many of
these Chaldean prophecies
do I remember
being repeated to
Pompey, Crassus, and
to Caesar himself !
according to which,
not one of
these heroes was
to die except
in old age,
in domestic felicity,
and perfect renown ;
so that I
wonder that any
living man can
yet believe in
these impostors, whose
predictions they see
falsified daily by
facts and results.
It only remains
for us now
to examine those
ttfo sorts of
divination which you
term natural, as
distin guished from
artificial namely, vaticinations
and dreams. With
your permission, brother
Quiutus, we will
now treat of
these. I shall
be very well
pleased to hear
you, (answered Quintus,)
for I entirely
agree with all
you have hitherto
advanced, and, to
tell you the
trut, although I
have had my
feelings on the
subject strengthened by
your arguments, yet
of my own
accord I looked
upon the opinion
of the Stoics
respecting divination as
rather too superstitious, and
was more inclined
to favour the
arguments which have been
adduced by the
Peripatetics, and the
ancient DicEearchus. and
Cratippus, who now
flourishes, who all
maintain that there
exists in the
minds of men
a certain oracular
and pro phetic
power of presentiment,
whereby they anticipate
future events, whether
they are inspired
with a divine
ecstasy, or are
r.s it were
disengaged from the
body, and act
freely and easily
during sleep. I
wish therefore to
know what is
your opinion respecting
these vaticinations and
dreams, and by
what ingenious devices
you mean to
invalidate them. When
Quintus had thus
spoken, I proceeded
again to speak,
starting afresh, as
it were, from
a new beginning.
I am very
well aware, brother
Quintus, I replied,
that you have
always entertained doubts
respecting the other
kinds of divination;
but that you
are very favourable
to the two natural kinds namely,
ecstasy and dreams,
which appear to
proceed from the
mind when at
liberty. T will
therefore tell you
my idea very
candidly respecting these
two species of
divination, after I have examined
a little the
sentiment of the
Stoics, and espe
cially of our
friend Cratippus, on
this subject. For
you said that
Cratippus, Diogenes, and
Antipater summed up
the question in
this manner : If
there are Gods,
and they do
not inform men
beforehand respecting future
events, either they
do not love
men, or do
not know what
is going to
happen; or they
think that the
knowledge of the
future would be
of no service
to mankind; or
they believe it
incon sistent with
the majesty of
Gods to reveal
to men the
things that must
come to pass;
or, lastly, we
must believe that
even the Gods
themselves are incapable
of declaring them.
But we cannot
say that the
Gods do not
love man, for
they are essentially
benevolent and philanthropic. And
they cannot be
ignorant of those
things, which they
themselves have appointed
and designed: neither
can it be
uninteresting or unimportant
to us to
know what must
happen to us,
for we should
be more prudent
if we did
know. Nor can
the Gods think
it inconsistent with
their dignity to
advertise men of
future events, for
nothing can be
more sublime than
doing- good. Nor
are they unable
to perceive the
future before hand.
If, therefore, there
are no Gods,
they do not
declare the future
to us; but
there are Gods,
therefore they do
declare. And if
the Gods declare
future events to
us, they must
have furnished us
with means whereby
we may appre
hend them, otherwise
they would declare
them in vain;
and if they
have given us
the means of
apprehending divination, then
there is a
divination for us
to apprehend therefore
there is a
divination. 0 acutest
of men, in
what concise terms
do they think
that they have
settled the question
for ever! They
assume premises to draw
their conclusion from,
not one of
which is granted
to them. But
the only conclusion
of an argument
which can be
approved, is one
in which the
point doubted of
is established by
facts which are
not doubtful. L.
Do you not
see how Epicurus,
whom the Stoics
forsooth term a
blunderer, reasons in
order to prove
that the universe
is infinite in
the very nature
of things? That
which is finite,
says he, has
an end. Every
one will concede
this. What ever
has an end,
may be seen
externally from something
else. This also
may be granted
him. Now that
which includes al,
cannot be discerned
externally from anything
else. This proposition
likewise appears undeniable.
Therefore that which
includes all, having
no end, is
necessarily infinite. Thus
by the proposition
which we are
compelled to admit,
he clearly proves
the point in
question. Now this
is just what
you dialecticians have
not yet done
in favour of
divination ; and you
not only bring
forward no pro
position as your
premises, so self-evident
as to be
universally admitted; but
you assume such
premises as, even
if they be
granted, your desired
conclusion would be
as far as
ever from following.
For instance, your
first proposition is
this: If there
are Gods they
must needs be
benevolent. Who will
grant you this
1 Will Epicurus,
who asserts that
the Gods do
not care about
any business of
their own or
of others? or
will our own
countryman Ennius, who
was applauded by all the
Romans, when he
said I've always
argued that the
Gods exist, But
that they care
for mortals I deny
; and
then gives reasons
for his opinion;
but it is
not neces sary
to quote him
further. I have
said enough to
show that your
friends assume as
certain, propositions which
are matters of
doubt and controversy.
The next proposition
is this, That
the Gods must
needs know all
things, because they
have made all
things. But how
great a dispute
is there as
to this fact
among the most
learned men, several
of whom deny
that all things
were created by
the immortal Gods!
Again, they assert,
that it is
the interest of
man to know
those things which
are about to
come to pass.
But Dicsear- chus
has written a
great book to
prove that ignorance
of futurity is
better than knowledge
of futurity. They
deny that it
is inconsistent with
the majesty of
the Gods to
look into every
man's house, forsooth,
so as to
see what is
expedient for each
individual. Nor is
it possible, say
they, for them
to be ignorant
of the future. This
is denied by
those who will
not allow that
what is future
can be certain.
Do not you
see, therefore, that
they have assumed
as certain and
admitted axioms, things
which are doubtful?
After which, they
twist the argument
about and sum
it up thus : Therefore, there
are no Gods;
and they do
not grant men
intimations of the
future. And, having
settled the question
thus, to their
own satisfaction, they
add, But
there are Gods;
a fact which
is not admitted
by all men; there
fore, they do
grant intimations. Even
that consequence I
cannot see; for
they may grant
no intimations of
the future and
yet exist as
Gods. Again, it
is asserted; If
the Gods grant
intimations to men
respecting future events,
they must grant
some means of
explaining these intimations.
But surely the
contrary may be
the case ; for
the Gods may
keep to themselves
the mean ing
of the signs
which they impart
to men ; for
else, why should
they teach it
to the Etrurians
rather than to the Romans?
Again, they argue,
that if the
Gods have given
men the means
of understanding the
signs they impart,
then the existence
of divination is
manifest. Biit grant
that the Gods
do give such
means, what does
it avail, if
we happen to
be incapable of
receiving them 1
Last of all,
their conclusion is ;
Therefore, there certainly
is such a
thing as divination.
It may be
their conclusion, but
it is not
proved; for, as
they themselves have
taught us, •'
false premises cannot
produce a true
result. Therefore, the
whole conclusion falls
to the ground.
Let us now
consider the arguments
of that most
excellent man, our
friend Cratippus. As,
says he, the
use and function
of sight cannot
exist without the
eyes and yet
the eyes do not always
perform their office, and,
as he who
has once enjoyed
correct sight, so as to
see what truly
exists, is conscious
of the reality
of vision ; so,
if the practice
of divination cannot
exist without the
power of divination
and though in
the exercise of
this power of
divination some errors
may occur, and
the diviner may
be misled so
as not to
foresee the truth ;
yet the existence
of divination is
sufficiently attested by
the fact that
some true divinations
have been made,
containing such exact
predictions of all
the particulars of
future events, that
they can never
have been made
by chance, of
which numerous instances
might be cited.
The exist ence
of divination must
therefore be admitted.
The argument is
neatly and concisely
stated. But Cratippus
twice assumes what
he wishes to
prove; and even
if we were
willing to grant
him very large
concessions, we could
not possibly agree
with his conclusions.
His argument is
this: Though the
eyes should sometimes
possess very imperfect
sight, yet, provided
they sometimes see
clearly, it is
evident that the
power of vision
is in them.
On the same
principle, if any
one has ever
once uttered a
true divination, he
must always be
considered as possessing
the faculty of
divining, even when
he blunders. Now
I entreat you,
my dear Cratippus,
to consider how
little is the
resemblance between these
two cases. To
me there is
none at all.
The eyes which
see clearly exert
no more than
their natural faculty
of sight. But
minds, if they
have sometimes truly
foreseen future events,
either in ecsta
sies or dreams,
have done so
by fortune and
accident ; unless, indeed,
you imagine those
who believe that
dreams are but
dreams, will grant
you that when
they happen to
dream any thing
that is true,
it is no
longer the effect
of chance. But
we may concede
for the present
these two assumptions
of Cratippus, which
the Greek dialecticians
would call lem
mata. But we
prefer speaking in
Latin; still the
presump tion, which
they term prolepsis,
cannot be granted.
Cratippus goes on
assuming premises in
this manner: There
are, says he,
presentiments innumerable which
are not fortuitous.
Now this we
absolutely deny. See
how great is
the magnitude of
the difference between
us. Not being
able to agree
with his premises,
I assert that
he has drawn
no conclusion. Oh,
but perhaps it
is very impudent
of us not
to concede a
point which is
so clear ! But
what is clear? Why,
he replies, that
many predictions are
fulfilled. Yes ; but
are there not
many more which
are not fulfilled?
Does not this
very variation, which
is the peculiar
property of fortune,
teach us that
fortune, not nature,
regulates such predictions? Moreover,
if your conclusion
is true, 0
renowned Cratippus! for
to you I
address myself do
not you perceive
that the soothsayers,
and those who
predict by thunder
and light ning,
and the interpreters
of prodigies, and
the augurs, and
the Chaldean astrologers,
and those who
tell fortunes by
drawing lots, will
all bring forward
the same argument
as yourself in
their own favour?
Not one of
these men has
been so unfortunate
as never on
any occasion to
find his pre
dictions verified. This
being the case,
you must either
admit all the
other kinds of
divination which you
now most properly
reject; or, if
you absolutely condemn
them, I do
not see how
you will be
able to defend
those two which
you retain as
favourable exceptions. For
on the same
principle that you
maintain these, the
others also may
be true which
you discard. LIV.
But what authority
has this same
ecstasy, which you
choose to call
divine, that enables
the madman to
foresee things inscrutable
to the sage,
and which invests
with divine senses
a man who
has lost all
his human ones
1 We Romans
preserve with solicitude
the verses which
the Sibyl is
reported to have
uttered when in
an ecstasy, the
interpreter of which
is by common
report believed to
have recently uttered
certain falsities in
the senate, to
the effect that
he whom we
did really treat
as king should
also be called
king, if we
would be safe.
If such a prediction is
indeed contained in the books
of the Sibyl,
to what particular
person or period
does it refer?
For, whoever was
the author of
these Sibylline oracles,
they are very
ingeniously com posed;
since, as all
specific definition of
person and period
is omitted, they
in some way or other
appear to predict
everything that happens.
Besides this, the
Sibylline oracles are
involved in such
profound obscurity, that
the same verses
might seem at
different times to
refer to different
subjects. It is
evident, however, that
they are not
a song composed
by any one in a
prophetic ecstasy, as the poem
itself evinces, being
far less remarkable
for enthusiasm and
inspiration than for
technicality and labour ;
and as is
especially proved by
that arrangement which
the Greeks call
acrostics where, from
the first letter
of each verse
in order, words
are formed which
express some particular
meaning ; as is the case
with some of Ennius's
verses, the initial
letters of which
make, Which Ennius
wrote. But such
verses indicate rather
attention than ecstasy
in those who
write them. Now,
in the verses
of the Sibyl,
the whole of
the paragraph on
each subject is
contained in the
initial letters of
every verse of
that same paragraph.
This is evidently
the artifice of
a practised writer,
not of one
in a frenzy;
and rather of
a diligent mind
than of an
insane one. Therefore,
let us con
sider the Sibyl
as so distinct
and isolated a
character, that, according
to the ordinance
of our ancestors,
the Sibylline books
shall not even
be read except
by decree of
the senate, and be used
rather for the
putting down than
the taking up
of religious fancies.
And let us
so arrange matters
with the priests
under whose custody
they remain, that
they may pro
phesy anything rather
than a king
from these mysterious
volumes; for neither
Gods nor men
any longer tolerate
the notion of
restoring kingly government
at Rome. LV.
But many people,
you say, have
in repeated instances
uttered true predictions ;
as, for example,
Cassandra, when she
said, Already
is the fleet,'' '
&c. ; and in
a subsequent prophecy, Ah!
see you not?
&c. Do you
then expect me
to give credence
to these fables
1 I will
grant that they
are as delightful
as you please
to call them, that
they are polished
up with every
conceivable beauty of
language, sentiment, music,
and rhythm. LuL
we are not
bound to invest
fictions of this
kind with any
authority, or to
give them any
belief. And, on the same
principle, I do
not think any
one bound to pay any
attention to such
diviners as Publicius
(whoever he may
be), or Martius,
or to the
secret oracles of
Apollo ; of which
some are notoriously
false, and others
uttered at i-an-
dom, so that
they command little
respect, I will
not say from
learned men, but
even from any
person of plain
common sense. What ! you
will say, did
not that old
sailor of the
fleet of Coponius
predict truly the
events which took
place? No doubt
he did ; but
they happened to
be those very
things which at
the time everybody
thought most likely
to ensue. For
we were daily
hearing that the
two armies were
situated near each
other in Thessaly ;
and it appeared
to us that
Caesar's army had
the greater audacity,
inasmuch as it was
waging war against
its own country,
and the greater
strength, being composed
of veteran soldiers.
And as to
the battle, there
was not one of us
who did not
dread the result,
though, as brave
men should, we
kept our anxiety
to ourselves, and
expressed no alarm.
What wonder, however,
was it that
this Greek sailor
was forced from
all self-possession and
constancy, as is
very com mon,
by the greatness
of his terror
and affright ; and
that, being driven
to distraction by
his own cowardice,
he uttered those
convictions when raving
mad which he
had cherished when
yet sane? Which,
in the name
of Gods and
men, is most
likely; that a
mad sailor should
have attained to
a know ledge
of the counsels
of the immortal
Gods, or that
some one of
us who were
on the spot
at the time myself,
for in stance,
or Cato, or
Varro, or Coponius
himself could have
done so? I
now come to
you, Apollo, monarch
of the sacred
centre Of the
threat world, full
of thy inspiration,
The Pythian priestesses
proclaim thy prophecies.
For Chrysipyus has
filled an entire
volume with your
oracles, many of
which, as I
said before, I
consider utterly false,
and many others
only true by
accident, as often
happens in any
common conversation. Others,
again, are so
obscure and involved,
that their very
interpreters have need
of other interpreters;
and the decisions
of one lot
have to be
referred to other
lots. Another portion
of them are
so ambiguous, that
they require to
be analysed by
the logic of
dialecticians. Thus, when
Fortune uttered the
following oracle respecting
Croesus, the richest
king of Asia, When
Crocus has the
Halys cross'd, A
mifdity kingdom will
be lost ; that
monarch expected he
should ruin the
power of his
enemies; but the
empire that he
ruined was his
own. And whichever
result had ensued
the oracle would
have been true.
But, in truth,
what reason have I to
believe that such
an oracle was
ever uttered respecting
Croesus 1 or
why should I think Herodotus
more veracious than
Ennuis'? Is the
one less full
of fictions respecting
Croesus than the
other is re
specting Pyrrhus 1
For who now
believes that the
following answer was
given to Pyrrhus
by the oracle
of Apollo? You ask
your fate; 0
king, I answer
you, yEacides the
Romans will subdue!
For, in the
first place, Apollo
never uttered an
oracle in Latin;
secondly, this oracle
is altogether unknown
to the Greeks.
Besides, in the
days of Pyrrhus,
Apollo had already
left off composing
verses. Lastly, although
it was always
the case, as
is said in
these lines of
Ennius, The JEacids
were but a
stupid race, More
warlike than sagacious,
yet even Pyrrhus
might without much
difficulty have per
ceived the ambiguity
of the phrase, Eacides the
Romans will subdue;
and might have
seen that it
did not apply
more to himself
than it did
to the Romans. As
to that ambiguity
which deceived Croesus,
it might even
have deceived Chrysippus.
This one could
not have deluded
even Epicurus. But
the chief argument
is, why are
the Delphic oracles
altered in such
a way that I
do not mean
only lately in
our own time,
but for a
long time nothing
can have been
more contemptible 1
When we press
our antagonists for
a reason for
this, they say
that the peculiar
virtue of the
spot from which
those exhalations of the earth
arose, under the
influence and excite
ment of which
the Pythian priestess
uttered her oracles,
has disappeared by
the lapse of
time. You might
suppose they were
speaking of wine
or salt, which
do lose their
flavour by lapse
of time; but
they are talking
thus of the
virtue of a
place, and that
not merely a
natural, but a
divine virtue; and
how is that
to have disappeared?
By reason of
age, is your
reply. But what
age can possibly
destroy a divine
virtue? and what
virtue can be
so divine as
an exhalation of
the earth which
has the power
of inspiring the
mind, and ren
dering it so
prophetic of things
to come, that
it can not
only discern them
long before they
happen, but even
declare them in
verse and rhythm?
And when did
this magical virtue
dis appear 1
Was it not
precisely at the
time when men
began to be
less credulous? Demosthenes,
who lived nearly
three hundred years
ago, said that
even in his
time the Pythia
Philippized, that is to
say, supported Philip's
influence; and his
expression was meant
to convey the
imputation that she
had been bribed
by Philip. From
which we may
infer that other
oracles besides those
of Delphi were
not quite immaculate.
Somehow or other,
certain philosophers who
are very superstitious
not to say
fanatical appear to
prefer anything to
behaving with common
sense themselves; and
so you prefer
asserting that that
has vanished, and
become extinct, which,
if it ever
had existed, must
certainly have been
eternal, rather than
not believe what
is wholly incredible. The error
with regard to the divination
of dreams is
another of the
same kind; their
arguments for which
are extremly far-fetched
and obscure. They
affirm that the
minds of men
are divine, that
they came from
God, and that
the universe is
full of these
consenting intelligences. That,
therefore, by this
inherent divinity of
the mind, and
by its conjunction
with other spirits,
it may foresee
future events. But
Zeno and the
Stoics supposed the
mind to contract,
to subside, to
yield, and even
to sleep, itself.
And Pythagoras and
Plato, authors of
the greatest weight,
advise men, with
a view of
seeing things more
certainly in sleep,
to go to
bed after having
gone through a
certain preparatory course
of food and
other conduct. Pythagoras,
for this reason,
coun selled his
disciples to abstain
from beans; with
the idea that
this species of
food excited the
mind, not the
stomach. In short,
somehow or other,
I know nothing
is so absurd
as not to have found
an advocate in one of
the philosophers. Do we then
think that the
minds of men
during sleep move
by an intrinsic
internal energy, or
that, as Democritus
pre tends, they
are affected with
external and adventitious
visions? On either
supposition we may
mistake during our
dreams many false
things for true.
For to people
sailing, those things
appear to be
in motion which
are stationary, and by
a certain ocular
deception, the light
of a candle
sometimes seems double.
Why need I
in stance the
number of false
appearances which are
presented to the
eyes of men,
among those who
labour under drunken
ness, or maniacs?
Now, if we
cannot trust such
appearances as those,
I know not
why we are
to place any
absolute reliance on the visions
of dreams; for
you might as
well, if you
pleased, argue irom
these errors as
from dreams. For
instance, that if
stationary objects appear
to move, you
might say that
this appearance indicated
the approach of an earthquake,
or some sudden
flight ; and that
lights seen double
presage wars, and
discords, and seditions. From the
visions of drunkards
and madmen one
might, doubtless, deduce
innumerable const quences
by con jecture,
which might seem
to be presages
of future events.
For what person
who aims at
a mark all
day long will
not sometimes hit
it 1 We
sleep every night;
and there are
very few on
which we do
not dream; can
we wonder then
that what we
dream sometimes comes
to pass? What
is so uncertain
as the cast
of dice 1 and yet
no one plays
dice often without
at times casting
the point of
Venus, and sometimes
even twice or
thrice in succession.
Shall we, then,
be so absurd
as to attribute
such an event
to the impulse
of Venus, rather
than to the
doctrine of chances'?
If then, on
ordinary occasions, we are not
bound to give
credit to false
appearances, I do not see
why sleep should
enjoy this special
privilege, that its
false seemings should
be honoured as
true realities. If
it were an
institution of nature
that men when
they sleep really
did the things
which they dream
about, it would
be necessary to
bind all persons
going to bed
both hand and
foot, for they
would otherwise while
dreaming perpetrate more
outrages than maniacs.
Now since we
place no confi
dence in the
visions of madmen,
simply because they
are delusions, I do not
see why we
should rely on
those of dreamers,
which are often
the wilder of
the two. Is
it because madmen
do not think
it worth while
to relate their
visions to diviners,
but those who
dream do [Once more
I put this
question. If I
feel inclined to
read or write
anything, or to
sing or play
on an instrument,
or to pursue
the sciences of
geometry, physics, or
dialectics, am I
to wait for
information in these
sciences from a dream,
or shall I
have recourse to
study, without which
none of those
things can be
either done or
explained Again, if I
were to wish
to take a
voyage, I should
never regulate my
steering by my
dreams. For such
conduct would bring
its own im
mediate punishment. How,
then, can it
be reasonable for
an invalid to
apply for relief to
an interpreter of
dreams rather than
to a physician?
Can Esculapius or
Serapis, by a
dream, best prescribe
to us the
way to obtain
a cure for
weak health 1
And cannot Neptune
do the same
for a pilot
in his art?
Or will Minerva
give us medicine
without troubling the
doctor? And still
will the Muses
refuse to impart
to dreamers the
art of writing,
reading, and the
other sciences? But
if the blessing
of health were
conveyed to us in dreams,
these other good
things would certainly
be so too.
But unfortunately the
science of medicine
cannot be learnt
in dreams, and
the other arts
are in a
similar predicament. And if that
be the case,
then all the
authority of dreams
is at an
end. LX. But
this is only
a superficial argument.
Let us now
penetrate the heart
of this question.
For either some
divine energy which
takes care of
us, gives us
presentiments in our
dreams; or those
who explain them
do, by a
certain harmony and
conjunction of nature
which they call
a~u/j.Tra.Oeia (sympathy), understand
by means of
dreams what is
suitable for everything,
and what is
the con sequence
of everything; or,
lastly, neither of
these things is
true; but there
is a constant
system of observation
of long standing,
by which it
had been remarked,
that after certain
dreams certain events
usually follow. The
first thing then
for us to
understand is, that
there is no
divine energy which
inspires dreams; and
this being granted,
you must also
grant that no
visions of dreamers
proceed from the
agency of the
Gods. For the
Gods have for
our own sake
given us intellect
sufficiently to provide
for our future
welfare. How few
people then attend
to dreams, or
under stand them,
or remember them!
How many, on
the other hand,
despise them, and
think any superstitious
observation of them
a sign of a weak
and imbecile mind!
Why then should
God take the
trouble to consult
the interest of
this man, or
to warn that
one by dreams,
when ho knows
that they not
only do not
think them worth
attending to, but
they do not
even condescend to
remember them. For
a God cannot
be ignorant of
the sentiments of
every man, and
it is unworthy
of a God
to do anything
in vain, or
without a cause;
nay, that would
be unworthy of
even a wise
man. If, therefore,
dreams are for
the most part
disregarded, or despised,
either God is
ignorant of that
being the fact, or
employs the intimation
by dreams in
vain. Neither of
these suppositions can
properly apply to
God, and therefore
it must be
confessed, that God
gives men no
inti mations by
means of dream. Again,
let me ask
you, if God gives us
visions of a
prophetic nature, in order to
apprise us of
future events, should
we not rather
expect them when
we are awake
than when we
are asleep 1
For, whether it
be some external
and adventitious impulse
which affects the
minds of those
who are asleep,
or whether those
minds are affected
voluntarily by tiieir
own agency, or
whether there is
any other cause
why we seem
to see and
hear or do
anything during sleep,
the same impulses
might surely operate
on them when
awake. And if
for our sakes
the Gods effect
this during sleep,
they might do
it for us
while awake. Especially
as Chrysippus, wishing
to refute the
Acade micians, makes
this remark That
those inspirations, visions,
and presentiments which
occur to us
awake, are much
more distinct and
certain than those
which present themselves
to dreamers. It
would, therefore, have
been more worthy
of the divine
beneficence while exerting
its care for
us, rather to
favour us with
clear visions when we
are awake, than
with the perplexed
phantasms of dreams;
and since that
is not done,
we must believe
that these phantasms
are not divine
at all. Moreover,
what is the
use of such
round-about and circuitous
proceedings, as for
it to be
necessary to employ
interpreters of dreams,
rather than to
proceed by a
straight forward course If
God were indeed
anxious for oxir
interests, he would
say, Do this, do
not that; and
he would give
such intimations to
a waking rather
than to a
sleeping man; but
as it is,
who would venture
to assert that
all dreams are
true? Ennius says,
that some dreams
are prophetical; he
adds also, that
it does not
follow that all
are so. Now whence
arises this distinction
between true dreams
and false ones
1 and if
true dreams come
from God, from
whence come the
false ones? For
if these last
do like wise
come from God,
what can be
more inconsistent than
God? And what
can be more
ignorant conduct than
to excite the
minds of mortals
by false and
deceitful visions? But f
only true dreams
come from God,
and the false
and groundless ones are
merely human delusions,
what authority have
you for making
such a distinction
as is implied
in saying, God
did this, and
nature that 1
Why not rather
say either that
all dreams come
from God (which
you deny), or
all from nature?
which necessarily follows,
since you deny
that they proceed
from God. By
nature I mean
that essential activity
of the mind
owing to which
it never stands
still, and is
never free from
some agitation or
motion or other.
When in consequence
of the weakness
of the body
it loses the
use of both
the limbs and
the senses, it
is still affected
by various and
uncertain visions aris
ing (as Aristotle
observes) from the
relics of the
several affairs which
employed our thoughts
and labours during
our waking hours;
owing to the
disturbances of which,
marvellous varieties of
dreams and visions
at times arise.
If some of
these are false,
and others true,
I shall be
glad to be
informed by what
definite art we
are to distinguish
the true from
the false. If
there be no
such art, why
do we consult
the inter preters
1 If there
be any such
art, then I
wish to know
what it is. But
they will hesitate.
For it is
a matter of
ques tion, which
is more probable;
that the supreme
and im mortal
Gods, who excel
in every kind
of superiority, employ
themselves in visiting
all night long
not merely the
beds, but the
very pallets of
men, and as
soon as they
find any person
fairly snoring, entertain
his imagination with
per plexed dreams
and obscure visions,
which sends him
in great alarm
as soon as
daylight dawns to
consult the seer
and interpreter: or
whether these dreams
are the result
of natural causes,
and the everactive,
everworking mind having
seen things when
awake, seems to
see them again
when asleep. Which
is the more
philosophical course, to
interpret these phenomena
according to the
superstitions of old
women, or by
natural explanations So that
even if a
true interpretation of
dreams could exist,
it is certainly
not in the
possession of those
who profess it,
for these people
are the lowest
and most ignorant
of the people.
And it is
not without reason
that your friends
the Stoics affirm,
that no one
can ever be
a diviner but
a wise man.
Chrysippus, indeed, defines
divination in these
words: It is, says
he, a power of
apprehending, discerning, and
ex plaining those
signs which are
given by the
Gods to men
as portents; and
he adds, that
the proper office
of a sooth
sayer is to
know beforehand the
disposition of the
Gods hi regard
to men, and
to declare what
intimations they give,
and by what
means these prodigies
are to be
propitiated or averted.
The interpretation of
dreams he also
defines in this
manner. It is,
says he, a power
of beholding and
revealing those things which
the Gods signify
to men in
dreams. Well, then,
does this require
but a moderate
degree of wisdom,
or rather consummate
sagacity, and perfect
erudition?and a man so
endowed we have
never known. Consider, therefore,
whether even if I were
to concede to
you that there
is such a
thing as divination which I
never will concedeit
would still not
follow that a
diviner could be
found to exercise
it truly. But
what strange ideas
must the Gods
have, if the
intimations which they
give us in
dreams are such
as we cannot
understand of ourselves,
and such, too,
as we cannot
find interpreters of: acting
almost wisely as the Carthaginians
and Spaniards would
do if they
were to harangue
in their native
languages in our
Roman senate without
an interpreter. But
what is the
object of these
enigmas and obscurities
of dreamers 1
For the Gods
ought to wish
us to under
stand those things
which they reveal
to us for
our own sake
and benefit. What!
is no poet,
no natural philoso
pher obscure? Euphorion
certainly is obscure
enough, but Homer
is not; which,
then, is the
best? Heraclitus is
very puzzling, Democritus
is very lucid;
are they to
be compared? You,
for my own
sake, give me
advice that I do not
understand! What is
it, then, that
you are advising
me to do?
Suppose a medical
man were to
prescribe to a
sick man an
earth-born, grass-walking, housecarrying, unsanguineous
animal, in stead
of simply saying,
a snail; so
Amphion in Pacuvius
speaks of A
four-footed and slow going
beast, Rugged, debased,
and harsh; his
head is short,
His neck is
serpentine, his aspect
stern; He has
no blood, but
is an animal
Inanimate, not voiceless.
When these obscure
verses had been
duly recited, the
Greeks cried out,
We do not
understand you unless
you tell us
plainly what animal
you mean? I
mean, said Pacuvius,
I mean in
one word, a
tortoise. Could you
not, then, said
the questioner, have
told us so
at first? We
read in that
volume which Chrysippus
has written concerning
dreams, that some one having
dreamed in the night that he saw an egg hanging on his bed-post, went to
consult the interpreter about it. The interpreter informed him that the dream SIGNIFIED
that a sum of money is concealed under his bed. He digs, and finds a little
gold surrounded by a heap of silver. Upon this, he sends the interpreter as
much of the silver as he thinks a fair reward. Then says the
interpreter, What! none of the yolk? For that part of the egg appears to intimate
gold, while the rest means silver. But did no one else ever dream of eggs. If
others have, too, why is this man the only one who ever finds a treasure in
consequence? How many poor people are there
worthy of the help of the gods, to whom they vouchsafe no such
fortunate intimations! And, again, why
did this individual receive SUCH AN
OBSCURE SIGN of a treasure
o,s could be afforded by the resemblance of an
egg, instead of being distinctly
commanded at once to
look for a
treasure, in the same way as
Simonides is expressly
forbidden to put to sea?
Therefore, obscure dreams
are not at
all consistent with
the majesty of
the gods. But
let us now
treat of those
dreams which you
term clear and
definite, such as
that of the
Arcadian whoso friend
was killed by
the inn-keeper at
Megara, or that
of Simonides, who
was warned not to set
sail by an
apparition of a
man whose interment
he had kindly
superintended. The history
of Alexander presents
us with another
instance of this
kind, which I
wonder you did not
cite, who, after
his friend Ptolemy had
been wounded in
battle by a
poisoned arrow, and
when he appeared
to be dying
of the wound,
and was in
great agony, fell
asleep while sitting
by his bed,
and in his
slumber is said
to have seen
a vision of
the serpent which
his mother Olympias
cherished, bringing a root in
his mouth, and
telling him that
it grew in a spot
very near at
hand, and that
it possessed such
medicinal virtue, that
it would easily
cure Ptolemy if
applied to his
wound. On awaking,
Alexander related his
dream, and messengers
were sent to
look for that
plant, which, when
it was found,
not only cured
Ptolemy, but likewise
several other soldiers,
who during the
engagement had been
wounded by similar
arrows. You have
related a number
of dreams of
this nature bor
rowed from history.
For instance, that
of the mother
of Phalaris that
of King Cyrus that
of the mother
of Dionysius that
of Hamilcar the
Carthaginian, that of Hannibal,
that of PUBLIO DECIO, that notorious
one of the
president that of CAIO
GRACCO, and the recent
one of Ceecilia,
the daughter of METELLO
BALEARICO. But the
main part of
these dreams happened
to strangers, and
on that account
we know little
of their particular
circumstances: some of them
may be mere
fictions; for who
are they vouched
by? As to
those dreams that
have occurred in
our personal experience,
what can we say about
them,about your dream
respecting myself and
my horse being
submerged close to
the bank; or
mine, that Marius
with the laurelled
fasces ordered me
to be conducted
into his monument? All
these dreams, my
brother, are of
the same character,
and, by the
immortal Gods, let
us not make so poor
a use of
our eason, as
to subject it to our
superstition and delusions.
For what do
you suppose the
Marius was that
appeared to me?
His ghost or
image, I suppose,
as Demo- critus
would call it.
Whence, then, did
his image come
from 1 For
images, according to
him, flow from
solid bodies and
palpable forms. What
body then of MARIO is
in existence? It
came, he would
say, from that
body which had
existed; for all
things are full
of images. It
was, then, the
image of Marius
that haunted me
on the Atinian
territory, for no
forms can be imagined except
by the
impulsion of images.
What are we
to think then
1 Are those
images so obedient
to our word
that they come
before us at
our bidding as
soon as we
wish them; and
even images of
things which have
no reality whatsoever?
For what form
is there so
preposterous and absurd
that the mind
cannot form to
itself a picture
of it? so
much so indeed
that we can
bring before our
minds even things
which we have
never seen; as,
for instance, the
situations of towns
and the figures
of men. When, then,
I dream of
the walls of
Babylon, or the
counte nance of
Homer, is it
because some physical
image of them
strikes my mind1?
All things, then,
which we desie
to be so, can be
known to us,
for there is
nothing of which
we cannot think.
Therefore, no images
steal in upon
the mind of the sleeper
from without; nor
indeed are such
external images flowing
about at all;
and I never
knew any one
who talked nonsense
with greater authority.
The energy and
nature of human
minds is so
vigorous that they
go on exerting
themselves while awake
by no adven
titious impulse, but
by a motion
of their own,
with a most
incredible celerity. When
these minds are
duly supported by
the physical organs
and senses of
the body, they
see and conceive
and discern all
things with precision
and certainty. But
when this support
is withdrawn, and
the mind is
deserted by the
languor of the
body, then it
is put in motion by
its own force.
Therefore, forms and
actions belong to
it; and many
things appear to
be heard by,
and said to
it. Then, when
the mind is
in a weak
and relaxed state,
many things present
themselves to it
commingled and varied
in every kind
of manner; and
most especially do
the reminiscences of-
those things flit
before the mind
and move about,
which excited its
interest or employed
its active energies
when awake. As,
for instance, MARIO at that
time was often
pre sent to
my mind while
I recollected with
what magnanimity and
constancy he had
borne his sad
misfortunes; and this,
I imagine, is
the reason why
I dreamed of
him. You also
were thinking of
me with great
anxiety, when suddenly
I appeared to you to
have just escaped
out of the
river. For there
were in both
of our minds
the traces of
our waking thoughts.
In both instances,
however, there were
certain additional circumstances; as
in mine, the
visit to the
temple of MARIO; and
in yours, the
reappearance of the
horse on which
I was riding,
and who sunk
at the same
time with myself.
Do you think
then, you will
say, that any
old woman would
be so doting
as to believe
dreams if they
did not sometimes
and at random
turn out true?
A dragon appeared
to address Alexander.
Doubtless this might
be true, or
it might be
false; but whichever
the case may
have been, there
is surely nothing
very wonderful about
it; for he
did not hear
this serpent speakinglie
onlydreamed that he
heard him; and
to make the
story more remarkable,
the serpent appeared
with a branch
in its mouth,
and yet spoke:
still nothing is
difficult or impossible
in a dream.
I would ask,
however, how it
was that Alexander had
this one dream
so remarkable and
so certain, though
he had no
such dream on
any other occasion,
nor have other
people seen many
such. For myself, excepting
that about Marius,
I do not
recollect having experienced
one worth speaking
of. I must,
therefore, have wasted
to no purpose
as many nights,
as I have
slept during my
long life. Now,
indeed, on account
of the intermission
of my forensic
labours, I have diminished
my evening studies, and
added some noonday
slumbers, in which
I never indulged
before. But yet, though
I sleep so
much more than
formerly, I am
never visited with
a prophetic dream,
which I should
con sider a
singular favour now,
though engaged in
such weighty affairs.
Nor do I seem
ever to experience
any more important
dream than when
I see the
magistrates in the
forum, and the
senate in the
senatehouse. In truth,
(and this is
the second branch
of your division,)
what connexion and
conjunction of nature
(which, as I
have said, the
Greeks term avp.ira.6euL,) is
there of such
a character, that
a treasure is
to be understood
by an egg?
Physicians, indeed, know
of certain facts
by which they
perceive the approaches
and increase of
diseases; there are
also some indications
of a return
to health; so
that the very
fact whether we
have plenty to
eat or whether
we are dying
of hunger, is
said to be
indicated by some
kinds of dreamn. But
by what rational
connexion are treasures,
and honours, and
victories, and things
of that kind,
joined to dreams'? They
tell us, that
a certain individual
dreaming of sexual coition,
ejected calculi: I
grant that sympathy
may have had
something to do
in a case
like this,because, in
sleeping, his imagination
might have been
so affected with
sensual images, that
such an emission
took place by
the force of
nature, rather than
by supernatural phantasms.
But what sympathy
could have presented
to Simonides the
image of the
person, who in
a dream warned
him not to
put to sea
1 Or what
sympathy could have
occasioned the vision
of Alcibiades, who,
a little before
his death, is
said to have
dreamed that ie was
arrayed in the
robes of Timandra
his mistress? What relation
could this have
with the event
which afterwards happened
to him; when,
being slain and
cast naked into the
street and abandoned
by all the
world, his mistress
took off her
mantle and covered
his dead body
with it? Was
this then fixed
as a piece
of futurity, and
had it natural
causes, or was
it mere accident
that the dream
was seen, and
came true ? Do
not the conjectures
of the interpreters
of dreams rather
indicate the subtlety
of their own
talents, than any
natural sympathy and
correspondence in the
nature of things? A
runner, who intended
to run in
the Olympic games,
dreamed during the
night that he
was being driven
in a chariot
drawn by four
horses. In the
morning he applied
to an interpreter.
He replied to
him, You will
win: that is
what is intimated
by the strength
and swiftness of
the horses. He
then applied to
Antiphon, who said
to him, By
your dream it
appears that you
must lose the
race; for do
you not see that four
reached the goal
before you? Here
is another story
respecting an athlete;
and the books
of Chrysippus and
Antipater are full
of such stories. However, I will return
to the runner.
He then went
to a sooth
sayer and informed
him that he
had just dreamed
that he was
changed into an
eagle. You have
won your race
(said the seer),
for this eagle
is the swiftest
of all birds.
He also went
to Antiphon, who
said to him,
You will certainly
be conquered; for
the eagle chases
and drives other
birds which fly
before it, and
consequently is always
behind the rest.
A certain matron,
who was very
anxious to have
children, and who
doubted whether she
was pregnant or
not, dreamed one
night that her
womb was sealed
up; she, therefore,
asked a soothsayer
whether her dream
signified her pregnancy?
He said, No;
for the sealing
implied, that there
could be no
con ception. But
another whom she
consulted said, that
her dream plainly
proved her pregnancy;
for vessels that
have nothing in
them are never
sealed at all.
How delusive, then,
is this conjectural
art of those
interpreters! Or do
these stories that I have recited, and a host of similar ones
which the Stoics
have collected, prove
anything else but
the subtlety of
men, who, from
certain imaginary analogies
of things, arrive
at all sorts
of opposite conclusions?
Physicians derive certain
indications from the
veins and breath of
a sick man;
and have many other SYMPTOMS by which
they judge of
the future. So,
when pilots see
the cuttlefish leaping,
and the dolphins
betaking themselves to
the harbours, they
recognise these indications
as sure signs
of an approaching
storm. Such signs
may be easily
explained by reference
to the laws
of nature; but
those which I
was mentioning just
now cannot possibly
be accounted for in the
same mariner. But the
defenders of divination
reply, (and this
is the last
objection I shall
answer,) that a
long continuance of
observations has created
an art. Can,
then, dreams be
expe rimented on?
And if so,
how1? for the
varieties of them
are innumerable. Nothing
can be imagined
so preposterous, so
incredible, or so
monstrous, as to
be beyond our
power of dreaming.
And by what
method can this
infinite variety bo
either fixed in
memory or analysed
by reason? Astrologers
have observed the
motion of the
planets, for a
certain order and
regularity in the
course of these stars
has been discovered
which was not
suspected. But tell
me, what order
or regularity can
be discerned in
dreams 1 How
can true dreams
be distinguished from
false ones; since
the same dreams
are followed by
different results to
different people, and,
indeed, are not
always attended by
the same events
in the case
of the same
persons? For this
reason I am
extremely surprised that,
though people have
wit enough to
give no credit
to a notorious
liar, even when
he speaks the
trilth, they still,
if one single
dream has turned
out true, do
not so much
distrust one single
case because of
the numbers of
instances in which
they have been
found false, as
think multitudes of
dreams estab lished
because of the
ascertained truth of
this one. If,
then, dreams do
not come from
God, and if
there are, no
objects in nature
with which they
have a necessary
sym pathy and
connexion, and if
it is impossible
by experiments and
observations to arrive
at a sure
interpretation of them,
the consequence is,
that dreams are
not entitled to
any credit or
respect whatever. And
this I say
with the greater
confidence, since those
very persons who
experience these dreams
cannot by any
means understand them,
and those persons who pretend to interpret
them, do so
by conjecture, not
by demonstration. And
in the infinite
series of ages,
chance has produced
many more extraordinary
results in every
kind of thing
than it has
in dreams; nor
can anything be
more uncertain than
that con jectural interpretation
of diviners, which admits not only of several, but often of absolutely contrary
senses. Let us reject, therefore, this divination of dreams, as well as all
other kinds. For, to speak truly,
that superstition has
extended itself through
all nation, and
has oppressed the
intellectual energies of
almost all men,
and has betrayed
them into endless
imbecilities: as I
argued in my
treatise on the
Nature of the
Gods, and as I have
especially laboured to
prove in this
dialogue on Divination.
For I thought
that I should
be doing an
immense benefit both
to myself and
to my countrymen
if I could
entirely eradicate all
those superstitious errors. Nor
is there any
fear that true
religion can be
endangered by the
demolition of this
superstition; for it
is the part
of a wise
man to uphold the
religious institutions of
our ancestors, by
the maintenance of
their rites and
ceremonies. And the
beauty of the
world and the order of all celestial things compels us
to confess that there isan excellent and eternal nature which deserves to be
worshipped and admired by all mankind. Wherefore, as this religion whichis
united with the knowledge of nature is to be propagated, so also are all the
roots of superstition to be destroyed. For it presses upon, and pursues, and
persecutes you wherever you turn yourself,whether you consult
a diviner, or
have heard an
omen, or have
im molated a
victim, or beheld
a flight of
birds; whether you
have seen a
Chaldean or a
soothsayer; if it
lightens or thunders,
or if anything
is struck by
lightning; if any
kind of prodigy occurs; some of which events must be
frequently coming to pass; so that you can never rest with a tranquil mind.
Sleep seems to be the universal refuge from.all
labours and anxieties.
And yet even
from this many
cares and perturba
tions spring forth
which, indeed, would
of themselves have
no influence, and
would rather be
despised, if certain
philosophers had not
taken dreams under
their special patronage;
and those, too,
not philosophersof the lowest
order, but men of vast learning, and
remai'kable penetration into the consequences and inconsistencies of things,
men who are looked upon as absolute and perfect masters of all science. Nayif
Carneades had not
resisted their extravagances, I
hardly know whether
they would not
by this time
have been reckoned
the only philosophers worthy of the name. And it is
with those men that nearly all
our controversy and
dispute re specting
divination is mainly
waged; not because we think meanly of their wisdom, but
because they appear to defend their theories with the greatest acuteness and
cautiousness. But,as it is the peculiar
property of the
Academy to inter
pose no personal
judgment of its
own, but to
admit those opinions
which appear most
probable, to compare arguments,
and to set forth all that may be reasonably stated in favour of each
proposition; and so, without
putting forth any
autthority of its own, to leave the judgment of the hearers free and
unprejudiced; we will retain this custom, which has been handed down from
Socrates; and this method, dear brother Quintus, if you please, we will adopt
as often as possible in all our dialogues together.Indeed, said he, nothing can
be more agreeable to me. Having held these conversations we went away. Alessandro
Chiappelli. Keyword: academici, Alcibiade, Gli Scipione, la dialettica romana,
storia dela filosofia romana, Cicerone, ambassiata, Carneade, Kant,
neo-Kantianismo, external world, internal world, the reality of the external
world, iconography, detailed ecphrasis of “La scuola di Atene” – dialettica
ateniense, dialettica romana. Grice: To Athens, via Rome. Refs.:
Luigi Speranza, “Grice e Chiappelli” – The Swimming-Pool Library
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